ZALICZENIE :

I semester :
zaliclehie
spnewdrianu
→

multiple-choice text lten-mome.pe wybomd ,

open-ended questions may occur [ tyhwnanaliczenie-bezoce.my →

10
pkt max /
I setnettr
zaliczeniespnawdiianunaon-atn.ch zojeiiach
:
w semen -
ne

lsformuionane precyyinie)
→ '

tylkopytania otoarte dost

→
na ocens

( 30 ph
50%
punktohr )
→

adaje . max
→
15 zaticza

egueonin/test
19
say
→

12 revision
my →

26 oméwieuie term
say
→

BASICS :

object is
type of complement
a
 is ?
What the obvious luhd
of unit that carries the
meaning WORD .

Zwigzeh ugolely They form

→
have to in the
agree

Grammar would be set ? . .

. . /set of rules :/ conniving of :

combined in units
→
words
morphology
set
of rules how
larger
-

r are
:

syntax

GRAMMAR : Set
of rules that any speaker of a

language
has in mind

- '

working out its rules is often beyond control

of our concriousrress
combinations
↳ SYNTAX rules ? ?
grammar
or

↑
WORD

↓
form / structure

Grammer has basis in base# date

ppl
social
,
some on
corpora ,
but
obviously are aware
of rich

kind
of variations .

Regional variation
( phonetic
british american
warpage differences lexical
dif
→
-

, ,

BUT : UK :
morphology also in tense
get pet pot AM : get pot gotten
→

get past
?
often
ta use more
past participle

possession
' '
Haye as
operator subject
'
Have ' Uk ? ? Br E / Am .E
version got any money
→

got
→
.

④%
'

→
have ? Am .E
any money .

→
? E.
money E

Social variation
I haven't →
educated ( not educated)
got any money .
Spencers of Eng .

necessarily highly
I ain't got no
→

money

Éanin
Bñ•k•M•I•aT-asooooooo
Morphology →

forms of the words

syntax →
the
way
the words combines

Lexicon →

dictionary

Gramatica weepies :

a) characterise
language particular level concerned with
properties that the
category in the particular language under consideration
- -

differently
→
how nouns ,
verbs , . .. behave in
Eng sentence structure

how Eng distinguishes between

subject and
object of a verb . . .

criteria into
that bead
secretary files into
part of speech
→
the to boss and had , watched , witnessed
give put eg one other
-
-

, ,
. . .. . .

b)
general level concerned with the
properties that
diff languages to
categories like subject
-

are common across noun verb , . . .

,
.

→ ' ' ' '

give criteria that lead us to call 1st class noun and 2nd verb

principled basis for applying

→

definitions here
provide a these terms to the various
categories that need to be
differentiated
in the
grammatical description of particular languages .

DEFINITIONS

laing .

part . Us .

General
-
? www.wondaagg
" "
?
Which words in
English are nouns in
Eng should be called ^" "

def
*
criteria
def :
the name
of a
person , place or
thing
:
gives

1
definition clearly unsatisfactory
we
mainly use
lang part definitions
. .
,
whereas those
general are more
precise .

' ' ' '

ef .
take
thing ( from def ) . as equivalent to concrete
object

EdD ' '

?
then what destruction in by thic criteria it in not a noun
,
but it do behaves like boss
, Secretary etc .

[ if thing was in abstract sense it creates this circle

of excluding this time concrete objects . ..
]
WHY GENERAL DEFINITION

•
noun us .
verb

?
why we
put destroy and destruction

They differ in their

granaries behaviour .

↑ reading

-
 LEXEMS & MORPHOLOGY

WORD
/
is maximum
morphology the word unit .
✗ +

sentence
Foo
syntax
the word in minimum win .
CLAUSE

sentence in maximum .
world had hand

CLAUSE
-

zdanie skieolowe

COMPOUND SENTENCE udauie a-ozone rspitnsdne

-

consist
of two
of status could the
-

clauses equal we
change order

- '
# \ I
#

COMPLEX SENTENCE consits

of two clauses
of not
equal status

John went home because he tired

ep , was .

-
this does not work as individual
simple sentence

?
mayconsinof:N

,µt
stems
lexicon
→

STEM
in rn
lexical
compound words
airport , d④
→ :
two stems

lexical words child:C) childhood

complex
→
stun :

a.m .

, ,
exist on its own
 MORPHOLOGY

}
boy boys 121
dog dogs 121
inflectional
student students Is /
horse horses 1-1-21
*
child children

work →

wiorks invoked >

We will not here then lined

study omfg snowy separate lexical entries

→
as

wise →
wiser wisest

lexeme -

all
separate items that .
_ .

