UNIT 1

A) Define life skills . what are the core skills as listed by WHO ?
B) Explain SWOT Analysis with example
C) Define Communication , its function and barriers to effective
communication.
D) What is non verbal communication ? Explain with examples
E) Explain Johari window.
F) Define self concept in detail .
G) What are various communication barriers ? explain with examples .
H) What are effective communication skills or 7 C’s of communication ?
I) Write short notes on 1) empathy 2) Barriers to communication .

UNIT 2

1) Define thinking and elements of thought ?

2) Define the following a) Creative thinking b) Critical thinking
3) Describe decision making , its models and steps involved in decision
making process .
4) What is blooms Taxonomy ? state its importance
5) Describe Goal setting with example.
6) Describe SMART goals . Give example
7) What is importance of comparing alternatives in decision making
A) Define life skills . what are the core skills as listed by WHO ?

Life skills
Human beings are full of potentials which manifests in our ability to do
exemplary things; for example, ground-breaking scientific investigations,
commendable social services, excellent achievements in various walks of
life and so on. Psychologists believe that all of us are endowed with
capacities to excel.

A/C to WHO Life skills are behaviors that enable individuals to adapt and
deal effectively with the demands and challenges of life

UNICEF defines life skills as “a behaviour change or behaviour

development approach designed to address a balance of three areas:
knowledge, attitude and skills”

Life skills are essentially those abilities that help promote mental well-being
and competence in young people as they face the realities of life. Most
development professionals agree that life skills are generally applied in the
context of health and social events. They can be utilized in many content
areas: prevention of drug use, sexual violence, teenage pregnancy,
HIV/AIDS prevention and suicide prevention. The definition extends into
consumer education, environmental education, peace education or
education for development, livelihood and income generation, among
others. In short, life skills empower young people to take positive action to
protect themselves and promote health and positive social relationships

10 core life skills laid down by WHO are

1. Self-awareness
2. Empathy
3. Critical thinking
4. Creative thinking
5. Decision making
6. Problem Solving
7. Effective communication
8. Interpersonal relationship
9. Coping with stress
10. Coping with emotions

Thinking skills (critical thinking, creative thinking, problem solving, decision making)

Personal skills (self-awareness, self-management)

Interpersonal skills (communication skills, empathy, cooperation etc.)

Self Awareness
What do I want in my life?
What are my dreams, goals?
Who are the people I like?
What are my strengths and weaknesses?
Do I want to work or study further?
Do I understand myself?

Have you ever asked these questions to yourself which lead to the answer ‘I’.
Answering that question is the most difficult one but also the most important one.
Thus the first life skill that we should understand and internalize – Self Awareness.
The Self-awareness includes recognition of our personality, our strengths and
weaknesses, our likes and dislikes. Thus it is a skill that would help an individual
of being aware about one’s capabilities, thoughts, behaviour, mannerism, tastes,
aptitude, dreams, strengths and weakness.
Self Awareness is rightly called the mother of all skills and it involves to introspect
into ourselves and various dimensions of the word “I”. Knowing oneself is the
beginning of a journey towards wholeness and this is the basic requirement to
develop one’s personality.
Self awareness includes our recognition of ourselves, our character,
strengths, weaknesses, desires and dislikes. It can help us to recognize
when we are stressed or feel under pressure. It is often a pre-requisite
for effective communication, interpersonal relationship and developing
empathy for others.
(WHO
 Empathy
Often when we feel low and feel like crying, we are grateful for someone who
comes and gives us a warm hug and makes us feel that they love us
unconditionally in spite of our faults. This in a nutshell is the basis of the next
most important life skill called Empathy.
Empathy is the ability to imagine what life is like for another person. It allows us
to find the common ground between ourselves and others – and on this ground
we are able to make decisions that benefit ourselves without hurting others.
Empathy creates wonderful results only when we are willing to let others know
how we feel.

Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking is the ability to analyze information and experiences in an
objective manner. Critical thinking can contribute to health by helping us to
recognize and assess the factors that influence attitudes and behavior, such as
values, peer pressure, and the media.

Creative Thinking
Creative Thinking is a novel way of seeing or doing things that are characteristic
of four components – fluency (generating new ideas), flexibility (shifting
perspective easily), originality (conceiving of something new), and elaboration
(building on other ideas).

Decision Making
Decision Making helps us to deal constructively with decisions about our lives. A
good decision would be one whose outcome would be positive or beneficial.
Decision making skill can be regarded as an outcome of mental processes
(cognitive process) leading to the selection of a course of action among several
alternatives.
Every decision making process produces a final choice. The output can be an
action or an opinion of choice.

Problem solving skill

A problem is an obstacle which makes it difficult to achieve a desired goal,

objective or purpose. It refers to a situation, condition, or issue that is yet
unresolved. In a broad sense, a problem exists when an individual becomes
aware of a significant difference between what actually is and what is desired.
Every problem asks for an answer or solution. Trying to find a solution to a
problem is known as problem solving. In order to understand the process to solve
a problem we need to know what a solution is. A solution is the management
of a problem in a way that successfully meets the goals established for

treating it

Interpersonal Relationship
Each individual live in a society which has people and we need to maintain
relationships with people around us. And an interpersonal relationship skill is
a relatively long-term association which helps individuals to make, maintain and
break relationships between two or more people

Effective communication

Effective communication is an essential component of our life at the

interpersonal,inter-group, intra-group, organizational, or external levels. The skill
of effective communications facilitates our understanding of the other person’s
point of view and how they see the world. Then you can adjust your own
communicationto take that into account
Coping with Stress
In other words, stress is experienced when there is an awareness of a
substantial imbalance between demand and capability, under conditions where
failure to meet the demand is perceived to have unwanted consequences.

