sustainability

Article
Land Degeneration due to Water Infiltration and
Sub-Erosion: A Case Study of Soil Slope Failure at
the National Geological Park of Qian-an Mud
Forest, China
Xiangjian Rui, Lei Nie, Yan Xu * and Hong Wang
Construction Engineering College, Jilin University, Changchun 130026, China
* Correspondence: xuyan8102@jlu.edu.cn




Received: 7 August 2019; Accepted: 26 August 2019; Published: 29 August 2019


Abstract: Sustainable development of the natural landscape has received an increasing attention
worldwide. Identifying the causes of land degradation is the primary condition for adopting
appropriate methods to preserve degraded landscapes. The National Geological Park of Qian-an
mud forest in China is facing widespread land degradation, which not only threatens landscape
development but also endangers many households and farmlands. Using the park as a research object,
we identified the types of slope failure and the factors that contribute to their occurrence. During
June 2017, a detailed field survey conducted in a representative area of the studied region found two
main types of slope failure: soil cave piping and vertical collapse. Physicochemical properties of the
soil samples were measured in the laboratory. Results show that soil slope failure is controlled by
three factors: (1) the typical geological structure of the mud forest area represented by an upper layer
of thick loess sub-sandy soil and the near-vertical slope morphology; (2) particular soil properties,
especially soil dispersibility; and (3) special climate conditions with distinct wet and dry seasons.

Keywords: landscape; mud forest; land degeneration; water infiltration; sub-erosion; soil slope failure

1. Introduction
Recently, the sustainable development of natural landscapes has received an increasing attention
worldwide. Sustainability studies of landscapes have evolved into a vibrant research field, especially
since 2004–2006 [1]. The landscapes of a territory are the consequence of its history [2] and the
result of biodiversity distribution in accordance with physiographic and structural traits [3,4]. It is
important to explore the nature of landscape change [5]. Aiming for landscape sustainability science
to move forward, it needs to integrate landscape sustainability into other disciplines. Emphasizing
both “linking knowledge to action” and “understanding human-environment interactions,” is the
essence of sustainability science [1]. Land degradation occurs in all types of landscapes over the
world [6]. Concerning the face of mounting changes and threats to landscapes [7], we should be keenly
aware of this challenge [8]. The threat to sustainable development caused by land degradation was
explicitly recognized at the 1992 Earth Summit and 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development [9].
Land degradation involves deterioration in soil properties related to crop production, infrastructure
maintenance, and natural resource quality [10,11]. It also is associated with the decline in the
productivity of ecosystems over time [12]. Approximately 60% of the world’s land area is regarded
as degraded and land degradation, including soil erosion, is one of the greatest challenges for land
managers [11,13].
Soil erosion is not only a geomorphological but also a land degradation process that may cause
environmental damage affecting people’s lives [14,15]. Ebabu et al. [16] regarded soil erosion as a major

Sustainability 2019, 11, 4709; doi:10.3390/su11174709 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2019, 11, 4709 2 of 17

cause of land degradation in different regions of the world. Chalise et al. [11] pointed out that land
degradation, particularly soil erosion, is currently a major challenge for Nepal, and rainfall infiltration
is thought to accelerate land degradation. Soil erosion by water is also one of the major threats to soils
in the European Union, with a negative impact on ecosystem services, crop production, and drinking
water [17]. Similarly, land degradation due to soil erosion is a major challenge in Africa [18]. Although
land degradation occurs in all kinds of landscapes over the world, the drivers of land degradation
vary from region to region [6]. Generally, soil erosion results in the loss of nutrients and fine particles
as well as desertification in most semi-arid areas [19–21]. The loess region of China also has suffered
from serious soil erosion for years [19]. Found in loess areas, mass movement is very typical and
characteristic. The occurrence of mass movement is controlled by a series of internal and external
factors, such as rainfall [22–24]. Dry loess can sustain near-vertical slopes; however, a loess area can
rapidly disaggregate when locally saturated by rainfall [25] and, thus, a loess slope is highly prone to
mass movement processes [26]. Mass movements are common and typical and in loess areas, especially
following intense rainfall or prolonged rainfall [27]. Mass movement involves multifarious movement
types, and several classification systems for mass movements have been developed [28]. Varnes [29]
developed a mass movement classification based on the material (mud, soil, earth, rock, and debris) and
movement type (falls, topples, slides, lateral spreads, and flows). Varnes [29] also proposed a further
movement type, which he named complex, this type is a combination of two or more principal types of
movements [30]. Based on geometry and movement mechanisms, mass movement also can be divided
into four categories: bedrock contact landslides, palaeosol contact landslides, mixed landslides, and
slides within loess [31]. Xu et al. [32] suggested a systemic classification of loess landslides, including
slides, flows, and combined loess and bedrock landslides. Abramson et al. [33] recognized five types of
mass movement: falling, toppling, sliding, spreading, and flowing, however, there are few researches
on the type of mass movement caused by sub- erosion. Sub-erosion generally refers to various forms
of erosion caused by groundwater below the surface [34,35]. Li et al. [35] pointed out that under the
action of sub-erosion, the loess soil slope failure with caves mainly is divided into three types: the
formation of a cave or cave system and its subsequent deformation and failure; the whole or partial
deformation of slope due to the existence of caves; and the subsequent transformation of newly created
caves on the slope failure due to rainfall after the overall slope failure.
The National Geological Park of Qian-an mud forest in China is used as the research object in
this study. Qian-an mud forest was officially approved as a national geological park in 2009. Due to
its unique landform (Figure 1) caused by sub-erosion, this landscape has become the only protected
“mud forest” site in China with these geological features, giving the area a high aesthetic and scientific
investigation value. Soil slope failure is a direct and main form of land degradation in the mud forest
area. Recently, soil slope failure has become increasingly serious, and the destruction trend is evident.
Observed in this area, sub-erosion is the main process of soil slope failure, causing damage to its unique
and beautiful landscape and leading to soil mass failure. The destruction scope of the soil slope reaches
over 5 km. Soil mass failure threatens numerous households and farmlands in the vicinity (Figure 2),
as well as the development of the mud forest geological park. This limits the sustainability of the mud
forest landscape and local agriculture. The mud forest landscape has distinctive features. It is rare at
home and abroad. It is a geological landscape of great ornamental and research value [34]. To make
it provide landscape services in a long and stable way, we must understand the causes of landscape
degradation. Agricultural income is the main source of income for local residents. Accompanying
the expansion of the destruction range of the soil slope, the cultivated land area decreases. Timely
suppression of land degradation promotes local sustainability. Several studies have been conducted
on the mud forest area, most of which focused on the formation of the mud forest landscape. Take,
for example, Zhou et al. [36] who considered the area a peculiar geological landscape formed by the
combined action of various geological factors. They proposed the view of protecting the landscape.
Chi et al. [37] presented that the mud forest formation is not only related to internal and external
dynamic geological processes, but also closely related to the soil composition. Zhu et al. [38] divided
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4709 3 of 17
related
related to
to internal
internal and
and external
external dynamic
dynamic geological
geological processes,
processes, but
but also
also closely
closely related
related toto the
the soil
soil
composition. Zhu et al. [38] divided the formation of mud forest landforms
composition. Zhu et al. [38] divided the formation of mud forest landforms into four periods. Few into four periods. Few
studies,
the however,
formation
studies, however, have
of mud focused
haveforest on
on the
landforms
focused the slope failure
into four
slope of
of the
periods.
failure mud
the Few forest
forest at
mudstudies, its
its current
athowever,
current condition.
have focusedDuring
condition. on the
During
2013,
slope certain
failure control
of the measures
mud forest were
at its implemented
current in
condition. locations
During that
2013, posed
certain
2013, certain control measures were implemented in locations that posed the highest threats the highest
control threats
measures to
were
to
residential
implemented area,
in such as
locations cutting
that slopes,
posed thespraying
highest concrete,
threats and
to anchorage,
residential however,
area, such
residential area, such as cutting slopes, spraying concrete, and anchorage, however, these measures asthese
cuttingmeasures
slopes,
ultimately
spraying failed
failed because
ultimatelyconcrete, the
the influence
and anchorage,
because however,
influence of
of sub-erosion
these measures
sub-erosion has been
been neglected.
hasultimately Slope
Slope failure
failed because
neglected. was
was not
the influence
failure of
not
controlled,
sub-erosion and
has the
beenlocal landscape
neglected. Slopewas damaged
failure was severely.
not Thus,
controlled, the
and causes
the local of soil slope
landscape
controlled, and the local landscape was damaged severely. Thus, the causes of soil slope failure must failure
was must
damaged
be
be clearly
severely. investigated.
clearlyThus, the causes of soil slope failure must be clearly investigated.
investigated.