↳
those lexical th and
words that have
particular meaning , regular predictive way

child

childhood

>
lexical items the is
separate be
process
not
productive enough
boy
boyhood

dof

Student

horse

Tgsnfixation
reliable
rely
count

pay
payÑI
countable

→
6m that must be
paid
> not
predictable enough
 MORPHOLOGY
/ ,
INFLECTIONAL LEXICAL / DERIVATIONAL

tenses
deals with
, forms , etc .
deals with lexical items
,
how
they are
formed/armoured
* is rich in
english really this
type of morphology

FHXAT N
g- -
prefixalien pnedoostki
suffixation
pnynostki

s*em→◦n-•* ÷..→wE
:÷: : ÷÷::÷!÷:÷÷÷:
÷
"
* '

in-im-ir-it-g.my
' '

NPL
many nay
-

writer
ttehlherolen . _
reader ,

✓
-

g
-

ful -

less
""
"" " -

14/2/44 ship ible able

.

s
y
- - - - -

And participle
-

eh /n / 12h / -

torfewpwronfo.ms
-

ness
-

ly
-

ing / est
-
-

er -

* to be
really
has

i
applicable to
€
regular
to
join ruin

category
and cannot

meaning like
change word class

b) Inan )
play player
→

CHANGE

CHANGE
/ apeak us .

spoke
?⃝
:÷÷÷:÷t:±"
VOWELCHANGEHspeakspoiaeneo.GE#@AYmNA
INFLECTIONAL

+
suffixation In ) child children
May m@gtʰ
wide
width
bro breadth §

CHANGE

wife wives
CHANGE

In ) '
convert

b) to retard Inta '

record

•••"""""|•-""""""""
""""""
action the

obiefa.NL?repufii d
when

is
liquid putto the bottle

p
↓ ↓
""""""
participle
}
past
bottled
}
bottle
↳ MM bottled past tense
III. i . bottle
bottles bottles bottling

Iu ) walk REID (n ) walk

airport , waterproof
 S V O *

Books
Dogs chase cats . read students .

lions hunt zebras .

1--1 ,
??? Worms eat binds

students read books ,

?? Zebras hunt Lions .

Birds eat worms ? Cats chase

dogs .

Dog /Dogs / The dog chase is / chasing a cot .

Grammatical class :
noun
,
verb , adjective , adverb . .
.
.
.

SVO Subject Verb Object is 5110

Language English
→

language .

gYTmE%i%ws
STU 0

Dogs chase cats .

*
Pt Pies Kote Kote Pier NOT 5110
poni
:
goni
.
.

loneczenie ?)
PRED / CATOR ( P) V "%¥
nth that traditional in 5×0
-

gramnenienr would mean as a

PREDICATE -

everything those Mo about

predicate Sth

④E DOG →
not a
form of lexeme '

dog
'

'
is
'

chasing fan of
→
nor a lexeme chase

words
→
PHRASE / GROUP →
clause

/
of
words
group
:

ex .

very warm
,
in
chasing ,

the (? )
dog
Noun phrase may consist only of
-

ppreaiwtor
noun . . .
etc .

g ☐

Dogs chase cats Verb verb

.

:
THY acal
Adverb Adverb

noun
phrase verb
phrase noun phrase
SPO { up up up }
 INTRO 3.4

not2i①
word classes : EGO :
2.1, 2.2 .
*
Extend verb
phrase linin intro ]
not in EGO

( Overview ) 2.4.2 -

2.4.4

2.5

2.6

STRUCTURE OF PHRASES
lpmpanyrazona ? )
I.

"
The main element within the the head
phrase
→

\ /
dependent dependent
Klement )

aca
'

IVP )
noun phrase INP ) verb phrase

bit Determiner a_ter-

•

Dependent heard : •
the head noun
:

dependent dependent
- \
a
smmnall ¥ the off intheyard
I 1
determiner niodifierlpnydenka) prepositional

home sina.gg
✓ *
Ermines snare some
features ,
whereas
m¥f don't .

Subject / Np Predictor / UP Object / NP

Tg isg acat_

S /Noun # Verb Noun

begs craze ca
"

Possibilities :

Np
→

VP NP

→
N V N

→
No V N

:
 HEAD

The dog is
-
is

depend .
HEAD

II. CRITERIA FOR DISTINGUISHING WORD CLASSES

a.
Inflectional properties ( what kinds
of inf forms words have
if ? )
any
.
.

◦
tense

number
◦

degree
°

b. Internal syntax ( structure ) of to asociated phrases

VP
•
auxiliaries in

articles in NP

in
A.dj.pladieuh.ve phrase)
•
adverbs

c. External syntax of words /phrases [ syntactic function ]

•
articles used as bep .
in NP

VP
auxiliary verbs used
dep in
•

as .

•
NPs used as
subject / object . _ . in clauses

: : ÷:÷÷:÷"
"

/ careful/

÷:
reckless ladiecsive )
-

John drives faster .