Coping with Stress means recognizing the sources of

stress in our lives, recognizing how this affects us, and acting in ways that help
us control our levels of stress, by changing our environment or lifestyle and
learning how to relax

Coping with Emotion

An emotion is a mental reaction (as anger, fear or happiness) subjectively
experienced as strong feeling usually directed toward a specific object and
typically accompanied by physiological and behavioural changes in the body.
(Merriam
Webster dictionary)

Coping with emotions is a Life Skill which is extremely important for living a
successful and healthy life. All human beings have emotions - that is normal. But
one has to know when and how to express these emotions, and how to cope with
them.

Coping with Emotions involves recognizing emotions within us and others, being
aware of how emotions influence behaviour and being able to respond to
emotions appropriately. Intense emotions like anger or sadness can have
negative effects on us if we do not respond appropriately.
This skill involves recognizing emotions within yourself and others, i.e. being
aware of how emotions influence behaviour, and being able to respond to
emotions
appropriately

Why teach life skills? Why are Life

Skills Important?
Life skills education contributes to basic education, gender equality, democracy,
good citizenship, child care and protection, quality and efficiency of the education
system, the promotion of lifelong learning, quality of life, and the promotion of
peace.
Developing Life Skills early on in life makes your child ready for the future, and
instills leadership qualities, moreover, they help children be more adaptable,
confident, and empathetic.

What is a SWOT analysis?

SWOT analysis is a framework for identifying and analyzing an organization's

strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. These words make up the
SWOT acronym.

The primary goal of SWOT analysis is to increase awareness of the factors that
go into making a business decision or establishing a business strategy. To do
this, SWOT analyzes the internal and external environment and the factors that
can impact the viability of a decision.

The SWOT framework is credited to Albert Humphrey, who tested the approach
in the 1960s and 1970s at the Stanford Research Institute. SWOT analysis was
originally developed for business and based on data from Fortune 500
companies. It has been adopted by organizations of all types as a brainstorming
aid to making business decisions.

When and why should you do a SWOT analysis?

SWOT analysis is often used either at the start of, or as part of, a strategic
planning process. The framework is considered a powerful support for decision-
making because it enables an organization to uncover opportunities for success
that were previously unarticulated. It also highlights threats before they become
overly burdensome.

SWOT analysis can identify a market niche in which a business has

a competitive advantage. It can also help individuals plot a career path that
maximizes their strengths and alert them to threats that could thwart success.
This type of analysis is most effective when it's used to pragmatically recognize
and include business issues and concerns. Consequently, SWOT often involves
a diverse cross-functional team capable of sharing thoughts and ideas freely.
The most effective teams would use actual experiences and data -- such as
revenue or cost figures -- to build the SWOT analysis.

Elements of a SWOT analysis

As its name states, a SWOT analysis examines four elements:

 Internal attributes and resources that support a successful outcome, such as

a diverse product line, loyal customers or strong customer service.

 Internal factors and resources that make success more difficult to attain, such
as a weak brand, excessive debt or inadequate staffing or training.

 External factors that the organization can capitalize on or take advantage of,
such as favorable export tariffs, tax incentives or new enabling technologies.

 External factors that could jeopardize the entity's success, such as increasing
competition, weakening demand or an uncertain supply chain.

A SWOT matrix is often used to organize the items identified under each of these
four elements. The matrix is usually a square divided into four quadrants, with
each quadrant representing one of the specific elements. Decision-makers
identify and list specific strengths in the first quadrant, weaknesses in the next,
then opportunities and, lastly, threats.

Characteristics of a SWOT analysis

A SWOT analysis focuses on the four elements of the acronym, allowing

companies to identify the forces influencing a strategy, action or initiative.
Knowing these positive and negative elements can help companies more
effectively communicate what parts of a plan need to be recognized.

When drafting a SWOT analysis, individuals typically create a table split into four
columns to list each impacting element side by side for comparison. Strengths
and weaknesses won’t typically match listed opportunities and threats verbatim,
although they should correlate, since they are ultimately tied together.

Billy Bauer, managing director of Royce Leather, noted that pairing external
threats with internal weaknesses can highlight the most serious issues a
company faces.

“Once you’ve identified your risks, you can then decide whether it is most
appropriate to eliminate the internal weakness by assigning company resources
to fix the problems, or to reduce the external threat by abandoning the threatened
area of business and meeting it after strengthening your business,” said Bauer.

Internal factors

Strengths (S) and weaknesses (W) refer to internal factors, which are the
resources and experience readily available to you.

These are some commonly considered internal factors:

 Financial resources (funding, sources of income and investment

opportunities)
 Physical resources (location, facilities and equipment)
 Human resources (employees, volunteers and target audiences)
 Access to natural resources, trademarks, patents and copyrights
 Current processes (employee programs, department hierarchies and
software systems – like CRM Software and Accounting Software)
External factors

External forces influence and affect every company, organization and individual.
Whether these factors are connected directly or indirectly to an opportunity (O) or
threat (T), it is important to note and document each one.

External factors are typically things you or your company do not control, such as
the following:

 Market trends (new products, technology advancements and shifts in

audience needs)
 Economic trends (local, national and international financial trends)
 Funding (donations, legislature and other sources)
 Demographics
 Relationships with suppliers and partners
 Political, environmental and economic regulations

How to do a SWOT analysis

A SWOT analysis generally requires decision-makers to first specify the objective

they hope to achieve for the business, organization, initiative or individual. From
there, the decision-makers list the strengths and weaknesses as well as
opportunities and threats.

Various tools exist to guide the decision-making process. They frequently provide

questions that fall under each of the four SWOT elements.