Figure 1. Mud forest sub-erosion landscape.

Figure 1. Mud forest sub-erosion landscape.

Figure 2.
Figure Soil slope
2. Soil slope failure
failure threatens
threatens large
large areas
areas of
of farmland.
farmland.
Figure 2. Soil slope failure threatens large areas of farmland.
Two typical types of slope failure are found in the mud forest area, namely, soil cave piping and
Two
Two typical
typical types
types of
of slope
slope failure
failure are
are found in
in the
foundmode,the mud
mud forest area,
forest is
area, namely,
namely, soil
soil cave piping
piping and
vertical collapse. According to the classification the former characterized bycave
the subsequentand
vertical
vertical collapse.
collapse. According
According to
to the
the classification
classification mode,
mode, the
the former
former is
is characterized
characterized by
by the
the subsequent
subsequent
transformation of newly created caves on the slope failure due to rainfall after the overall slope
transformation
transformation of
of newly
newly created caves
caves on the slope
slope failure due
due to rainfall after the overall slope failure,
failure, while the latter iscreated
characterized onby
thesliding.
failure
We realize tothat
rainfall
the after thefactor
failure overall
of slope failure,
soil slope is
while
while the
the latter
latter is
is characterized
characterized by by sliding.
sliding. We
We realize
realize that
that the
the failure
failure factor
factor of
of soil
soil slope
slope isis closely
closely
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4709 4 of 17

Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18

closely related to geological structure, topographic conditions, soil physicochemical properties, and
related to geological structure, topographic conditions, soil physicochemical properties, and climatic
climatic conditions.
conditions.
2. Materials and Methods
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Description of the Study Area
2.1. Description of the Study Area
The National Geological Park of Qian-an mud forest (123◦ 360 −123◦ 420 E, 44◦ 450 −44◦ 500 N, covering
The National Geological Park of Qian-an mud forest (123°36′−123°42′E, 44°45′−44°50′N, covering
an area of more than 110 km22 ) is located in the northwest part of Jilin Province, China (Figure 3).
an area of more than 110 km ) is located in the northwest part of Jilin Province, China (Figure 3). The
Themudmud forest
forest region
region is distributed
is distributed in theinwestern
the western
alluvialalluvial
plain ofplain of the Songnen
the Songnen plain,
plain, where thewhere
terrainthe
terrain is inclined from east to west and from south to north due to the influence
is inclined from east to west and from south to north due to the influence of neotectonic movement. of neotectonic
movement. This inclination
This inclination resulted in resulted
the absencein the
of absence of modern
modern rivers rivers
on the on the
Qian-an Qian-an
terrace plain,terrace plain,
however,
however,
numerous numerous depressions,
depressions, lakes,marshes
lakes, and and marshes left over
left over fromfrom ancient
ancient rivers
rivers formed
formed relatively
relatively
independent
independent closed flow
closed areas
flow as they
areas permeated
as they andand
permeated supplied eacheach
supplied other. Preliminary
other. statistics
Preliminary shows
statistics
that 2 , including
shows that nearly 700 lakes exist within an area of over 6 km , including the large Dabusu Lake,is a
nearly 700 lakes exist within an area of over 6 km 2 the large Dabusu Lake, which
typical
whichandis arepresentative inland lake.inland lake.
typical and representative

Figure 3. Location of the study area.

Figure 3. Location of the study area.

The Qian-an mud forest region is distributed mainly in the secondary terrace of the Dabusu Lake
The Qian-an mud forest region is distributed mainly in the secondary terrace of the Dabusu Lake
basin (negative topography) (Figure 4). The trend of the lake basin is high and steep in the east but
basin (negative topography) (Figure 4). The trend of the lake basin is high and steep in the east but
lowlowand gentle
and gentleininthe
thesouthwest,
southwest,with
with aa relative
relative height difference of
height difference of 30
30 m.
m.TheThesecondary
secondary terrace
terrace
elevation
elevation is approximately 150–160 m, whereas the first is approximately 140 m, and the lowest point is
is approximately 150–160 m, whereas the first is approximately 140 m, and the lowest point
approximately 119.1119.1
is approximately m. Based on the
m. Based onregional stratigraphic
the regional sequence,
stratigraphic the geological
sequence, age of
the geological agethis
of region
this
is very late Pleistocene. The upper layer comprises thick loess sub-sandy soil.
region is very late Pleistocene. The upper layer comprises thick loess sub-sandy soil.
 Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 18
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4709 5 of 17

Figure 4. The Dabusu National Nature Reserve geomorphological map [39].

Figure 4. The Dabusu National Nature Reserve geomorphological map [39].
The study area has a typical temperate continental monsoon climate with four distinct seasons
where The studyand
drought area has a typicalcoexist.
semi-drought temperate The continental
annual average monsoon climateiswith
precipitation four distinct
approximately seasons
400 mm,
nearly 70% of which is concentrated in June, July, and August. The annual average evaporation 400
where drought and semi-drought coexist. The annual average precipitation is approximately is
mm, nearly 70%
approximately 1800ofmm,
which is concentrated
which in June,
is 4.5 times higher July,
than theand August.
amount The annual
of annual average average evaporation
precipitation [40].
is approximately
The annual average 1800 mm, which
temperature isis4.6
4.5◦ C
times
withhigher than high
extremely the amount of annual
temperatures average
varying precipitation
from 30 ◦ C to
[40].
◦ The annual average temperature
35 C and low temperatures ranging from −30 C to −23 C.is 4.6 °C ◦ with extremely
◦ high temperatures varying from 30 °C
to 35 °C and low
Vegetation in temperatures
the study arearanging from −30 by
is characterized °C meadow
to −23 °C.steppes. The current vegetation types
Vegetation in the study area is characterized
are mainly from the stipe grass group, white thorn community, by meadowreed steppes. The current
community, vegetation
erigeron community,types
are mainly
and crops. from the stipe grass group, white thorn community, reed community, erigeron
community, and crops.
2.2. Field Survey and Sampling
2.2. Field Survey and Sampling
A detailed field survey was conducted in a representative part within the study area that
A detailed
experiences severefield surveyObservations
erosion. was conducted show in that
a representative
soil slope failurepart iswithin
a main theprocess
study area that
of land
experiencesand
degradation severe erosion.
the extent Observations
of slope damage isshow serious.thatThesoil slopetypes
failure failure is slope
of the a main areprocess of The
classified. land
degradation
slope also wasand the extent
observed, andofitsslope
height damage is serious.
was recorded usingTheafailure types of the
tape measure. slope are
According to classified.
the drill
The slope we
disclosure, alsodrew
wastheobserved, and its
drill column as height
shownwas recorded
in Figure 5. Theusing a tape
loess measure.
sub-sandy soil According to the
had a thickness
ofdrill disclosure,
14 m, with a topwe of drew
1m and thea bottom
drill columnof 15 m.as shown in Figure
Each sample was 5. The loess
collected sub-sandy
every two meters,soil for
hada a
thickness
total ofsamples,
of eight 14 m, with a topC1–C8,
namely of 1mrespectively.
and a bottom The oflocation
15 m. Each of thesample
sampling waspoint
collected
can be every
seentwoin
meters,
Figure 4. for a total of aeight
Meanwhile, samplesamples, namely C1–C8,
of underground waterrespectively.
was taken. The location of the sampling point
can be seen in Figure 4. Meanwhile, a sample of underground water was taken.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4709 6 of 17
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18

Figure 5. Drill column near the sampling location.