John drives
exrremetyfa€-
.
 ,
[the ] round and round
running
cot was

a round Object ( Adjective)

,, , µ, µ, no , um ,

\
\ round up ( verb )

round the corner ( preposition

III. OPENED & CLOSED WORD CLASSES

Digit cyfra
→

Aoej
/ Digital cyfrony
→

derived from
through
✓
initiation cyfnwo Adu
Digitally
→
.

-11 -

I Verb
Digitalize
V
digital
→

making an

* I
°
Digitalization MOM
→

process of digitalizing

LEXICAL WORDS →
Cramer )
belong to
pen
classes

GRAMMATICAL WORDS →

a
,
the
,
this
,
that
,
be
,
hare
,
to
,
can
, may ,
must . . .
I closed molas )
.

*
Prepositions
}
in
: to on over onto into
following underneath CLOSED Nic

+ adverb particles :
up ,
down .
. .
µBUT lexical W.C.
 "

÷: ÷: :
" """
Copen >

1. WEIRD"%
tense number ( inflection criteria )
, person ,

④/Predicate
dep .
Head
The
dog a cat .

w-__

"""a+e
*
Heard dependent
(Intro/ exampl .
The dog cha-seoacat.IR
Vp

↳
verb
long phrase

*EXtendedVerbPhr Predicate

heard
Verb Phrase
deep deep
has been
chasing
• :

Extended Verb Phrase :

chased a cat

BA

EVP

_i¥¥
# ultimate head
of EVP
2. IN µ # 8.

a) number

UNABLE

/
c* Noon

\ UNCOUNTABLE
>

✗
HEAD
b) )
articles ia of scissors
•

many
•

quantifying expressions ( words and phrases

)
adjective
•

phrase

c) Subject , Object ,
Predicative Complement

PREDICATIVE COMPLEMENT
NP

Fido is
ao

John travelled intuecountyin.de#

F-
countryside
across the

John took the boat ¥ theb

John took the boat
¥ lheboy-
 ADIE

TINHEAD
3. ④

T E C T ' " E S

GRADABLE
/ \ UN GRADABLE

a) degree

b) degree marked in Acdiective phrases

more

→
most

may
have
dependents eh the
form of adverb
phrases

c) Predicative Complement , Modifier

Predicative Complement
John is
ayenius.PE

exceptionallyintel igent.t
John is

met an
e#tiyigy person .

MODIFIER
lpnyolawka )
 4. ADVERBS

a)
Degree -11 -

b) in the form Adverb

dependent of phrase

c)
Adiunt of manner
,
frequency , Modifier in Adiph / Adv .ph

John drives carefully

extremely .

5. PREP ☒ 5111TH
"
④ IN / closed word class ]

a) not
inflected
b) have NPs as
dependent

Prep .ph .
:

a_e thebreak_
?
bep .

Complement of thepooshh

::""""-
S dep .

µ .
., µ,

c) Adiunt

?
a
long-haired girl a
long . . .
.

girl
?⃝
 6.
CONJUNCTIONS

§
a) not
inflected
b) ? not
very well defined word chess

" "

c) ?? link clauses

N'T UNCTIONS

\
Ehrenreich

curd
mB¥¥
but that after

or whether before

if since
'

:
unless

although

PRONOUNS [ nosed chess not add to them ]

anything
7. word -
we do

Pronouns :

a) personal pronouns inflected for

→
case personal

num " " " ""

b) head /
→

NP demonstrative

c) 5,0 , Complement of Pred reflexive

→

reciprocal
→
.
. _

1%t:1hen§f
i.

The man
gave
~
He

this
,
that , these

Demonstrative :
P .
b.

→
articles
T is a scandal .

Tf¥ is a scandal

determinative
→

pass
.

→
mom .
determinative I
prefer .
T prefer ☒w
?⃝
?⃝
?⃝
 PRONOUN MPs ?

* PERSONAL PRONOUNS
→
head
of noun
phrase INP )
→

inflected for case IT -

me
, yo ,
he -
him
,
she -

her . . . .

,
it -

it
,
we
-

us
, you
-

thy ,
they
-

them
,
mat -
thee, )
\
not
frequently used , rather
poethic

You II. mn /
Thy
→
possessive determinative
→
.

*
POSSEGVE PRONOUNS

mine his hers its theirs

yours
→
ours
, , , , ,
,

John is
very fond of his car .

* POSSESNE DETERMINATIVE / dep . in NPs ] BUT T

prefer miners
→
his , her , im their
my , your , ,
our
,
mycar__

SAXON GENITIVE -

codn ,
not a case in
Eng

L
EMI?
the Queen 's
son

son
} POSSESNE

PHRASE
Susan 's car
,

*
1. PROBLEM !
the_EfEgafI son . sounds like he is the son
of England

It attaches to a
phrase , not a
morpheme .