For example, participants might be asked the following to identify their company's
strengths: "What do you do better than anyone else?" and "what advantages do
you have?" To identify weaknesses, they may be asked "where do you need
improvement?" Similarly, they'd run through questions such as "what market
trends could increase sales?" and "where do your competitors have market share
advantages?" to identify opportunities and threats.
Example of a SWOT analysis

The end result of a SWOT analysis should be a chart or list of a subject's

characteristics. The following is an example of a SWOT analysis of an
imaginary retail employee:

 Strengths: good communication skills, on time for shifts, handles customers

well, gets along well with all departments, physical strength, good availability.

 Weaknesses: takes long smoke breaks, has low technical skill, very prone to
spending time chatting.

 Opportunities: storefront worker, greeting customers and assisting them to

find products, helping keep customers satisfied, assisting customers post-
purchase and ensuring buying confidence, stocking shelves.

 Threats: occasionally missing time during peak business due to breaks,

sometimes too much time spent per customer post-sale, too much time in
interdepartmental chat.

 SWOT analysis example

 Bryan Weaver, a partner at Scholefield Construction Law, was heavily
involved in creating a SWOT analysis for his firm. He provided Business
News Daily with a sample SWOT analysis template and example that was
 used in the firm’s decision to expand its practice to include dispute
mediation services. His SWOT matrix included the following:

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
Construction law firm with staff
members who are trained in both
No one has been a mediator before or
law and professional
been through any formal mediation
engineering/general contracting.
training programs.
Their experience gives a unique
advantage. One staff member has been a part of   
mediations but not as a neutral party.
Small (three employees) – can
change and adapt quickly.
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
Most commercial construction
contracts require mediation. Despite
Anyone can become a mediator, so other
hundreds of mediators in the
construction law firms could open up their
marketplace, only a few have actual
own mediation service as well.
construction experience.
Most potential clients have a negative
For smaller disputes, mediators
impression of mediation, because they
don’t work as a team, only as
feel mediators don’t understand or care to
individuals; Scholefield staff can
understand the problem, and rush to
offer anyone the advantage of a
resolve it.
group of neutrals to evaluate a
dispute.

SWOT analysis is similar to PEST analysis, which stands for political, economic,
social and technological. PEST analysis lets organizations analyze external
factors that affect its operations and competitiveness.

SWOT analysis pros and cons

Among the advantages of using a SWOT approach are the following:

 The analysis creates a visual representation of the factors that are most likely
to impact whether the business, project, initiative or individual can
successfully achieve an objective.
 By involving experienced cross-discipline team members, a SWOT analysis
can encourage many different perspectives and approaches.

 Such diversity can allow a SWOT analysis to flesh out each element and
expose creative ideas and overlooked problems that might otherwise go
unnoticed.

Although a SWOT snapshot is important for understanding the many dynamics

that affect success, the analysis does have limits, such as the following:

 The analysis may not include all relevant factors because some strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities and threats can easily be overlooked or
misunderstood.

 The input for each element can often be empirical or subjective and give a
skewed perspective.

 Because it only captures factors at a particular point in time and doesn't allow
for how those factors could change over time, the insight SWOT offers can
have a limited shelf life.
 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

 Communication is derived from the Latin word communicare, which means "to
make common". This can be taken to mean 'to share'. Communication is
therefore generally defined as the process of understanding and sharing
meaning. Communication is considered a process because it is an activity, an
exchange or a set of behaviours - not an unchanging product.
 Communication is a complicated process. It is variable, active and dynamic. It
starts long before the words begin to flow and can last long after the words stop.
 Communication is a process that requires understanding - perceiving,
interpreting, and comprehending the meaning of the verbal and nonverbal
behaviour of others. Understanding the meaning of another person's message
does not occur unless the two communicators can elicit common meanings for
words, phrases and non-verbal codes.

 In addition to understanding, communication involves sharing and
interaction between people in order to exchange meaning. Regardless of the
context, communication involves sharing.

 Communication may be
defined as the giving,
receiving or exchange of
information, opinions or
 ideas by writing, speech or
visual means – or any
combination of the three – so
that the material
 communicated is completely
understood by everyone
concerned.
 Or
 Communication is the
process of transferring
 thoughts and ideas from one
person to another.
 Or
 Communication occurs when
you send or receive
messages, and when you
assign meaning to
 another person’s signals.
 Communication may be
defined as the giving,
receiving or exchange of
information, opinions or
 ideas by writing, speech or
visual means – or any
 combination of the three – so
that the material
 communicated is completely
understood by everyone
concerned.
 Or
 Communication is the
process of transferring
thoughts and ideas from one
person to another.
 Or
 Communication occurs when
you send or receive
messages, and when you
assign meaning to
  another person’s signals.
7 elements that are essential to successful communication.

1. Sender

 The sender is the person who is trying to communicate a message.

2. Message
Message is referred to as the information conveyed by words as in speech and
write-ups, signs, pictures or symbols depending upon the situation and the nature
and importance of information desired to be sent. Message is the heart of
communication. It is the content the sender wants to covey to the receiver. It can
be verbal both written and spoken; or non-verbal i.e. pictorial or symbolic, etc.
3. Encoding
Encoding is putting the targeted message into appropriate medium which may be
verbal or non-verbal depending upon the situation, time, space and nature of the
message to be sent. The sender puts the message into a series of symbols,
pictures or words which will be communicated to the intended receiver. Encoding
is an important step in the communication process as wrong and inappropriate
encoding may defeat the true intent of the communication process.

4. Channel

 Channel is the medium used by the sender to send the message to the
receiver. This may be in-person, via telephone, e-mail, text message,
written correspondence or a third-party.
5.Receiver
Receiver is the person or group who the message is meant for. He may be a
listener, a reader or a viewer
6.Decoding
Decoding refers to interpreting or converting the sent message into intelligible
language. It simply means comprehending the message.