2.3. Laboratory Test

Soil samples were analyzed for grain size, physical properties, such as moisture content, density,
porosity, liquid limit moisture content, and plastic limit moisture content. Grain size composition was
determined through the densitometer method, whereas moisture content was calculated through the
Figure 5. Drill column near the sampling location.
oven drying method. The density of samples was measured through the cutting ring method. Porosity
was determined through the mercury injection method, and the limit moisture content was measured
2.3. Laboratory Test
through the combined method of liquid and plastic limits. Qualitative mineralogy was measured using
Soildiffractometer.
a D2700 samples were analyzed for grain
The crystalline size, physical
composition wasproperties,
estimatedsuch as moisture
quantitatively content,a density,
through method
porosity,
that liquidchemical
combines limit moisture content, and data
and diffractometric plastic limit moisture
[41,42]. Regarding content.
terms of Grain
soil size composition
chemistry, major
was determined
elements through the
were determined densitometer
via method,spectrometry
X-ray fluorescence whereas moisture content
following the was calculated
analytical through
procedure of
the oven et
Franzini drying method.
al. [42] and Leoni Theand
density
Saittaof[43].
samples
This was
method measured through
uses powder the cutting
pellets and is ring
based method.
on the
Porosity
full matrixwas determined
correction through
method. Totalthevolatile
mercury components (H2 O+ and
injection method, and the
CO2limit
) weremoisture content
determined as was
loss
measured
on ignitionthrough
(LOI) atthe ◦
950combined
C on powdersmethod of liquid
dried ◦
at 105 and plastic limits.
C [44–46]. Qualitative
The sample C8 wasmineralogy
selected aswas the
measured
test object, using
its PHavalue
D2700 and diffractometer. The crystalline
soluble salt content were measured.composition
PH was was estimatedusing
determined quantitatively
a PHS-3C
through a method
instrument. thatand
The type combines
amount chemical
of cationsandand diffractometric
anions present datain[41,42]. Regarding
the sediment poreterms
waterofwere soil
chemistry,Sediment
assessed. major elements
at naturalwere determined
moisture via X-ray
content was mixed fluorescence
with sufficient spectrometry
distilled water following
to reach the
analytical
liquid procedure
limit. of Franzini
This sediment water etsystem
al. [42] was
and Leoni
left to and
stand Saitta [43]. This
overnight method uses
to establish powder pellets
equilibrium. Then,
and ismL
10–25 based on the
of pore fullwas
water matrix correction
extracted frommethod. Total sediment
the saturated volatile components (H2O andextract
paste. This saturation + CO2) werewas
determined
analyzed for as
theloss
mainoncations
ignition (Na + , K+at
(LOI) , Ca2+ ,°C
950 and onMg 2+ ) and anions
powders dried at(Cl − , HCO
105 − and SO
°C [44–46]. The 2−
sample
) throughC8
3 4
was selected as the test object, its PH value and soluble salt content
Dionex Dx-120 ion chromatograph. SAR, PS, and TDS were then calculated using the soluble salt were measured. PH was
determined
content using athe
to analyze PHS-3C instrument.
soil dispersion. TheThe type and
chemical amount ofofcations
composition the waterandsample
anionswaspresent
tested.in the
sediment pore water were assessed. Sediment at natural moisture content was mixed with sufficient
distilled water to reach the liquid limit. This sediment water system was left to stand overnight to
establish equilibrium. Then, 10–25 ml of pore water was extracted from the saturated sediment paste.
This saturation extract was analyzed for the main cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+) and anions (Cl-,
 Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 18

3.1. Types of Soil Slope Failure in the Mud Forest Area

The failure mode of soil slope is classified in accordance with their different failure mechanisms.
Two main types of soil slope failures were found in the study area: soil cave piping (Figure 6) and
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4709 7 of 17
vertical collapse (Figure 7).

3.1.1. Soiland
3. Results Cave Piping Failure of Slope
Discussion
Soil cave piping failure of a slope is particularly common in the mud forest area. During the
3.1. Types of Soil Slope Failure in the Mud Forest Area
rainy season, surface water collects in negative landforms and penetrates downward along the
vertical joints. mode
The failure Surface
ofwater infiltration
soil slope is the in
is classified source of piping
accordance failure.
with their Accompanying
different failureerosion, the
mechanisms.
Twoground
main surface
types ofgradually
soil slopeforms geomorphic
failures were foundfeatures,
in thesuch as moniliform
study sinkholes
area: soil cave piping(Figures
(Figure6a,b)
6) and
and soil
vertical bridges
collapse (Figure7).
(Figure 6c).

Figure 6. Moniliform
Figure sinkhole
6. Moniliform andand
sinkhole soilsoil
bridge. Moniliform
bridge. sinkholes
Moniliform can can
sinkholes be seen in the
be seen (a) and
in the (a,b),(b),
andand
soilsoil
bridges cancan
bridges
Sustainability be seen xinFOR
be11,seen
2019, the (c).
in PEER
the (c).
REVIEW 8 of 18

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Vertical
Vertical collapse
collapsefailure.
failure.

During the transfixion of sinkholes, surface water stops penetrating the soil at a certain depth
and discharges toward the free face together with groundwater. Meanwhile, horizontal suffosion
caves or channels are formed at the foot of the slope (Figure 8), leading to slope failure.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4709 8 of 17

3.1.1. Soil Cave Piping Failure of Slope

Soil cave piping failure of a slope is particularly common in the mud forest area. During the rainy
season, surface water collects in negative landforms and penetrates downward along the vertical joints.
Surface water infiltration is the source of piping failure. Accompanying erosion, the ground surface
gradually forms geomorphic features, such
Figure as moniliform
7. Vertical sinkholes (Figure 6a,b) and soil bridges
collapse failure.
(Figure 6c).
During the transfixion
During the transfixionofofsinkholes,
sinkholes,surface
surface water
water stops
stops penetrating
penetrating thethe
soilsoil
at aat a certain
certain depth
depth and
and discharges
discharges towardtoward theface
the free freetogether
face together with groundwater.
with groundwater. Meanwhile,Meanwhile, horizontal
horizontal suffosionsuffosion
caves or
caves or channels
channels are formed areatformed
the footatof
the foot
the of the
slope slope8),
(Figure (Figure
leading8),toleading to slope failure.
slope failure.

