Sedimentary Geology 410 (2020) 105782

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Sedimentary Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo

Review

Reviewing sedimentological and hydrodynamic data of large shallow

coastal lagoons for defining mud depocenters as environmental
monitoring sites
E.C. Bortolin a,⁎, J. Weschenfelder b, E.H. Fernandes a, L.P. Bitencourt a, O.O. Möller a,
F. García-Rodríguez a,c, E. Toldo b
a
Instituto de Oceanografia – Universidade Federal do Rio Grande (FURG), Rio Grande, Brazil
b
Centro de Estudos de Geologia Costeira e Oceânica (CECO), Instituto de Geociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul/UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
c
Centro Universitario Regional del Este, Sede CURE-Rocha, Ruta 9 s/n, Rocha 27000, Uruguay

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: We reviewed historical data on surface sediment composition/distribution and hydrodynamics of the Patos-
Received 29 July 2020 Mirim lagoonal system, the largest coastal shallow limnological system of the world, located in eastern South
Received in revised form 15 October 2020 America, which is ca.15,000 km2, the maximum length is almost 500 km and maximum depth is around 7 m.
Accepted 16 October 2020
We inferred the geographical position of six mud depocenters in relation to the hydrodynamic conditions
Available online 26 October 2020
evolved from predominant winds and morphometry. Littoral zones of sediment resuspension dominated by
Editor: Dr. Brian Jones sand were identified where current velocity was higher than 0.2 m s−1 and depth was <5 m. In addition, central
zones were susceptible to deposition of fine sediment fractions, where current velocity was close to 0.1 m s−1 and
Keywords: depth was >5 m. Such conditions observed for the central zones represent appropriate morphodynamic controls
Back-Barrier Lagoon for mud depocenter formation. The six permanent Holocene depocenters for the whole Patos-Mirim system
Sedimentology were all dominated mostly by silty clayey facies and exhibited an Mz value equal to or higher than 7.5. Because
Hydrodynamics of the dominance of the fine fraction, we propose them as future potential key-spots for monitoring the
Morphometry environmental quality of the system to assist regional sustainable management.
Mud depocenter
© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Gardner and Doyle, 2018) which is particularly interesting in large