7.Feedback
Feedback is the ultimate aspect of communication process. It refers to the
response of the receiver as to the message sent to him/her by the sender.
Feedback is necessary to ensure that the message has been effectively
encoded, sent, decoded and comprehended.
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
The primary function of communication is to share ideas, viewpoints,
perspectives and exchange information with others. Apart from this function,
there are other functions as well
1.Informing
2. Persuading
3.Integrating
4.Creating Relationships
5.Help in Making Selections between Alternatives
6.Improving Connections
7.Reducing Misunderstandings
8.Solving Problems
9.Evaluating
10.Making Decisions
Informing

Informing messages to others is regarded as the principal function of

communication. It is done verbally or non-verbally. Verbal messages can be oral
or written. Whereas, non-verbal messages are conveyed through the use of body
language, gestures, postures and so forth

Persuading

Persuading is referred to making someone do or believe something, by giving

them a valid and genuine reason to do it.
Integrating

It is comprehensively understood that individuals cannot work in seclusion. In

order to carry out one’s job duties in a well-organized manner and achieve the
desired goals and objectives, the individuals need to work in integration with
each other. 

Creating Relationships

Effective communication is regarded as the foundation for the creation of

relationships. When the individuals will communicate with each other in a
respectful and polite manner, they will be able to render a significant contribution
in creating relationships.
Help in Making Selections between Alternatives

Obtaining help from others require the implementation of communication

processes in an effective manner. Therefore, it can be stated, obtaining help in
making selections between alternatives is an important objective, which conveys
information in terms of meaning and significance of functions of communication
Improving Connections

From the stage of early childhood, the individuals realize that outside their home
also there is a world, with which they need to communicate. One of the important
benefits of improving connections is, it leads to improvement in one’s overall life.
Reducing Misunderstandings

In some cases, misunderstandings take place among individuals and they are
required to solve them. These are regarded as major impediments within the
course of the formation of sociable relationships. Effective communication is
regarded as one of the indispensable aspects that are used to cause a reduction
in misunderstandings.

Solving Problems

Problems are regarded as an integral part of the lives of the individuals,

irrespective of their occupations, status, categories and backgrounds. In some
cases, they are minor, which one is able to solve on their own. Whereas, in other
cases, they are major, which require the individuals to obtain help and assistance
from others.
When the problems are major and require the individuals to obtain help and
assistance from others, they need to ensure, they implement the communication
processes in a well-organized manner.

Evaluating

Evaluating is referred to the implementation of measures and strategies, which

are necessary to assess the performance of the individuals. When evaluation
methods are put into operation, the individuals need to communicate with each
other

Making Decisions

The individuals, who are in leadership positions are vested with the authority to
make decisions. When they need to make decisions, which prove to be
meaningful and advantageous to organizations, on the whole, they need to seek
ideas and suggestions from others as well.

In such cases, there are an organization of discussion meetings, which enable

the individuals to obtain ideas and suggestions from others. Therefore, in order to
make worthwhile and meaningful decisions, the individuals communicate with
each other in order to obtain ideas and suggestions.

7 C’S OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

clear, concise, concrete, correct, coherent, complete, and courteous.

1. Completeness - The communication must be complete. It should convey all

facts required by the audience. The sender of the message must take into
consideration the receiver’s mind set and convey the message accordingly. A
complete communication has following features:
1. Complete communication develops and enhances reputation of an
organization.
2. Moreover, they are cost saving as no crucial information is missing and
no additional cost is incurred in conveying extra message if the
communication is complete.
3. A complete communication always gives additional information
wherever required. It leaves no questions in the mind of receiver.
 4. Complete communication helps in better decision-making by the
audience/readers/receivers of message as they get all desired and
crucial information.
5. It persuades the audience.
Conciseness - Conciseness means wordiness, i.e, communicating what you
want to convey in least possible words without forgoing the other C’s of
communication. Conciseness is a necessity for effective communication.
Concise communication has following features:
1. It is both time-saving as well as cost-saving.
2. It underlines and highlights the main message as it avoids using
excessive and needless words.
3. Concise communication provides short and essential message in
limited words to the audience.
4. Concise message is more appealing and comprehensible to the
audience.
5. Concise message is non-repetitive in nature.
Consideration - Consideration implies “stepping into the shoes of others”.
Effective communication must take the audience into consideration, i.e, the
audience’s view points, background, mind-set, education level, etc. Make an
attempt to envisage your audience, their requirements, emotions as well as
problems. Ensure that the self-respect of the audience is maintained and
their emotions are not at harm. Modify your words in message to suit the
audience’s needs while making your message complete. Features of
considerate communication are as follows:
1. Emphasize on “you” approach.
2. Empathize with the audience and exhibit interest in the audience. This
will stimulate a positive reaction from the audience.
3. Show optimism towards your audience. Emphasize on “what is
possible” rather than “what is impossible”. Lay stress on positive words
such as jovial, committed, thanks, warm, healthy, help, etc.
Clarity - Clarity implies emphasizing on a specific message or goal at a time,
rather than trying to achieve too much at once. Clarity in communication has
following features:
1. It makes understanding easier.
2. Complete clarity of thoughts and ideas enhances the meaning of
message.
3. Clear message makes use of exact, appropriate and concrete words.
Concreteness - Concrete communication implies being particular and clear
rather than fuzzy and general. Concreteness strengthens the confidence.
Concrete message has following features:
1. It is supported with specific facts and figures.
 2.It makes use of words that are clear and that build the reputation.
3.Concrete messages are not misinterpreted.
Courtesy - Courtesy in message implies the message should show the sender’s
expression as well as should respect the receiver. The sender of the
message should be sincerely polite, judicious, reflective and enthusiastic.
Courteous message has following features:
1. Courtesy implies taking into consideration both viewpoints as well as
feelings of the receiver of the message.
2. Courteous message is positive and focused at the audience.
3. It makes use of terms showing respect for the receiver of message.
4. It is not at all biased.
Correctness - Correctness in communication implies that there are no
grammatical errors in communication. Correct communication has following
features:
1. The message is exact, correct and well-timed.
2. If the communication is correct, it boosts up the confidence level.
3. Correct message has greater impact on the audience/readers.
4. It checks for the precision and accurateness of facts and figures used
in the message.
5. It makes use of appropriate and correct language in the message.