Figure 8.
Figure Horizontal suffosion
8. Horizontal suffosion caves
caves or
or channels
channels formed
formed at
at the
the foot
foot of
of the
the slope.
slope.
3.1.2. Vertical Collapse of Slope
3.1.2. Vertical Collapse of Slope
Vertical collapse is another common form of slope failure in the mud forest area (Figure 7). Surface
Vertical collapse is another common form of slope failure in the mud forest area (Figure 7).
water infiltrates along the vertical joints (Figure 9a), and vertical cracks are wide and deep. The water
Surface water infiltrates along the vertical joints (Figure 9a), and vertical cracks are wide and deep.
infiltration reduces the shear strength of the soil and cutting forms vertical layered or columnar soil
The water infiltration reduces the shear strength of the soil and cutting forms vertical layered or
(Figure 9b). Occurring at a certain depth, surface water stops penetrating the soil and discharges
columnar soil (Figure 9b). Occurring at a certain depth, surface water stops penetrating the soil and
toward the free face together with groundwater. Water seepage infiltrating along the vertical cracks
discharges toward the free face together with groundwater. Water seepage infiltrating along the
promotes the movement of loose particles near the foot of the slope, which forms a seepage channel.
Horizontal seepage forms hollowed zones at the bottom of the layered or columnar soil. Finally,
a staggered collapse occurs due to the sheer force of free face soil and the self-weight of the overlying
soil (Figure 9c). Following the free face of the soil slope collapse (Figure 9d), a new free face is exposed,
which results in cyclical slope failure. While the accumulation of soil gradually is carried away by
gully river scouring, vertical collapse of slope continues to occur.
vertical cracks promotes the movement of loose particles near the foot of the slope, which forms a
seepage channel. Horizontal seepage forms hollowed zones at the bottom of the layered or columnar
soil. Finally, a staggered collapse occurs due to the sheer force of free face soil and the self-weight of
the overlying soil (Figure 9c). Following the free face of the soil slope collapse (Figure 9d), a new free
face is exposed, which results in cyclical slope failure. While the accumulation of soil gradually is
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4709 9 of 17
carried away by gully river scouring, vertical collapse of slope continues to occur.

Figure 9. Formation process of vertical slope failure in the mud forest area. (a) Surface water infiltrates
Figure 9. Formation process of vertical slope failure in the mud forest area. (a) Surface water infiltrates
along the vertical joints; (b) vertical cracks are wide and deep, with vertical layered or columnar soil
along the vertical joints; (b) vertical cracks are wide and deep, with vertical layered or columnar soil
formed by cutting, and a hollowed zone forms at the bottom of layered or columnar soil by horizontal
formed by cutting, and a hollowed zone forms at the bottom of layered or columnar soil by horizontal
seepage; (c) staggered slope begins to occur; (d) vertical collapse of slope occurs.
seepage; (c) staggered slope begins to occur; (d) vertical collapse of slope occurs.
3.2. Factors Controlling Slope Failure
3.2. Factors Controlling Slope Failure
The mud forest landscape not only has the aesthetic experience of landscape, but also can increase
The mudknowledge
the geological forest landscape not only
for tourists. It is ahas
rarethe aesthetic
geological experience
landscape ofworld.
in the landscape, but also
However, fromcan
the
increase the geological knowledge for tourists. It is a rare geological landscape
perspective of the ecological environment and geological disasters, it is very fragile [36]. The landscape in the world.
However,
is sufferingfrom
from the perspective
the two of the
failure forms ecological
mentioned environment
above. To develop andthegeological
geological disasters,
landscapeitresources
is very
fragile [36]. The landscape is suffering from the two failure forms mentioned above.
of mud forest sustainably, it is necessary to figure out how to coordinate natural geological phenomena To develop the
geological landscape resources of mud forest sustainably, it is necessary
with geological problems. The slope failure has reduced the area of cultivated land which has led to figure out how to
coordinate
to a reductionnatural geological
in land phenomena
use efficiency, which with geological
threatens local problems.
economicThe slope failureAccording
development. has reduced to
the area of cultivated land which has led to a reduction in land use efficiency, which
the research, we found that the failure factor of soil slope closely is related to geological structure, threatens local
economic
topographic development. According
conditions, climatic to the research,
conditions, we found that the
and soil physicochemical failure factor of soil slope
properties.
closely is related to geological structure, topographic conditions, climatic conditions, and soil
3.2.1. Geological properties.
physicochemical Structure and Topography
Approximately 20,000 years ago, in the early to late Pleistocene, the function and influence of
neotectonic movements caused the ground to rise gradually and tilt toward the northwest. The Huolin
River gradually moved toward the north, and with lake basin areas shrinking and differentiating, the
Dabusu Lake was formed as a residual lake. During the neoid period, the earth’s crust rose several
times, especially tilted toward the northwest with numerous fault activities. Thus, the banks of the
Dabusu Lake basin had asymmetric topography characteristics, with the gully on the east bank further
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4709 10 of 17

developed with strong erosion and sub-erosion. This phenomenon was the basis of the formation of
the mud forest area and also was the geological structure factor of the soil slope failure. Geotectonically,
the mud forest area belongs to a depressed part of the Songnen plain. Since the Miocene era, this
basin-like plain has been subsiding and accumulating thick Mesozoic sediments continuously. Drilling
revealed that the upper part of the Songnen plain is loess sub-sandy soil with large pores and abundant
vertical cracks, and the visible thickness of this layer is greater than 21 m.
Field observation and measurements reveal that, on the surface, there are many negative terrains,
such as pits. These negative terrains are conducive to rainfall accumulation. Subsequently, the
accumulation of rainwater promotes the occurrence of sub-erosion. This accelerates the process of soil
cave piping failure. The occurrence of mass failure depends on the characteristic of landforms, which
can be represented by slope gradient, slope height and slope surface morphology [47]. Generally, the
larger the slope gradient and the higher the slope height, the more likely vertical collapse will occur.
The angle of the soil slope in the mud forest area is nearly vertical, and the slope height ranges from
15 m to 21 m. This creates topographic conditions for the vertical collapse of the slope. Generally,
terrain slope profiles may be grouped into three types: plane, concave, and convex [47]. Most of
the soil slopes in the mud forest are concave, which are prone to runoff accumulation and erosion.
The especially developed vertical crack of the soil slope becomes an important reason for the vertical
collapse of slope. These vertical cracks provide channels for precipitation infiltration. Following the
infiltration of rainfall, the crack expands. Consequently, soil shear strength decreases, and vertical
collapse occurs. Vertical fissures and beaded drop holes are evident on the free face of the slope, and
the failure range of soil slope increases annually in an apparent trend.
3.2.2. Climatic Conditions
Rainfall plays an important role in stimulating the destruction of soil slopes [48]. Given that
rainfall is concentrated into short periods of time, most geomorphic work (e.g., soil erosion) occurs in
short temporal intervals [49]. Occurring in the mud forest region, the dry season lasts for 8 months.
The total annual average precipitation is 404 mm (Table 1), over 80% of which falls during the wet
season (from June to September). Thus, the precipitation in this area is particularly concentrated.
The total annual average evaporation is approximately 1800 mm. The concentrated precipitation in a
short period makes the surface soil vulnerable to erosion and the long drought season facilitates the
development of abundant vertical joints and cracks in the soil material surface [50]. The cracks in the
soil gradually enlarge and widen under the action of dry–wet circulation and erosion.
Table 1. Total annual average precipitation and evaporation in Songyuan, Jilin province. The data
include the average data of precipitation and evaporation from 2014–2018 [51].

Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total
Precipitation (mm) 1.19 1.70 5.93 15.68 25.78 63.59 136.19 94.25 37.60 14.59 5.16 2.35 404.05
Evaporation (mm) 18.8 32.5 91.1 233.9 344.0 287.9 242.1 198.8 162.2 125.0 51.3 22.1 1798.5

The rain soaks the soil for a long time, in the concave surface terrain, and the soil underneath is
eroded at the same time, on the one hand. The infiltrating surface water carries away the fine particles
in the soil and weakens its cementation strength, which expands the pore volume of the soil. The
overlying soil body collapses and, thus, the process of soil cave piping failure is accelerated.
Rainwater enters the inner soil body via cracks along the numerous vertical joints and tends to
weaken the soil consistence, on the other hand. The vertical joints expand due to rainwater infiltration
and sidewall soil body cutting. The soil body absorbs part of the rainwater entering the cracks,
increasing the sidewall weight, which becomes an important reason for its sliding. The sidewall slide
finally leads to the vertical failure of the slope. The rainy season is also a high temperature period. The
cycle of rainfall and evaporation occurs. It is also a wet and dry cycle. Dry–wet circulation leads to
soil fracture expansion, which is more conducive to rainfall infiltration [50]. This is also an important
reason for slope vertical collapse.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4709 11 of 17

3.2.3. Soil Physicochemical Properties

Certain physicochemical properties of the clays were found to influence the different erosion
processes fundamentally [52]. The textural data in Table 2 and Figure 10 demonstrate that all samples
are sandy–clayey silt with a high sandy fraction. Grain size analysis shows that (a) no particles are
larger than 0.5 mm, (b) approximately 70% of particles are smaller than 0.075 mm, and (c) a clay fraction
<0.005 mm represents that all samples are approximately 25%. Soil particles are dominated by silt with
weak hydrophilic, which is easy to erode by precipitation and groundwater during the rainy season.
The data in Table 3 demonstrate that all samples have a high porosity greater than 50%. These pores
provide channels for rainfall infiltration and migration of fine particles, accompanied by the process
of physical sub-erosion [53]. The higher porosity accelerates the sub-erosion process. Fine particles
migrate through pores to the free face along with water. The soil cave piping failure of the slope is
accelerated. Table 3 shows several physical soil properties, including the important soil plasticity index.
The plasticity index of the soil samples is small; thus, the plasticity of the soil sample is poor and easily
suffers irreparable damage when exposed to external forces. Furthermore, the liquid indices of the soil
samples are less than 0, indicating that the soil samples have no plasticity [54].

Table 2. Grain size composition.

Grain Size Composition (wt. %)

Sample Depth (m) (2–1) (1–0.5) (0.5–0.25) (0.25–0.075) (0.075–0.005) <0.005
>2 mm
mm mm mm mm mm mm
C1 1 - - - 0.87 23.80 51.35 23.98
C2 3 - - - 0.44 25.00 47.95 26.60
C3 5 - - - 0.63 28.57 41.89 28.92
C4 7 - - - 1.77 24.60 46.66 26.97
C5 9 - - - 1.17 24.20 52.53 22.10
C6 11 - - - 0.12 30.23 45.68 23.97
C7 13 - - - 0.68 28.46 48.14 22.72
C8 2019, 11, x15FOR PEER REVIEW
Sustainability - - - 1.73 29.83 40.45 27.9812 of 18

Figure 10. Grain size composition of the plot samples on the ternary diagram.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4709 12 of 17

Table 3. Physical properties of soil.

Density Moisture Plastic Liquid Plastic Liquidity

Sample Porosity
(g/cm3 ) Content (%) Limit (%) Limit (%) Index Index
C1 1.23 10 20.19 24.71 4.52 −3.47 55.65
C2 1.30 10.15 19.46 22.19 2.73 −2.25 57.60
C3 1.59 15.71 18.80 24.87 6.07 −0.51 58.38
C4 1.35 15.71 18.30 26.17 7.87 −0.33 53.21
C5 1.36 16.73 17.90 28.67 10.77 −0.11 54.47
C6 1.51 17.22 18.90 24.80 5.90 −0.28 50.48
C7 1.33 16.65 20.91 24.84 4.61 −1.84 56.69
C8 1.26 16.65 20.91 24.84 3.93 −1.08 56.43

Tables 4 and 5 show the mineralogical and chemical compositions of the samples, respectively.
The mineral composition of sediments is relatively uniform; quartz, potash feldspar, plagioclase,
and calcite are the main non-clay components, and dolomite components are only present in the C8
sample. The clay mineral assemblage is characterized by a mass of illite/smectite mixed layer, minerals,
with a small number of chlorites. Illite/smectite mixed layer minerals have a weak connection, it is
easy for the water molecule to infiltrate, and the shear strength is low. The shear strength of soil
decreases after water absorption, which is a reason for soil slope failure. The mixed layer minerals
not only have a strong hydrophilicity, but also have the property of expansion and contraction. Its
cementation and adhesion often change reversibly with the change of water content. That is to say,
the cementation is strong in the dry climate, and weak in the precipitation infiltration condition [23].
Therefore, after rainfall infiltration, soil cementation strength decreases. Further, soil shear strength
decreases. The soil cannot bear the shear stress of the sidewall soil and vertical collapse occurs. The
chemical composition of the studied samples (Table 5) is uniform and closely reflects their mineralogy.
The chemical compositions of SiO2 , Al2 O3 , and CaO are the highest, which is consistent with the main
mineral compositions of quartz and feldspar.

Table 4. Mineral composition of soil.

Sample Qz Phf Pe Cc Dol Chl Ism

C1 30 26 10 9 - 2 23
C2 28 29 7 9 - - 27
C3 32 26 6 6 - - 30
C4 30 26 8 8 - - 28
C5 34 22 9 9 - - 26
C6 30 33 8 7 - - 22
C7 39 26 8 8 - - 19
C8 38 28 9 5 4 - 16
Note: Qz = quartz; Phf = potash feldspar; Pe = plagioclase; Cc = calcite; Dol = dolomite; Chl = chlorite;
Ism = illite/smectite mixed layer minerals.

Table 5. Chemical composition of soil (major element, in wt. %).

SiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 FeO CaO MgO K2 O Na2 O TiO2 P2 O5 MnO LOI
C1 73.73 9.70 1.86 0.36 3.63 0.89 2.78 1.57 0.36 0.05 0.07 4.60
C2 70.25 11.36 1.88 0.23 3.85 0.95 2.66 1.99 0.44 0.05 0.07 5.77
C3 68.80 12.96 2.01 0.45 3.97 1.12 2.81 1.67 0.39 0.06 0.07 5.34
C4 71.23 11.95 2.66 0.47 4.04 1.08 2.95 1.86 0.55 0.07 0.08 3.01
C5 69.54 10.88 2.36 0.39 4.34 1.05 2.88 2.11 0.48 0.06 0.09 5.78
C6 65.60 12.56 2.89 0.54 5.27 1.36 2.87 2.01 0.57 0.07 0.09 6.16
C7 67.78 12.89 2.56 0.49 4.22 1.21 2.77 2.21 0.57 0.07 0.07 5.14
C8 68.48 12.02 2.48 0.49 4.29 1.16 2.96 2.24 0.58 0.07 0.07 4.74
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4709 13 of 17

Monovalent cations, particularly sodium and lithium, promote dispersion, whereas di- and
trivalent cations favor flocculation [55]. Table 6 shows the content of monovalent cation (Na+ and K+ )
evidently is higher than that of divalent cation (Mg2+ and Ca2+ ). The diffusion layer formed by sodium
ions is relatively thick, and the high content of sodium ions reduces the cohesion of soil particles, which
is conducive to their dispersion. An alkaline environment for soil dispersion was provided because the
PH is 8.2 (Table 6), which provides an environment for the occurrence of chemical sub-erosion.

Table 6. Soluble salt content (meq/l) and related parameters controlling clay dispersivity.