¥¥¥%-Égaᵗ&ʳʳˢ
'

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

1- . . ) 's →

clitics
 ① saw tneby 11T€
Tim / the
boy saw
⊕

f.
NO CASE FOR NOUNS IN ENGLISH NOT CASE
,
they may
have some
aspects
but

KERNEL CLAUSE
basic
→
most

unmarked
type of clause
→

÷÷:: ÷a ÷÷÷i÷÷ ÷÷
NON ELIPTICAL ?
lacks ssh
predicate of
-

. .
.

? lNTERROGAT1VE_
Are
you quiet
◦

DECLARATIVE
Be
quiet ! IMPERATIVE
•

POSITIVE
You not NEGATIVE
quiet
•
are .

CAN STAND ON THEIR OWN AS

SENTENCES •
that
you are quiet .
CANNOT STAND

THEMATICALLY MARKED SENTENCES

What THEMATICALLY
◦
is
you are
quiet .

UNMARD-
 ④ n is
quiet .
/ ④ are
quiet .

A B C A B C

Is John ? Are ?
rearrangement quiet quiet
:
you
B A C B A C

omission : John is .
You are .

A B A B

addition John is not

quiet .

A B ⑤ C

selection
A- special item > ④
INTERROGATIVE
is

PRONO
quiet
? →

changes from declarative to

interrogative .

for
*
grounds Np which makes it
pronoun

*
VOCATIVE :
John , you be quiet ! / nib
,
bed subject bo
"
be quiet
"
but John is subject ]
CASE PL : Janka
'

, by bigots a'cho .

KERNEL CLAUSE

,µµnaw
dep .

You are
quiet .

Subject +
Predicate
µ,

* John drinks

(P
"
Susan is
expecting some
guests .

Susan is
expecting SEMANTIC PROBLEM totally different meaning
→ =

u
.

pregnancy
STRUCTURE OF KERNEL CLAUSE

5 +
Predicate
IP +
tTxenP lexical verb

head
Dependent
The
dog Theft .

The
dog res"te€ ✗

What ? Whats subject?

' '
it
refers Mine
>
r to

④g
"
"

.
Padaiorobiiosisciemno →
There is no subject .

↳
Empty reference i' it
'
has no
reference

SUBJECTS
come
before XP
◦

with VP in
show
agreement number
•

is
ej .
The
boy resting .

The
boys are
resting .

subject Operator inversion

◦
-

op s
ex .
¥ ñe resting .
Can he swim

¥¥ raining .
 Extended Verb Phrase
HEAD DEPENDENT

Evpn Dep
( required
Che_thecat_ Obligatory dependent .

by the

acat_ ) , 11 lexicon verb )

Complement COMPLEMENT

The
aogjree-s.IO ✗ → no
complement
✗
Catt s¥e Prep .
P .

icy
theremin
ᵗhe-
cats COMPLEMENT

s-emzetaazy-y.gg
→

are

( oh .
sposobv )
( ow . mieisie)

Head Dep . Dep .

The
dtren-ed-quiu-yonthef-a.lv ↓

Optional dependents ( not related to the lexical verb )

"
ADJUNCT lowdicznikl

COMPLEMENT ADJUNCT Game use : adverbial

,
but we don't ]

NPs [ The ]
→

Adv
→
Ph
.
cat rested
quietly .

Adi Ph / lats / ] Prep Ph the ]

lazy
→

cab rested
→
.
.
seem are .
.
on the couch .
 S P complement

cats sheep ✗
⇐
Lang .

(
"
"""± predicative complement iorzecznik ) )

People feed eats Object

Oi lindirectobiectl Od Indirect object)

People give ☒ ( two obligatory complements )

People consider
lazy PCO lpredicariieompkennrof Object)
Additional Patterns
*
The cat is onthewuI C☒ ( complement
of 8th time /place . .
) )

*
I
put
% onmewuI,×
 Objects vs .
Predicative complement ( PCs →

of subject)

typically NPs →

Adj . Ph John is
extremelyinklk.ge#
Npg John is
ageni
→

in between 0×5
No
agreement number .

exy .
Kanda food ④ →
When NPs are as DCs there is an agreement in

kd
t.MN
tp
☒ number between PCs ✗ 5 .

as 0 can become 5
of passive ex ,
tenagn
clause

fed by
o¥ni
Aracat.PE
mando
was
> eg .

Amanda
food
:

:
Amanda became t .

p
→
NPs denoting institutionalised .

hat ?
0
he ñIEe last week .

he ¥ last week .

PCs

"
"

Verbs PCs / Adj .ph

of sensory impression .