What is effective communication?

Effective communication is the process of exchanging ideas, thoughts, opinions,

knowledge, and data so that the message is received and understood with clarity
and purpose. When we communicate effectively, both the sender and receiver feel
satisfied.

Communication occurs in many forms, including verbal and non-verbal, written,

visual, and listening. It can occur in person, on the internet (on forums, social
media, and websites), over the phone (through apps, calls, and video), or by mail.

Benefits of effective communication

The benefits of communication effectiveness can be witnessed in the workplace, in

an educational setting, and in your personal life. Learning how to communicate
well can be a boon in each of these areas.
 In the workplace, effective communication can help you: 
 Manage employees and build teams
 Grow your organization more rapidly and retain employees
 Benefit from enhanced creativity and innovation
 Build strong relationships and attract more opportunities for you or your
organization

In your personal life, effective communication can lead to:

 Improved social, emotional, and mental health
 Deeper existing connections 
 New bonds based on trust and transparency
 Better problem–solving and conflict resolution skills

Barriers in Communication

A barrier in the communication process is any interference in the encoding

and   the decoding processes that reduce the clarity of a message. It can be
physical, psychological, cultural, or language retained.

i. Physical barriers: Examples include loud sounds, distracting sights,

unusual behaviour, physical appearance etc.

ii. Psychological barriers: Examples include worries, uncertainties or any

other attitudinal or emotional factors. For example, Anger is a
psychological barrier to communication. When we are angry, it is simple
to say things that we may afterwards regret and also to misunderstand
what others are saying. Also, people with low self-esteem may be less
self-assured and therefore may not feel comfortable communicating.

iii) Physiological Barriers:

Physiological barriers may affect the receiver’s physical condition. For example,
a receiver with condensed hearing may not grab the sum of a spoken
conversation, especially if there is significant surroundings noise.

iv. Cultural barriers: Examples are cultural differences relating to

beliefs and values.
v. Language barriers: e.g. mother tongue interference, inadequate vocabulary,
inappropriate  register, diction, etc.

vi Attitudinal Barriers:
Attitudinal barriers are perceptions that stop people from communicating well.
Attitudinal barriers to communication may effect from poor management,
personality conflicts, and battle to change, or a lack of motivation. Active
receivers of messages should challenge to overcome their attitudinal barriers to
assist effective communication.

Vii Organisational barriers: Organisational barriers are those barriers that are

caused due to the structure, rules and regulations present in the organisation.
The various types of barriers that can be encountered due to superior
subordinate relationships where the free flow of communication is not possible.
Sometimes the complexity of organisational structure and multiple managers
make it difficult to convey information properly, and the information gets distorted
leading to miscommunication.

What is nonverbal communication?

Nonverbal communication sends cues to others using actions rather than words.

People can express happiness, engagement, concern, gratitude and confidence
by responding nonverbally. This can include communication using hand
gestures, eye contact, body language, appearance, facial expressions and tone
of voice.

Nonverbal communication is "the act of conveying information without the use of

words."2 This might involve using certain facial expressions or hand gestures to
make a specific point, or it could involve the use (or non-use) of eye contact,
physical proximity, and other nonverbal cues to get a message across.
Situational examples of nonverbal communication in
the workplace

1. Proper eye contact

Coworkers will often feel valued and appreciated if they know they’re being
heard. You can help them feel this way by making eye contact while they’re
speaking.

Example: A coworker approaches you with an idea to increase collaboration

in your department. Show that you are actively listening by maintaining eye
contact and nodding in agreement.

2. Positive tone of voice

Though the act of speaking is a part of verbal communication, how you

speak can be considered nonverbal communication. Whether you are
communicating in person or participating in a video conference call, always
be aware of your tone of voice so it reflects your intended message.

Example: An employee is giving a presentation proposing a new client

engagement plan. They use an energetic and positive tone to spark
enthusiasm for the project. This increases the level of interest from senior
management as they notice the employee express excitement and passion
for the project.

3. Personal appearance

The way you present yourself can create an impact greater than words
might say. Your workplace appearance such as looking neat and prepared
—even if you are in the comfort of your own home office—or keeping a tidy
workstation can convey your self-confidence and make a positive
impression on coworkers.

Example: You hope to speak with a supervisor to ask for a raise or

promotion, so dress in business attire to showcase your dedication to both
the position and professionalism in the workplace.

4. Good posture
The way you stand or sit at work can often display your attitude or
attentiveness toward certain situations. Sitting or standing up straight can
show you’re engaged in the conversation while also portraying a confident
appearance during an interview.

Example: You are tasked with presenting a new idea to your supervisor and
want to communicate effectively. You can sit or stand with your shoulders
back to convey your confidence and why you believe your idea will benefit
the company.

5. Facial expressions

As people communicate with you, they often anticipate a nonverbal

response by watching your facial expressions. Keep in mind that even
during a virtual interview, your face can communicate what you’re feeling or
thinking without using any words. Smiling, nodding and using your
eyebrows can indicate a positive reaction when having a conversation.

Example: A coworker is telling you about their recent vacation, so you can
smile and nod along while you listen to show you’re enjoying their story.

6. Personal space

During one-on-one conversations, you may move closer to the person

you're speaking with. This shows that you’re interested in having a
conversation and want to hear them clearly. Try to make sure you’re
allowing enough space to maintain a comfortable environment for both of
you.