Na+ K+ Ca2+ Mg2+ SO2–4 Cl− HCO-3 TDS a PS b SAR c PH

Content 7.844 0.014 1.896 0.301 1.623 4.011 4.865 10.055 78.011 7.484 8.2
aTDS = total dissolved salts = Na+
+ + K+ + Ca2+ (in meq/L); PS = percentage sodium =
Mg2+ b [Na+ (meq/L)/TDS
(meq/L)] × 100; c SAR = sodium adsorption ratio = Na+ (meq/L)/[(Ca2+ + Mg2+ )/2]1/2.

Clay dispersibility is a good indicator of the dispersion vulnerability of soil and, therefore, of the
associated risks of soil erosion [56]. Sherard et al. [57] regarded SAR, TDS, and PS as the dispersion
functions and discussed the relationship (Figure 11). They showed that the clays of zone A have a high
tendency for spontaneous dispersion, the materials of zone B are ordinary erosion-resistant clays, and
the sediments of zone C may be dispersive or nondispersive. Table 6 presents the results of SAR, TDS,
and PS. The sample plots fall under zone A (Figure 11), which indicates its high dispersivity. Clay
dispersibility results
Sustainability inx FOR
2019, 11, the PEER
disruption
REVIEW of soil stability and fragmentation [58–61] and increased 14 of 18 soil
water erosion [59,62]. Furthermore, Sherard et al. [57] pointed out that dispersive clays most often
dispersivity. Clay dispersibility results in the disruption of soil stability and fragmentation [58–61]
developandlarge pipes and erosion tunnels through rapid enlargement of small cracks and fissures as a
increased soil water erosion [59,62]. Furthermore, Sherard et al. [57] pointed out that dispersive
consequence
clays mostthe
of spontaneous
often develop large dispersion of claystunnels
pipes and erosion liningthrough
the fissure
rapidwalls when these
enlargement come
of small in contact
cracks
with rainwater.
and fissures Thus,
as a the parent materials
consequence of the mud
of the spontaneous forest of
dispersion area have
clays a great
lining propensity
the fissure to produce
walls when
thesedispersion
a colloidal come in contact when with rainwater.by
saturated Thus, the parentThe
rainwater. materials of the mud
dispersion forest area have
of cementing a great
material destroys
propensity of
the cementation tosoil,
produce
thusathecolloidal
particledispersion when
size of soil saturated Fine
decreases. by rainwater.
particlesThe are dispersion
easier to be of carried
cementing material destroys the cementation of soil, thus the particle size of soil decreases. Fine
away by rainfall and groundwater. Found in concave terrains, due to the migration of fine particles,
particles are easier to be carried away by rainfall and groundwater. Found in concave terrains, due
the internal
to thepore volume
migration of soil
of fine increases
particles, then gravity
the internal erosion
pore volume occurs.
of soil increasesUnder the action
then gravity of gravity,
erosion
the overlying soil collapses, forming caves. Regarding the vertical slope, fine particles
occurs. Under the action of gravity, the overlying soil collapses, forming caves. Regarding the vertical are easy to be
carried slope,
due tofinetheparticles
strong are dispersion
easy to beofcarried
soil, which
due to leads to the
the strong decline of
dispersion in soil,
the cementation
which leads to strength
the of
decline
soil. This in the cementation
promotes the occurrence strength of soil. This
of vertical promotes the occurrence of vertical collapse.
collapse.

Figure
Figure 11. 11. Sherard’s
Sherard’s suggested
suggested diagnosisshows
diagnosis shows that
that the
thesample hashas
sample a dispersivity (expressed
a dispersivity throughthrough
(expressed
the PS,and
the PS, TDS, TDS,SAR
and SAR parameters
parameters definedininTable
defined Table 3)
3) [57].
[57].

Underground water composition plays a vital role in landform development. The relative
amounts of monovalent and di- or trivalent cations in the underground water (and then in the
adsorbed complex) significantly influence the clay’s physical properties, in particular, their tendency
for spontaneous colloidal dispersion (dispersivity) [47]. Table 7 shows that the water sample is white
and turbid, indicating the dispersion of soil substances. Sodium ion, bicarbonate ion, and chloride
ion contents in the water sample are very high, forming a hydrochemical type of HCO3·Cl-Na. This
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4709 14 of 17

Underground water composition plays a vital role in landform development. The relative amounts
of monovalent and di- or trivalent cations in the underground water (and then in the adsorbed complex)
significantly influence the clay’s physical properties, in particular, their tendency for spontaneous
colloidal dispersion (dispersivity) [47]. Table 7 shows that the water sample is white and turbid,
indicating the dispersion of soil substances. Sodium ion, bicarbonate ion, and chloride ion contents
in the water sample are very high, forming a hydrochemical type of HCO3 ·Cl-Na. This finding is
consistent with the results of soluble salts in soil.

Table 7. Results of water sample analysis (mg/L).

Test Item Value Test Item Value Test Item Value Test Item Value
Visible White and
Zn2+ 0.002 SO4 2− 99.1 NO2 − (N) 0.003
substances turbid
Water
15 Cd+ 0.00082 Cl− 589.9 HCO3 − 696.1
temperature
PH 7.01 Cr3+ /Cr6+ 0.0001 NO3 − (N) 0.30 Na+ 481.96
ORP 127.1 As3+ /As5+ 0.0085 Fe2+ /Fe3+ 0.814 K+ 0.707
−
MnO4 4.10 Hg2+ 0.0049 Mn2+ /Mn4+ 0.0001 Ni2+ 0.0047
NH3 /NH4 + 0.148 Ca2+ 272.1 Cu2+ 0.0204 Mg2+ 39.68
Water Total dissolved
F- 0.52 842.8 Pb2+ 0.00087 2184
hardness solids

When the soil is dry in its natural condition, cemented connection and strong adsorbed water
connection is the dominant position. However, this type of connection has weak water resistance,
especially in high Na ion content, and thick water film forms when waters meet. Thus, the soil particles
are extremely easy to disperse.

4. Conclusions
Land degradation in the mud forest area threatens the lives and property of hundreds of people
and numerous farmlands. A comprehensive knowledge of the cause–effect relationship between
sub-erosion and soil slope failure is the basis for finding methods of curbing land degradation. This
condition is primary for preserving degraded landscapes. Two typical types of slope failure: soil
cave piping failure and vertical collapse of slope, were found. Sub-erosion caused by surface water
infiltration is highly important for slope failure. Soil in the study area was loose and porous. Due
to the high soluble salt content, chemical sub-erosion played a significant role. Once the cementing
material was destroyed, fine particles were transported along the rich pore and accompanied by the
process of physical sub-erosion. Therefore, this area is the result of the combined effect of physical
and chemical sub-erosion. The cause of soil slope failure is closely related to geological structure,
topographic conditions, soil physicochemical properties, and climatic conditions. Among these
influencing conditions, geological and topographic factors are the root, and climatic conditions are the
external factors. The special property of the loess sub-sandy soil with high silt component and high
soluble salt is easy to disperse, which is the fundamental factor for slope failure. Soil particles and water
solutions rich in sodium ions form an ionic diffusion layer, and the high content of sodium ions thickens
the water film of the diffusion layer and reduces the intergranular attraction, which is the essential
factor of soil slope failure. Accelerative factors for soil cave piping failure are: (1) Concave relief;
(2) Concentrated precipitation; (3) Developmental pores in the soil; and (4) Dispersed soil. Accelerative
factors for vertical collapse of slope are: (1) Near-vertical slope morphology; (2) Developmental vertical
cracks; (3) Precipitation and dry–wet circulation; (4) Rich illite/smectite mixed layer minerals; and (5)
Dispersed soil.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4709 15 of 17