This §
}
soup seems strange .

me ones man

§
taste Verbs Italie Pc )
great Copular
looks nice

*
This Santin . Sounds
mange
terrific
y
✓
?⃝
 VERB PATTERNS:

a) NON-transitive verbs

-
SUBJECT PREDICATOR: lats
keep. (if men was
at
night it would be adjunct not
complement)
INTRANSITIVE
-

VERBS
- SP Predictive Complement (PC): She is
beautiful. (seems /become...
LINKING/COPULAR VERBS
-

b) TRANSITIVE VERBS

EOD?

I
S P Object:
-

People
->
eat bananas. or

object PCo predicative complement

of object
s
-> - POPCo: Some beautiful.
people consider
ren
SPOi Od
EGO te
->
->
People
,

- . give -monkeys or
ones.
indirect
Ob,
effect

puxx
-> SPO Cx

TRANSIUITY -

pnechoelnos'd

INTRANSITIVE VERBS -

verb that don't take

any object nor
complement

TRANSITIVE VERBS be
pessiviced
-

can

Casownik pnechodui
*

take
aragomona Camied throne biting, enemy most mied/oc mies
dopeinienie
-

no or

What kind
of action is
normally possible with objects? -
PASSIVE VOICE
 S PO PCo S PO:Od
PCo

-Flousider rod
friend. the

Y I foundMoia good
fishpersonne object

I
found them good friends -

agreement of number REQUIRED.

&UWAGAP

They elected at the board.

↳> No article.
Why? It is combination
of NP
dueting natitutional role predicative
-

a used as

Complement

They offer or colony

calory
object
They offerent obrigue
Johnand 'a law
object to
follow
good salong
-
both are the the verb
 People consider
her
qPEEtatanan
a
genius.

Cleople
or
regard NobleIBrsedOT
The teacher explained a
problem to the students.

weaponO, bwadeoe
t

Oracle we
&

InWon O
MOOlying O

Adjunct
People criticized on plan magly

Paraphones: opl aproved ton

Promo
plan
disapport object must take a C) "Oblique object"
preposition

dirtand
win

Jonn is okitoencepaveled
Jonn is
looking or
- all over grandma
the
place
"prepositional verbs" ->
fixed pattern, liters sense

the situation
-Grammatically same
 He
e
outs
puts

P O
{ C peace/direction

they o
"

phrasal
verb
"
S P ¥a Cneuhoe
↳

✓ literally but
'

meaning
to make like
only some not

?)
like
give up not
giving ↑ smoking Ito who
→
or your

" " "

"

PHRASAL VERBS US .
PREPOSITIONAL VERBS
(
grammatical differences)

PHRASAL VERB
He
gave away secrets non literal PHRASAL VERB idiomatic
→
-

.
more
, ,
rather
*
He gave away money ,
→
more literal (not phrasal verb )

PREPOSITIONAL VERB
John for in
looked a word
dictionary .

rely on

She
she took the
took the
lipstick
lipstick
out of
from
her
the
bag
little
shelf
.

below me minor .
} NOT

verb
prepositional
 colic
Oxford →
nice

[ MINIMAL PAIRS
"
]

DIFFERENCES

I. Pattern :

V 5 P C
Prep .
:
neutral

tonnes V .
:
S P O Cneur

0 "
ebligabay
/ Cneuhol
"

P object
Prep
-

_
,
,

fI¥iiÉÉÉ
µ
PREP John in
.
looked a
dictionary .

looked

Cnenr .
0

PHRAS .
John looked
⑧ in a
dictionary
looked ☒⑦
☒☒
NPA Adverb particle neutral

I. Use of adjunct

PREP .
John looked Éiay immediatelylat.ie#
NOT POSSIBLE
✗
PHRAS John /
dictionary immediately
looked the word in at
.

up a once .

→
Phras V. cannot
. be
separated by adiundkt nor adverb .
 III. Relative clauses

John for in
looked the word a
dictionary .

{
↳ John in
The word looked a
dictionary .

which John looked

fer . . .

John in
looked
up the word a
dictionary .

↳ The which John possible way

up in dictionary
word looked a → THE ONLY

?
prepositional strangling

FINITE V5 NON -

FINITE CLAUSES
""
"e Predictive complement

fa;q-eyijg
of object
④
the

1.) People took

0 C neutral

2.) People considered ⑤nagen (PG)

0 Pred:c .
Comp of . the Obi .

3.) People considered /thought ④tobeagenivs@cypc.O INFINITIVE CLAUSES ( NON-FINITE CLAUSE)

( rare ) 4.) People ? considered

/ believed
/thought
[
thatlohnwasageni.us# some call them :

l CONTENT CL DECLARATIVE CL [ complement clauses noun clauses ]

Of
.
.

,
(FINITE CLAUSE )
the fact that this clause can act as an object of passive voice
we can call it an object
John
Many ppl thought / believed that . .
.

/
PASSIVE :

T-mhnnmagmi.us was believed

by many people .