Example: Before you sit down for a meeting, you can select a seat closer to
a coworker to hear them better.

7. Hand gestures

The way you gesture or position your hands during conversations can
convey how you’re feeling. If you move your hands to build expression
throughout stories, people can become more engaged in what you’re
saying. Hand gestures can also express friendliness or appreciation.
 Example: A coworker is giving a presentation but they are uncertain about
how others are receiving the information. A casual, yet discreet "thumbs up"
can show them that it's going well.

8. Body language

Your overall body language can showcase your feelings during a meeting or
while carrying on a conversation. Keeping your arms relaxed at your sides
expresses openness and a willingness to listen, but crossing your arms
might indicate that you’re closed off. You can also express politeness and
undistracted attention by leaning forward in your seat.

Example: As you watch a coworker give a presentation, you sit upright with
your arms on the table. This shows you’re engaged in their presentation. If
you slouch in your seat, they may think you're disinterested.

What is the Johari Window Model?

The Johari Window model is a simple and useful tool for illustrating and improving self-
awareness, and mutual understanding between individuals within a group. This model
can also be used to assess and improve a group's relationship with other groups. This
model is particularly useful in team development.

 American psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham developed this model in 1955

This model is also denoted as feedback/disclosure model of self-awareness.

Introduction
The Johari window model is used to enhance the individual’s perception on others. This
model is based on two ideas- trust can be acquired by revealing information about you
to others and learning yourselves from their feedbacks. Each person is represented by
the Johari model through four quadrants or window pane. Each four window panes
signifies personal information, feelings, motivation and whether that information is
known or unknown to oneself or others in four viewpoints.
 JOHARI MODEL WINDOW

The method of conveying and accepting feedback is interpreted in this model. A

Johari is represented as a common window with four panes. Two of these panes
represent self and the other two represent the part unknown to self but to others.
The information transfers from one pane to the other as the result of mutual trust
which can be achieved through socializing and the feedback got from other
members of the group.

1. Open/self-area or arena – Here the information about the person his

attitudes, behaviour, emotions, feelings, skills and views will be known by the
person as well as by others. This is mainly the area where all the
communications occur and the larger the arena becomes the more effectual and
dynamic the relationship will be. ‘Feedback solicitation’ is a process which occurs
by understanding and listening to the feedback from another person. Through
this way the open area can be increased horizontally decreasing the blind spot.
The size of the arena can also be increased downwards and thus by reducing the
hidden and unknown areas through revealing one’s feelings to other person.
2. Blind self or blind spot – Information about yourselves that others know in a
group but you will be unaware of it. Others may interpret yourselves differently
than you expect. The blind spot is reduced for an efficient communication
through seeking feedback from others.
3. Hidden area or façade – Information that is known to you but will be kept
unknown from others. This can be any personal information which you feel
reluctant to reveal. This includes feelings, past experiences, fears, secrets etc.
we keep some of our feelings and information as private as it affects the
relationships and thus the hidden area must be reduced by moving the
information to the open areas.
4. Unknown area – The Information which are unaware to yourselves as well as
others. This includes the information, feelings, capabilities, talents etc. This can
be due to traumatic past experiences or events which can be unknown for a
lifetime. The person will be unaware till he discovers his hidden qualities and
capabilities or through observation of others. Open communication is also an
effective way to decrease the unknown area and thus to communicate effectively.
Example
Linda got a job in an organization. Her co-workers knew a little about her and in
this context the unknown and hidden areas will be larger and the open area will
be small. As the others don’t know much about her the blind spot also will be
smaller and the model will be as shown in
Linda spent most of her free time sketching in the office which was her preferred
pastime and her co-workers found her very shy and elusive. With that evaluation
she got the idea how she was and tried to be more talkative and interacted more
with other co-workers. This helped her to increase her open area and thus
making the hidden and unknown areas smaller.
What is Self-Concept? A Definition

Self-concept is an overarching idea we have about who we are—physically,

emotionally, socially, spiritually, and in terms of any other aspects that make up
who we are (Neill, 2005). We form and regulate our self-concept as we grow,
based on the knowledge we have about ourselves. It is multidimensional, and
can be broken down into these individual aspects.

For example, you may have a very different idea of who you are in terms of your
physical body, and who you are in terms of your spirit or soul.

The influential self-efficacy researcher Roy Baumeister (1999) defines self-

concept as follows:
“The individual’s belief about himself or herself, including the person’s attributes
and who and what the self is.”
A similar definition comes from Rosenberg’s 1979 book on the topic; he says
self-concept is:

“…the totality of an individual’s thoughts and feelings having reference to himself

as an object.”
Self-concept is related to several other “self” constructs, such as self-esteem,
self-image, self-efficacy, and self-awareness. In the following section, we will
explain these slight—yet important—differences.

Self-Concept Theory

There are many theories about what exactly self-concept is and how it develops
(Cherry, 2018B; Gecas, 1982).

Generally, theorists agree on the following points:

 On the broadest level, self-concept is the overall idea we have about who
we are and includes cognitive and affective judgments about ourselves;
 Self-concept is multi-dimensional, incorporating our views of ourselves in
terms of several different aspects (e.g., social, religious, spiritual, physical,
emotional);
 It is learned, not inherent;
 It is influenced by biological and environmental factors, but social
interaction plays a big role as well;
 Self-concept develops through childhood and early adulthood when it is
more easily changed or updated;
 It can be changed in later years, but it is more of an uphill battle since
people have established ideas about who they are;
 Self-concept does not always align with reality. When it does, our self-
concept is “congruent.” When it doesn’t, our self-concept is “incongruent.”
 UNIT 2

The Concept of Thinking

Thinking is how symbols, concepts, prototypes, and other elements of thought are formed or
manipulated by the brain. The concept of thinking is how human beings process and understand
their environments and the world around them

TYPES OF THINKING

Thinking can be classified as follows:

1. Perceptual or Concrete Thinking: This is the simplest form of thinking the

basis of this type is perception, i.e. interpretation of sensation according to one’s
experience. It is also called concrete thinking as it is carried out on the perception
of actual or concrete objects and events.