Author Contributions: Data curation, X.R. and L.N.; Formal analysis, H.W.; Funding acquisition, Y.X.;
Investigation, X.R.; Methodology, X.R. and L.N.; Writing—original draft, X.R.; Writing—review & editing,
Y.X.
Funding: This research received financial support from the Natural Science Foundation of China (grant
no.41702300), (grant no.41502270), and (grant no. 41572254).
Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful for financial support from the Natural Science Foundation of
China (grant no.41702300), (grant no.41502270), and (grant no. 41572254). And we received funds to cover
publication costs. We wish to thank the testing science experiment center of Jilin University for supporting
experiment. We would also like to thank the Jilin Dabusu National Nature Reserve Administration for supporting
our research work.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Zhou, B.-B.; Wu, J.; Anderies, J.M. Sustainable landscapes and landscape sustainability: A tale of two
concepts. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2019, 189, 274–284. [CrossRef]
2. García-Quintana, A.; García-Hidalgo, J.F.; Martin-Duque, J.F.; Pedraza, J.; González-Martin, J.A. Geological
factors of the Guadalajara landscapes (Central Spain) and their relevance to landscape studies. Landsc. Urban
Plan. 2004, 69, 417–435. [CrossRef]
3. González, A.; Fry, J. Developing Integrated Biodiersity Impact Assessment (IBIA): Data limitations on GIS
Support. In Proceedings of the IAIA11 Conference Proceedings, Puebla, Mexico, 28 May–4 June 2011; pp. 1–7.
4. Marchi, M.; Ferrara, C.; Biasi, R.; Salvia, R.; Salvati, L. Agro-Forest Management and Soil Degradation in
Mediterranean Environments: Towards a Strategy for Sustainable Land Use in Vineyard and Olive Cropland.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 2565. [CrossRef]
5. Potschin, M.B.; Haines-Young, R.H. Landscapes and sustainability. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2006, 75, 155–161.
[CrossRef]
6. Wieland, R.; Lakes, T.; Yunfeng, H.; Nendel, C. Identifying drivers of land degradation in Xilingol, China,
between 1975 and 2015. Land Use Policy 2019, 83, 543–559.
7. Vlami, V.; Zogaris, S.; Djuma, H.; Kokkoris, I.; Kehayias, G.; Dimopoulos, P. A Field Method for Landscape
Conservation Surveying: The Landscape Assessment Protocol (LAP). Sustainability 2019, 11. [CrossRef]
8. Jakab, G.; Madarász, B.; Szabó, J.; Tóth, A.; Zacháry, D.; Szalai, Z.; Kertész, Á.; Dyson, J. Infiltration and Soil
Loss Changes during the Growing Season under Ploughing and Conservation Tillage. Sustainability 2017,
9, 1726. [CrossRef]
9. Gomiero, T. Soil Degradation, Land Scarcity and Food Security: Reviewing a Complex Challenge.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 281. [CrossRef]
10. Lal, R. Soil degradation by erosion. Land Degrad. Dev. 2001, 12, 519–539. [CrossRef]
11. Chalise, D.; Kumar, L.; Kristiansen, P. Land Degradation by Soil Erosion in Nepal: A Review. Soil Syst. 2019,
3, 12. [CrossRef]
12. Turner, K.G.; Anderson, S.; Gonzales-Chang, M.; Costanza, R.; Courville, S.; Dalgaard, T.; Dominati, E.;
Kubiszewski, I.; Ogilvy, S.; Porfirio, L.; et al. A review of methods, data, and models to assess changes in
the value of ecosystem services from land degradation and restoration. Ecol. Model. 2016, 319, 190–207.
[CrossRef]
13. Pimentel, D. Soil Erosion: A Food and Environmental Threat. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2006, 8, 119–137.
[CrossRef]
14. Bernatek-Jakiel, A.; Poesen, J. Subsurface erosion by soil piping: Significance and research needs. Earth-Sci.
Rev. 2018, 185, 1107–1128. [CrossRef]
15. Smetanova, A.; Follain, S.; David, M.; Ciampalini, R.; Raclot, D.; Crabit, A.; Le Bissonnais, Y. Landscaping
compromises for land degradation neutrality: The case of soil erosion in a Mediterranean agricultural
landscape. J. Environ. Manag. 2019, 235, 282–292. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Ebabu, K.; Tsunekawa, A.; Haregeweyn, N.; Adgo, E.; Meshesha, D.T.; Aklog, D.; Masunaga, T.; Tsubo, M.;
Sultan, D.; Fenta, A.A.; et al. Effects of land use and sustainable land management practices on runoff and
soil loss in the Upper Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 648, 1462–1475. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Panagos, P.; Borrelli, P.; Poesen, J.; Ballabio, C.; Lugato, E.; Meusburger, K.; Montanarella, L.; Alewell, C. The
new assessment of soil loss by water erosion in Europe. Environ. Sci. Policy 2015, 54, 438–447. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4709 16 of 17