SUBJECT
?⃝
 5.) The Speaker told
lesomearrangenew indirect object (Oi ) direct object Ga )

6.) The speaker told

lethatIohnwasageni Oi Doe

COMPLEX TRANS →

eg
. consider /find ↑
feet direct Obie at

DI TRANSITIVE
-
→
taking two objects eg .
give Ime)
,
( an example ) ; ④ (me) (a
joke /
MONO TRANSITIVE ☆
GO BACK TO THIS 1 READING)
-

(semantic link )

to
7.) The doctor
to_dWspah@ethatlheyshalleatmorevegetables.f
Oi Dol

LI

toeatmorevegetables.IN
is
The doctor

eat
told
Oi

){
④
g.)

"
the

parallel

the
doctor

thought
/ superficial parietal

doctor expected
in

qq.gmatmepatienswoueaeatmaeuegetah.ie#
×'

toeatmorevegetables.JO
0

Pco
mire be
vegetables to eaten
by his patrons .
 wkata-eodbywaiaes.iq mistrostwa
murmur
striata a
piece noznej .

THEME/TOPIC subject

Qatar World Cup

is
hosting the FIFA .

eiFÑTonc+ subject

KERNEL CLAUSES
S P

1.) S P
steep
-

Theater

is-noeping.2.IS -

P
agreement
number
Cat
in The cat
→ weeping .

3.) S -

Op lopwoeor ) ④ sleeping
?
inversion

acaʳᵗ
" EME is
completely new

PIC for the

person touring,
is
chasing nor
familiar

•
Itis the
person 's taking dog
so he/she
snorts the sentence with Sth
families to
¥1
them Intonation
the
changes ,

pressure is put on

familiar one .

A is
chasing theca -
cot is
familiar

Thereat is
being chased by a
dog .

TOPIC / THEME

*
passive voice It's the subject that is
passive
→
?⃝
 2.
Something has eaten the cheese .

Th÷eese has been eaten .

choice
of topic ( non human-

passive etc .
)

THE USE OF PASSIVE VOICE

Leonardo da Vinci painted this
picture .

> This picture was

painted by Leonardo da Vinci .

↳ , ,,
gang gg man,µp, , ,,
µ,,, ma, , ay
, a ,µ

↳
focus of enfamahbn at the end =
end -

focus -

whatever new
info . comes
,
it is
typically
at the end
of a sentence .

↳ line
avoiding mention
of the
agent the cheese has been eaten )
-

or nine
"
wrociew was flooded ( you
"
.
don't have to mention
"

by water
of inter dbbe
"
- not
necessary
)
bend
weight
-

↓
* sublet raising entonetion the critics . . . . .
)
/ have raised the
performance
( .
)
 0 non
-
transitive
1.) The

thecheeseditrensin.ve
mouse ate

2.) Someone gave

E-
the mouse some cheese

PASS The
given cheese
→
. mouse was some ,

0 complex transitive
3.) People consider mice rathertim

People objected
People gave up
to

ÉejfpiaiÉÉ
-
snd practices!
:

Experts tɥe to wear face masks .

↳
People were told to wear
face manes .

no semantic link

✗ f E to be worn .

Experts epdpk to wear

face manes .

↳
People here
expected
to wear
face masks .

Face
by
↳ mask were
expected to be won people .

The Chinese be
very disciplined
are considered to .

believed
thought
known

-
-
supposed
- -
- - -
- - -

said →
not exist in active
reputed
:
?⃝
 5 / Np D
omaiiroii"

T-ni.fi#wFpFeby-eonaE%daViai---Jbhhin
-h
topic / THEME

been eaten
byamouse.IT
it is
.

1.
has

Form the communicative point of view getting rid of the pary „by Leonardo da vinci”
would make the sentence make no sense

Tough from the grammmatic point of view it would be possible

EVP

TÉpTEewTÉᵈqeonaau;na=-#
5 / Np D
dependent element

topic / THEME

EVP

-hÑ÷Ébyamou→mpenaeuᵗ element

EVP :
Head WP )

obligatory
→

COMPLEMENTS
/ by
→
triggered lexical verb

DEPENDENTS
Of 2k Npg
,

\ Adjuncts
"""

the
'

not#ed by ein cat verb

(adverbials )
 The mouse
sn-ateatnepie-eeevenyquickly.TK
ead
complement ADJUNCT OF MANNER
IP ) OBJECT type of complement ]

¥
5 / Np VP:D
ADJUNCT of agent /agency

T-hioiptwr-wfwig-eonarqowgdaviai-top.cc
/ THEME

Adjunct of INSTRUMENT Aoeiunct of agency

He was stabbed Father

byamadman.ru
Pa pm

Prep .ph .

Prep .
Ph

Types of ADJUNCT

( )
Sunday ; Prep
LOCATION IN TIME in the bh *
two hours
→

Postposition
evening ; on . .

ago
a) Adjunct of TIME this week , next sunday ( Nwmp )
(Prep P) ( Noun P )
DURATION 1in time )
for an hour .