2. Conceptual or Abstract Thinking: Here one makes use of concepts, the

generalized objects and languages, it is regarded as being superior to perceptual
thinking as it economizes efforts in understanding and problem-solving.

3. Reflective Thinking: This type of thinking aims in solving complex problems,

thus it requires reorganization of all the relevant experiences to a situation or
removing obstacles instead of relating with that experiences or ideas. This is an
insightful cognitive approach in reflective thinking as the mental activity here
does not involve the mechanical trial and error type of efforts. In this type,
thinking processes take all the relevant facts arranged in a logical order into an
account in order to arrive at a solution of the problem.

4. Creative Thinking:
 This type of thinking is associated with one’s ability to create or construct
something new, novel or unusual. It looks for new relationships and associations
to describe and interpret the nature of things, events and situations. Here the
individual himself usually formulates the evidences and tools for its solution. For
example; scientists, artists or inventors. Skinner, the famous psychologist says
creative thinking means that the prediction and inferences for the individual are
new, original, ingenious and unusual. The creative thinker is one who expresses
new ideas and makes new observations, new predictions and new inferences.
Characteristics of Creative Thinking:

a. Creative thinking, in all its shapes and forms is absolutely an internal mental
process and hence should be considered as an important component of one’s
cognitive behaviour.

b. Every one of us is capable of creative thinking and hence it is a universal

phenomenon.

c. Creative thinking results in the production of something new or novel including

a new form of arrangement of old elements.

d. Creative thinking in all its dimensions involve divergent thinking instead of the
routine and final types of convergent thinking. The mind must have complete
freedom to wander around to create a new idea.

e. The field of creative thinking and its out part is quite comprehensive and built
wide. It covers all the aspects of human accomplishments belonging to an
individual’s life.

5. Critical Thinking: It is a type of thinking that helps a person in stepping aside

from his own personal beliefs, prejudices and opinions to sort out the faiths and
discover the truth, even at the expense of his basic belief system.
Here one resorts to set higher cognitive abilities and skills for the proper
interpretation, analysis, evaluation and inference, as well as explanation of the
gathered or communicated information resulting in a purposeful unbiased and
self-regulatory judgement.

An ideal thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, open-minded, flexible, fair-

minded in evaluation, free from personal bias and prejudices, honest in seeking
relevant information, skilled in the proper use of the abilities like interpretation,
analysis, synthesis, evaluation and drawing conclusion and inferences, etc.

The critical thinking is of a higher order well-disciplined thought process which

involves the use of cognitive skills like conceptualization, interpretation, analysis,
synthesis and evaluation for arriving at an unbiased, valid and reliable judgment
of the gathered or communicated information or data as a guide to one’s belief
and action.

6. Non-directed or Associative Thinking: There are times when we find ourselves

engaged in a unique type of thinking which is non-directed and without goal. It is
reflected through dreaming and other free-flowing uncontrolled activities.
Psychologically these forms of thought are termed as associative thinking.

Here day-dreaming, fantasy and delusions all fall in the category of withdrawal
behaviour that helps an individual to escape from the demands of the real world
by making his thinking face non-directed and floating, placing him somewhere,
ordering something unconnected with his environment.

ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT
The Elements of Thought is a model of thinking developed by Dr. Richard Paul to help us
understand how we can divide up the different parts of thinking.

Understanding the Elements of Thought allows us to take apart, in a logical and

dispassionate way, our thinking and the thinking of others.

8 Elements of Thought

Point of View : frame of reference , perspective ,orientations

• It includes what you are looking at and the way you are seeing it.

• What is your point of view?

• What other points of view should be considered in reasoning through the

problem?

Purpose : specific ,realistic , measurable , significant

• Your purpose is your goal, your objective, what you are trying to accomplish.

• Why is this case study (treatment plan) being developed?

Question at issue : focused , simple , define ,significant , relevant , answerable

• Whenever you reason through something, you are trying to answer some
question or address some problem (s). • What is the problem being presented or
addressed? Information •

Information includes the facts, data evidence, or experiences , observation used

to figure things out

Interpretations and Inference : conclusions, solution

• What are the judgments that will allow me to know if I’ve been successful?
Concepts : theories , definition , laws, principle , models

• Concepts are ideas, theories, laws, principles, or hypothesis used in thinking to

make sense of things. • What concepts will I use to correct the problem? • What
information do I need to apply to correct the problem?

Assumptions : presupposition , axioms, taking for granted

• Assumptions are beliefs one takes for granted.

• Assumptions need to be clear and justified by sound evidence. • What am I

taking for granted? • Am I assuming something I shouldn’t? • What assumption is
leading me to this conclusion?

Implications and Consequences : what follows logically , conclusions

• Implications are claims or truths that logically follow from other claims or truths.
• Implications follow from thoughts. • Consequences follow from actions. • What
are the implications of my proposed solution?

decision-making

decision making is the process of making choices by identifying decision ,

gathering information and assessing alternative solutions.

7 steps of the decision-making process

1. Identify the decision.

2. Gather relevant info.
3. Identify the alternatives.
4. Weigh the evidence.
5. Choose among the alternatives.
6. Take action.
7. Review your decision.

Step 1: Identify the decision

You realize that you need to make a decision. Try to clearly define the nature of
the decision you must make. This first step is very important.