18. Nyamekye, C.; Thiel, M.; Schönbrodt-Stitt, S.; Zoungrana, B.; Amekudzi, L. Soil and Water Conservation in
Burkina Faso, West Africa. Sustainability 2018, 10, 3182. [CrossRef]
19. Xin, Y.; Liu, G.; Xie, Y.; Gao, Y.; Liu, B.; Shen, B. Effects of soil conservation practices on soil losses from slope
farmland in northeastern China using runoff plot data. Catena 2019, 174, 417–424. [CrossRef]
20. Sterpi, D. Effects of the Erosion and Transport of Fine Particles due to Seepage Flow. Int. J. Geomech. 2003, 3,
111–122. [CrossRef]
21. Kong, W.; Yao, Y.; Zhao, Z.; Qin, X.; Zhu, H.; Wei, X.; Shao, M.; Wang, Z.; Bao, K.; Su, M. Effects of vegetation
and slope aspect on soil nitrogen mineralization during the growing season in sloping lands of the Loess
Plateau. Catena 2019, 172, 753–763. [CrossRef]
22. Zhuang, J.Q.; Peng, J.B. A coupled slope cutting—A prolonged rainfall-induced loess landslide: A 17 October
2011 case study. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 2014, 73, 997–1011. [CrossRef]
23. Conforti, M.; Pascale, S.; Sdao, F. Mass movements inventory map of the Rubbio stream catchment
(Basilicata—South Italy). J. Maps 2014, 11, 454–463. [CrossRef]
24. Xu, X.Z.; Guo, W.Z.; Liu, Y.K.; Ma, J.Z.; Wang, W.L.; Zhang, H.W.; Gao, H. Landslides on the Loess Plateau of
China: A latest statistics together with a close look. Nat. Hazards 2017, 86, 1393–1403. [CrossRef]
25. Dai, F.C.; Lee, C.F. Landslide characteristics and slope instability modeling using GIS, Lantau Island, Hong
Kong. Geomorphology 2002, 42, 213–228. [CrossRef]
26. Wang, J.J.; Liang, Y.; Hui, P.Z.; Wu, Y.; Lin, X. A loess landslide induced by excavation and rainfall. Landslides
2014, 11, 141–152. [CrossRef]
27. Hu, X.S.; Brierley, G.; Zhu, H.L.; Li, G.R.; Fu, J.T.; Mao, X.Q.; Yu, Q.Q.; Qiao, N. An exploratory analysis
of vegetation strategies to reduce shallow landslide activity on loess hillslopes, Northeast Qinghai-Tibet
Plateau, China. J. Mt. Sci. 2013, 10, 668–686. [CrossRef]
28. Guo, W.Z.; Luo, L.; Wang, W.L.; Liu, Z.Y.; Chen, Z.X.; Kang, H.L.; Yang, B. Sensitivity of rainstorm-triggered
shallow mass movements on gully slopes to topographical factors on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Geomorphology
2019, 337, 69–78. [CrossRef]
29. Varnes, D.J. Slope Movement Types and Processes; Landslide Analysis and Control. Transportation Research
Board Special Report; National Academy of Sciences: Washington, DC, USA, 1978; pp. 11–33.
30. Guerra, A.J.T.; Fullen, M.A.; Jorge, M.D.C.O.; Bezerra, J.F.R.; Shokr, M.S. Slope Processes, Mass Movement
and Soil Erosion: A Review. Pedosphere 2017, 27, 27–41. [CrossRef]
31. Derbyshire, E. Geological hazards in loess terrain, with particular reference to the loess regions of China.
Earth-Sci. Rev. 2001, 54, 231–260. [CrossRef]
32. Xu, L.; Dai, F.; Tu, X.; Tham, L.G.; Zhou, Y.; Iqbal, J. Landslides in a loess platform, North-West China.
Landslides 2013, 11, 993–1005. [CrossRef]
33. Abramson, L.; Lee, T.; Sharma, S. Slope Stability and Stabilization Methods; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY,
USA, 2002.
34. Li, X.A.; Peng, J.B.; Ma, R.R.; Qiao, X.Y.; Kang, J.H.; Li, L. On the hazards and evolution processes of loess
tunnels. J. Xi’an Univ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 29, 737–741.
35. Li, X.A.; Song, Y.X.; Ye, W.J. Engineering Geological Research on Tunnel-Ersion in Loess; TONGJI UNIVERSITY
PRESS: Shanghai, China, 2010; p. 151. (In Chinese)
36. Zhou, X.C.; Wang, C.; Ren, G.; Cai, W.D.; Zhang, B.F. The genetic characteristics of the Dabusu mud forest,
and its protection and development suggestions. Jilin Geol. 2003, 22, 62–67. (In Chinese)
37. Chi, Y.; Wang, Q.; Yang, J. Formation of Qian’an “Mud Forest” in Jilin Province. J. Eng. Geol. 2006, 14,
174–178. (In Chinese)
38. Zhu, Q.G.; Liang, X.J. A preliminary syudy on the origin of the “Wolf’s fang shaped” topography on the
eastern bank of the Dabusu lake. Jilin Geol. 1991, 1, 75–78.
39. The Jilin Dabusu National Nature Reserve Administration. 2013–2014 Project Design Report of Jilin Qian-an
Mud Forest Geological Relics and Vertebrate Fossil Site Protection. (unpublished).
40. Yang, L.; Shi, K.Q.; Zhang, B.B. Temporal and spatial distribution characteristics of evaporation volume in
Jilin province in recent 40 years. In Proceedings of the 35th Annual Meeting of the Chinese Meteorological
Society S6 on Climate Change, Low-Carbon Development and Ecological Civilization Construction, Hefei,
China, 24–26 October 2018.
41. Jackson, M.L. Soil Chemical Analysis; Prentice-Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA, 1958.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4709 17 of 17

42. Franzini, M.; Leoni, L.; Saitta, M. A simple method to evaluate the matrix effects in X-Ray fluorescence
analysis. X-Ray Spectrom. 1972, 1, 151–154. [CrossRef]
43. Leoni, L.; Saitta, M. X-ray fluorescence analysis of 29 trace elements in rock and mineral standards. Rend.
Soc. Ital. Mineral. Petrol. 1976, 32, 497–510.
44. Tertian, R. Principles of Quantitative X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis; Heyden: Rhone-Poulenc Industries:
Aubervilliers, France, 1982.
45. Wobrauschek, P. Total reflection x-ray fluorescence analysis—A review. X-Ray Spectrom. 2007, 36, 289–300.
[CrossRef]
46. Battagliaa, S.; Leonib, L.; Sartorib, F. Mineralogical and grain size composition of clays developing calanchi
and biancane erosional landforms. Geomorphology 2003, 49, 153–170. [CrossRef]
47. Chen, A.; Zhang, D.; Yan, B.; Lei, B.; Liu, G. Main types of soil mass failure and characteristics of their impact
factors in the Yuanmou Valley, China. Catena 2015, 125, 82–90. [CrossRef]
48. Jeong, S.; Lee, K.; Kim, J.; Kim, Y. Analysis of Rainfall-Induced Landslide on Unsaturated Soil Slopes.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1280. [CrossRef]
49. Gonzalez-Hidalgo, J.C.; Batalla, R.J.; Cerda, A.; de Luis, M. A regional analysis of the effects of largest events
on soil erosion. Catena 2012, 95, 85–90. [CrossRef]
50. Wang, L.-L.; Tang, C.-S.; Shi, B.; Cui, Y.-J.; Zhang, G.-Q.; Hilary, I. Nucleation and propagation mechanisms
of soil desiccation cracks. Eng. Geol. 2018, 238, 27–35. [CrossRef]
51. Precipitation in Songyuan City, Jilin Province, China. Available online: http://weather.sina.com.cn/qianan.
(accessed on 8 March 2019).
52. Piccarreta, M.; Faulkner, H.; Bentivenga, M.; Capolongo, D. The influence of physico-chemical material
properties on erosion processes in the badlands of Basilicata, Southern Italy. Geomorphology 2006, 81, 235–251.
[CrossRef]
53. Sun, J.Z. Loessology; HONG KONG ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY: Hong Kong, China, 2005; Volume 1,
pp. 40–43.
54. Tang, D.X.; Liu, Y.R.; Zhang, W.S.; Wang, Q. Engineering Geotechnical; Geological Publishing House: BeiJing,
China, 1998; Volume 2, pp. 61–68.
55. Mitchell, J.K. Fundamentals of Soil Behavior; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 1976; p. 422.
56. Lipiec, J.; Czyż, E.A.; Dexter, A.R.; Siczek, A. Effects of soil deformation on clay dispersion in loess soil. Soil
Tillage Res. 2018, 184, 203–206. [CrossRef]
57. Sherard, J.L.; Dunnigan, L.P.; Decker, R.S. Identification and nature of dispersive soils. ASCE J. Geotech. Eng.
Div. 1976, 102, 287–301.
58. Abdollahi, L.; Schjønning, P.; Elmholt, S.; Munkholm, L.J. The effects of organic matter application and
intensive tillage and traffic on soil structure formation and stability. Soil Tillage Res. 2014, 136, 28–37.
[CrossRef]
59. Turgut, A.; Isik, N.S.; Kasapoglu, K.E. Investigation of factors affecting the dispersibility of clays and
estimation of dispersivity. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 2016, 76, 1051–1073. [CrossRef]
60. Farahani, E.; Emami, H.; Keller, T.; Fotovat, A.; Khorassani, R. Impact of monovalent cations on soil structure.
Part I. Results of an Iranian soil. Int. Agrophysics 2018, 32, 57–67. [CrossRef]
61. Farahani, E.; Emami, H.; Keller, T. Impact of monovalent cations on soil structure. Part II. Results of two
Swiss soils. Int. Agrophysics 2018, 32, 69–80. [CrossRef]
62. Kjaergaard, C.; de Jonge, L.W.; Moldrup, P.; Schjønning, P. Water-dispersible colloids: Effects of measurement
method, clay content, initial soil matric potential, and wetting rate. Vadose Zone J. 2004, 3, 403–412. [CrossRef]

© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).