;
all
day , five hours

b) PLACE INPI
Adjunct of Prep P
→
.
i nextdoor

c) Adjunct of MANNER Adverb Ph in

lprep.PH ) *P)
→
natural
i a
way ; my way
)
at Adjunct of CONDITION Iif . . .
.

e)
of
Adjunct REASON

f) Adjunct of PURPOSE
*
TIME :
Let's discuss it b⑤ueeudofthemonth_ →
NP

b¥%µ%µµµM↑ᵗʰendÉmm
→
CLAUSE

Finite@hberdinate-ense1Adverb.a .

TIME :
We'll
get
rich
⑦wewontheloAery- Adverbial clause of time / ADJUNCT OF TIME /

CONDITION
i@fwewinaheIteny.We
We'll
get
rich
:

richunk@swewintheloHery.REA
'll have
yet

Fsefhisfatigvebe@hewastireI.A
SON he fell asleep
drerbiae clone of reason

eourby@thewuldgetrpat5inHremerningIxbep.Dep.EV
PURPOSE : he went to bed

P :
H + +
ADTVN

""ᵗ%

]
"" ""
" "
""

we'll
Vtu have
get rich .

_Éred ,
he
fell asleep in class .

÷g
""°^"""^→ʳᵈˢ"&"ⁿʰ"ᵗʰ"""ʰᵈ"ʰÑ
SENTENCE ADJUNCTS
SENTENCE ADJUNCTS
(
modal
adjuncts probably conceivably )
→

,
perhaps ,
. . .

[ Amerie ?
7. probably probably
.F
probably
Probably a mouse hashreaten the cheese
'
quite flexible
→

style adjuncts Frankly ,

I don't care . / Honestly ,

clearly separated from

(that's sentence
edj )
↳ the
why
rest .

viewpoint Theoretically / In
→

adjuncts the
theory
mouse .

,
-
,
. . .

→
evaluative adj .
Fortunately ,
. . . / Svprisingly ,
the cheese hasn't been eaten .

The has not eaten

collecting adjuncts piece of cheese been
→

large .

¥ the small one has

disappeared

(
.

boy contrast
, . .
. / . . .
As a result ,
.
. .

↳ ↳
contrasting adj .

connecting Oudinot

NEVER separated kidh commas ↑, or

c)
> •

,
↳
always neparetes
tho
separated sentences
 REVISION
MORPHOLOGY :

1) COMPOUND INGS
•

affixes →
added to word 's steins

parts of inflectional morphology

° →

part
)
affixes cannot their 1 but
•
ever worn on own can

complex sent . us .

compond Senter .

channel
of
→ →

unequal status Clausen

of equal status

¥%→washh①→
(
his cannot I .AM?..-Ie
↓
it can work on their own as a sentence ↳ both can mark on their own ay

sentences

F- Same with
foes compounding clusters
of word work their
→

.
stems that can on own

II. port

"
"
be
tempted to the
meaning of airport as
•
we should not see a

It is
mix
of both words . NOT
port made
of air .

*
lkos )
other
eg .

waterproof , blackbird ) someday ,

football , thursday lit snared as
compound :p
but not now the Thor )
day of
→

,
nie spirit compounding

NOT affixation
a
type of conversion , nor
they all
different morphological
→
are

processes
( tobelho MORPHO)
TRANSITIVITY
conversion
from the transitive verb to intrasihive verb 7
The walk intransitive
owner rids
during
→
a .

/ complement /
The omer # sever times . → transitive involves

¥9 MILKED Honneur two times a

day .

SUBJECT PASSIVE ( class)

prepositional phrase grain .

( value)
*
adivnct
syntactic

WHEN STH IS A SUBJECT ? →

criteria
1.) comes
before verb phrase functioning as
predictor live this
dog hasbeenwd3t%hg
↳ SP

2.) S P -

need
agreement in number 1%-0 concord
"

) / apreeencn in number between NP (subject ) and VP ( predication ]

3.) inversion of subject and
operator
→

changes ef position so that we

get Op .
-

fast
*
in
not
only interrogative clauses Never has the tired
→

dog pot so .

→
Passive clause

Thee should bathe

thei .

OBJECT
agent of an action

_h¥g should be walked bythatow

SUBJECT Agent

objects in
EVP
←

COMPLEMENTS ADNNCTS

Those Those
mandatory additional
 Naturally ,
the
dog got tired
very quickly .

SENTENTIAL ADWNCT

lperiph .

participant ?

SENTENCE
✓
CLAUSE
Naturally
the
dog got very quickly
tired

1
Np EVP PREDICATE

the tired
dog get very quickly
✓ I \ .