Step 2: Gather relevant information

Collect some pertinent information before you make your decision: what
information is needed, the best sources of information, and how to get it. This
step involves both internal and external “work.” Some information is internal:
you’ll seek it through a process of self-assessment. Other information is external:
you’ll find it online, in books, from other people, and from other sources.

Step 3: Identify the alternatives

As you collect information, you will probably identify several possible paths of
action, or alternatives. You can also use your imagination and additional
information to construct new alternatives. In this step, you will list all possible and
desirable alternatives.

Step 4: Weigh the evidence

Draw on your information and emotions to imagine what it would be like if you
carried out each of the alternatives to the end. Evaluate whether the need
identified in Step 1 would be met or resolved through the use of each alternative.
As you go through this difficult internal process, you’ll begin to favor certain
alternatives: those that seem to have a higher potential for reaching your goal.
Finally, place the alternatives in a priority order, based upon your own value
system.

Step 5: Choose among alternatives

Once you have weighed all the evidence, you are ready to select the alternative
that seems to be best one for you. You may even choose a combination of
alternatives. Your choice in Step 5 may very likely be the same or similar to the
alternative you placed at the top of your list at the end of Step 4.

Step 6: Take action

You’re now ready to take some positive action by beginning to implement the
alternative you chose in Step 5.

Step 7: Review your decision & its consequences

In this final step, consider the results of your decision and evaluate whether or
not it has resolved the need you identified in Step 1. If the decision has not met
the identified need, you may want to repeat certain steps of the process to make
a new decision. For example, you might want to gather more detailed or
somewhat different information or explore additional alternatives.
MODELS OF DECISION MAKING

1. Rational Model

Using a sequence of logical steps to help make a decision, the rational model
leverages data, logic, and analysis to identify the problem, brainstorm possible
solutions, and select the most viable option after careful evaluation.

Identify the Problem: Think about the central problem that you plan to address.

Determine the Decision Criteria: Define what information is relevant in making

decisions.

Weigh the Decision Criteria: Decide the importance of decision criteria based on
your priorities regarding the final decision.

List Potential Options: Now you can list all of the possible options to solve the
problem and arrange them by likelihood of success, feasibility, etc.

Choose the Best Option: Take your time evaluating the options, considering the
potential outcome for each. Once you’ve chosen the best one, commit to
implementing it.

Advantages The rational model is very effective when working with a team and
there is time for multiple meetings and brainstorming sessions.

You'll be able to come up with various solutions and the pros and cons of each.
Since the rational model requires careful evaluation, there is less risk and
uncertainty with the final decision outcome.

Disadvantages

To start, the rational decision-making model is often time-consuming and costly,

so it's usually not used in more minor decisions but rather for more significant
decisions that could have considerable impacts.

When to Use the Rational Model

As mentioned above, the rational model works best when making complex
decisions.
Before implementing the rational model, ensure you have all relevant information
accessible and time scheduled with your team to work through the steps
Another thing to remember is that if you lack any essential information, the
rational model might not be that useful.

2. Intuitive Model

There are times when you have to go with your gut instincts. Believe it or not,
when you go with your instincts, this is another decision-making model in
management that you are following, known as the intuitive model. It's often less
structured than the other decision-making models on our list but just as helpful
depending on the situation.

The intuitive model relies on past training, experience, and knowledge to arrive at
a final decision without conscious reasoning. Although it might seem like the
intuitive model is a gamble, the decision-maker usually makes their final decision
by scanning the situation for patterns based on what has worked in the past,
sometimes without even realizing it.

Advantages

The intuitive model is a great option when making a decision with limited time or
resources, as long as the decision-makers are familiar with and experienced in
the topic.

Disadvantages

If your team is unfamiliar with the task or has little experience, they might not be
able to come up with a solution intuitively. It would be best to collaborate with
more experienced coworkers in this situation.

When to Use the Intuitive Model

The intuitive model is best suited for knowledgable professionals who have
experience making similar decisions.
3. Bounded Rationality Model

Sometimes, you have to go with a "good enough" solution to get the job done.
We are often "bounded" by time constraints, limited available information, and
cognitive limitations as humans. This is the idea behind the bounded rationality
model: doing the best with what you have available rather than overanalyzing
every alternative solution.

Advantages

The most significant advantage of the bounded rationality model is that it allows
teams to make quick decisions without putting much time or thought into it. But,
of course, you will need to be open to shifting gears as things change and are
able to think on your toes.

Disadvantages

Since there is less time and strategy dedicated to this decision-making model,
there is the risk that things won't work out, wasting valuable resources.

When to Use the Bounded Rationality Model

The bounded rationality model is best suited for decisions that won't have a
significant impact or consequences if things don't work out. For example,
deciding what to order for lunch.

4. Creative Model

The creative decision-making model is usually applied when the decision-maker

has to develop original ideas to create an innovative solution to a problem. Unlike
the other models in this list, the creative decision-making model doesn't allow
team members to rely on their experience since they must find a new, unique
solution to their current problem.

Advantages

One advantage to the creative model is that even if a team is inexperienced in

their tasks, they can still apply this model when making a decision. The creative
model also encourages collaboration and can strengthen team building.

Disadvantages

The downside of this model is that it consumes a lot of time and resources and
requires extensive brainstorming and meetings. On top of that, there is no past
proof that the final decision will work until you try it. Additionally, success
depends on the decision maker's creativity and availability to conceive fresh
ideas.

When to Use the Creative Model

The best time to use the creative model is when the solution to the problem is not
obvious. For example, in the early days of social media marketing, companies
had to develop innovative social media campaigns without a blueprint for
success. Even today, the most successful campaigns are ones that are unique
and stand out from competitors.

GOAL SETTING WITH EXAMPLES

BLOOMS TAXONOMY WITH EXAMPLES