UP
*

PREDICATOR PCs Adiunct

got
tired lot time)
*

predicative component
of subject very quickly

Hrf here is
0b¥ complement

tired -

adjective made
from past participle form

p atoa The
dog
-
•

agreement
h#t tired
in number
.

• S P
-

order

S
Op inversion Has the tired ?
dog got
• -
THE USE OF CLAUSES AS A

T knew ( that ) you would come back .

finite clause →
declarative content clause

I knew it .

Everyone know him tobeagen

Object Pco predicative complement of obieot
*
He was known to be a
genius .

Subject

↳ subject in
Typically , if 8th works as a
passive ,
in is an object in active clause .

They blew
⑦ Hnebridge .

◦
NEUTRAL COMPLEMENT

Adverb particle

look ⑤ →
not a neutral
complement ,
rather direction
,
used
•

directory what it means

They blew the bridge up .

YOU can count on John →

neutral
complement
Tdd Prepositional phrase complainer -
 OBLIGUE OBJECT/COMPLEMENT

COMPLEMENT :
ADJUNCT

OBJECT
Head of manner

we
exa-mine.fi#Eaei:n.?:.e:j-:::iI:.F
EXTENDED VERB PHRASE

փ
#
obligatory Non-obligatory '

Adjunct
→

Dependence Complement

I
" "ᵗ (
if the become subject in passive )
/
NP can

Type of complement
?

ʰE¥E8④mµ"Hi×ah)
-

Morphology
:

involves

we

%e1ink.gg?gegeeinmEge.gkE#- V1
" "
into
not literal
meaning of
Neutral
prep phrase complement
.

"
↳ "

oblique object -
not
exactly eonectcd to literal

meaning
 We
c-ongieriue-issuequitecomplex.pro

asqvitecomp.ie#-pONeuhdPPCompl
We regard the issue

( oblique
"
PC .
"
)

Hog become prince

↳
PCs predicative
complement of the subject

frog turned
irwap
P Tpa ?
Neutral
prep .

compl . ,

*
CANNOT :
The
frog became
i a
prince .

✗
↑ ↑
here ✓ her ✓
ADVERBIAL rs .
MODIFIER Vs. ADJUNCT

a.) Adverbial

→
me rather avoid this term

OKOLIEZNIK
→

ADJUNCT
→
same as

b.) Modifier
→
PRZYD ANKA

a tho examination >

modifier
◦
we
thxa mined the issue ADJUNCT
of manner

✓
.

BUT : We could beet is

) as a
modifiers

-÷:÷
* could be

John behaved
ᵗnahnellyÉmm ADJUNCT
of manner
modifier

John 's behaviour .

modifier MODIFIER

Na John behaved
badly .

SENTENCE ADJUNCT

Optional dep . within EVP

The attentively
students were
listening

listen to →
not idiomatic

students
listen attentively & the teacher .

Why that relates to head

of EVP is an
adjunct .
 ADJUNCTS -

TYPES

a) of agency
b) of manner

c) of degree

NEST :

☐ Function
of
"
the issue
"

,
gram .
class
of
"
in some details
"
→
or its
syntactic function ,
,

UP or NP or

Identify clause
, Efrem .
chess
,

MULTIPLE CHOICE TASKS (majoring ?/

We looked into Hne issue in some detail .

" "
in some detail
:

GRAMATICAL CLASS ( words phrases )

It prepositional phrase
→
and

1) SYNTACTIC FUNCTION adjunct of

→
manner

Grammatical classes :

NOUN
°

Olof
→

NOUN PHRASE
dog
◦
a →

Greunndoicol includes Part

chasses
phrases .

of speech do not .
ANAUZAZDAÑ

¥¥assmTTameberry_
NP

Od

1.) Interrogative clause ( could be a

question ,
but here it is not . It is a
request
)
P.su?y can't

kerne
be
.

You
Kc the
blueberry jam
:
can me
pass .

↳
declarative clause

2.) subject and

operator INVERSION
'
I cannot be KC with inversion )

* ( Are ( ))
practically
modal verbs be
Operator ,
can . . .

; can
operator are

→
will there ? Must ?
you go you speak . . .

3.) DITRANSITIVE verb

me →
indirect object
involved in action
the
jam direct object
directly
→
. . .

4.) personal pronoun ME

5.) No

mey jaw
:

Head
deep dep

by →
COMPOUND NOUN [ neczonnik utyty
pnydewho like
ay
.
the
④y chess

modifier modifier
 T ttee

We looked into the matter in some detail .

I .

-ttras looked
into some detail .

↳
Subject by the come tee

is
Inversion
possible
→

→
in number
agreement

I can't make out

mishandling .

Neutral GC :
NP
carb become subject
Adverb
SF :
OBJECT
in
passive
Particle

Complement

NON kernel bc
of MEGAMI
-

COMPLEX TRANSITIVE
We consider the matter
eg very strange
.
.