The coastal sedimentary prism can be considered as an environmen-
tal archive containing information about the past conditions of
depositional environments at different scales of variability (Perez
et al., 2018). Large coastal lagoons are commonly protected from the
nearby normally higher energy ocean by a sandy barrier (Kjerfve,
1986; Dillenburg et al., 2017). They behave as bypassing or trapping sys-
tems of fine-grained sediments depending on the geomorphologic and
hydrodynamic conditions (Vieira et al., 2020) that are modulated by
the climate variability (Távora et al., 2019; Ivanoff et al., 2020).
The formation and distribution of sedimentary facies in large
coastal shallow lagoons depends on the supply of river suspended
material, which is then deposited under low energy hydrodynamic
conditions controlled by morphometry (Arfi et al., 1994; Hanebuth
et al., 2015; Petti et al., 2018). In this sense, the surface current circu-
lation and substrate morphometry exert control on granulometric
spatial disposal (Toldo, 1991; Arfi et al., 1994; Naya et al., 2004;
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: edubortolin@gmail.com (E.C. Bortolin).
coastal shallow systems, because the dynamic distribution involves
resuspension and deposition processes (Gardner and Doyle, 2018),
where mud depocenters develop as patches of detached material
from the source area. Therefore, large coastal shallow lagoons repre-
sent an excellent study case to examine and determine conditions for
mud depocenter formation in relation to data on dominant winds
and wind-driven hydrodynamics. Furthermore, knowledge on the
surface sediment composition and distribution in aquatic systems
is important for monitoring human impacts in view of conservation
and environmental management purposes.
Large, medium and small coastal shallow lagoons characterize
the main hydrographic setting of eastern South America, where
the Patos-Mirim System (PMS) stands out as the most striking nat-
ural water reservoir. The lagoon-barrier systems in southernmost
Brazil evolved during the Pleistocene to Holocene, modulated by
sea-level changes triggered by high-frequency climatic oscillations
of the Quaternary period (Villwock et al., 1986; Villwock and
Tomazelli, 1995; Tomazelli and Villwock, 2000; Dillenburg et al.,
2017). The PMS behaves as a back-barrier coastal trap for fine-
grained inland sediments (Calliari et al., 2009; Dillenburg et al.,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2020.105782
0037-0738/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
E.C. Bortolin, J. Weschenfelder, E.H. Fernandes et al.
2017; Weschenfelder and Corrêa, 2018). Most of the sediment load
carried by streams and rivers draining the PMS watershed
represents the natural source of the limnologeological sedimentary
environment (Dillenburg et al., 2017; Bitencourt et al., 2020)
which is dominated by sandy, silty and clayey facies (Toldo, 1994;
Toldo et al., 2000; Tomazelli and Villwock, 2000; Weschenfelder
et al., 2014; Bortolin et al., 2018).
The Patos and Mirim Lagoon have been studied separately since
several decades ago by many research groups focusing on the hydro-
logical (Fernandes et al., 2002, 2004; Oliveira et al., 2015, 2019), sed-
imentological (Toldo et al., 2000, 2006, 2006b; Weschenfelder et al.,
2014; Bortolin et al., 2018, 2019; Távora et al., 2019; Miranda et al.,
2019; Vieira et al., 2020), limnological, biological and ecological
(Possamai et al., 2018) point of view. However, there is not a single
study contemplating the whole system as a unique territorial unit.
We have compiled a sedimentological and hydrodynamic database
for the whole system including thorough studies of Toldo (1994),
Vieira (1995); Fernandes et al. (2002), Oliveira et al. (2019), and
studied the surface sediment distribution of the whole PMS in rela-
tion to the hydrodynamics. A previous effort (Vieira et al., 2020)
did study the dominant hydrodynamic conditions and inferred the
processes of sediment deposition and resuspension in Mirim Lagoon.
But given the connectivity between Patos and Mirim Lagoon, and the
associated necessity of understanding geographical patterns of
water circulation and the related distribution of sedimentary envi-
ronments, this study assessed the surface sediment distribution of
the whole PMS in relation to dominant hydrodynamic conditions.
The objective of this paper was to assess the overall conditions lead-
ing to deposition processes, to determine the combination of mor-
phometric and hydrodynamic conditions for depocenter formation.
With this in mind, depocenters represent key-spots for environmen-
tal monitoring as they are the final fate of the source-to-sink process
of fine sediment fraction and associated chemical elements.
2. Study area
2.1. Depositional system context
The Patos Lagoon is a chocked system, connected to the Mirim
Lagoon by the 76 km long São Gonçalo Channel, forming the world's
largest complex of shallow coastal lagoons (Kjerfve, 1986). The PMS
is 14,000 km2, with Patos Lagoon representing 10,360 km2 and
Mirim 3749 km2 (Kjerfve, 1986; Toldo et al., 2000; Vieira et al.,
2020). The PMS covers a transboundary territory, located in the con-
tinental region of the Pelotas Basin, more precisely on the coastal
plains of southernmost Brazil and eastern Uruguay (Fig. 1). The
PMS is fed by sediments from the Uruguayan-Sul-Riograndense
Shield, but also from Paleo-Mesozoic sedimentary and volcanic
rocks of the Paraná Basin. This siliciclastic material is incorporated
by six main rivers (Fig. 1), i.e., Jacuí and Camaquã within Patos La-
goon watershed (Tomazelli and Villwock, 2000; Vaz et al., 2006),
and Cebolatti, Taquari, Jaguarão, and Piratini within Mirim Lagoon
drainage system (Oliveira et al., 2015; Vieira et al., 2020). An alluvial
fan system represents the interface between the highland source
area and the low-lying coastal plain, which alternates deposits of
sands and muds developed during the evolution of four barrier-
lagoon Quaternary depositional systems (Tomazelli and Villwock,
2000).
The main physiographic aspects of the Southern Brazil and Uruguayan
coastal zone result from the Quaternary sea-level changes, as recognized
worldwide by significant shifts in the coastal depositional systems trig-
gered by eustatic oscillations (Imbrie et al., 1984), whose cycles modu-
lated the coastal sedimentary systems (Dillenburg et al., 2004). Sandy
barriers preserved on the coastal plain evidence the Pleistocene sea
level highstands associated with Marine Isotope Stages and named from
oldest to youngest, as Barriers I, II, and III (Fig. 1) (Villwock et al., 1986;
2
Sedimentary Geology 410 (2020) 105782
Tomazelli and Villwock, 2000; Rosa et al., 2017). The Quaternary forced
regressions developed incised valleys in adjacent latitudes,
which were partially infilled, with marine and estuarine sedi-
ments, during the subsequent sea level rises (Weschenfelder
et al., 2014; Santos-Fischer et al., 2018; Bortolin et al., 2018,
2019). Eustasy is the main forcing factor controlling the depositional
sequence setting, due to the gentle slope (~1.4 m/km) of both the con-
tinental shelf and the coastal plain (Corrêa, 1996; Tomazelli and
Villwock, 2000; Weschenfelder et al., 2014; Bortolin et al., 2018, 2019;
Bitencourt et al., 2020).
The autogenic forcing factors such as sediment input, hydrodynam-
ics, and antecedent topography play a secondary control in response to
sea-level change (Bortolin et al., 2019; Ivanoff et al., 2020; Vieira et al.,
2020; Bitencourt et al., 2020). The physiography of the PMS displays
some aspects inherited from the coastal plain topography preceding
the Holocene transgression (Bortolin et al., 2018, 2019) such as buried
incised valleys, sandy emerged and submerged spits, terraces, and
related features (Toldo, 1991). Outcomes from high-resolution seismic
profiles (Weschenfelder et al., 2014, 2016) inferred the transition
from the incised valley configuration setting to an upper unconfined en-
vironment, i.e., drowning and partial infilling of the low-lying topo-
graphic back-barrier region where the modern PMS is set (Bortolin
et al., 2018, 2019).
The last regressive-transgressive event displays the clearest records,
with the falling-stage marked by fluvial channels (Weschenfelder et al.,
2008, 2010), which reached the most expressive depths during the Last
Glacial Maximum (18 kyr BP), when the sea level fell until the shelf
break, about 130 km off the present coastline (Weschenfelder et al.,
2014; Bortolin et al., 2018). The following transgression preserved relict
terraces on the continental shelf, interpreted as sea level stabilizations
(Corrêa, 1986, 1996). The final stage of the transgressive phase enclosed
the PMS, after the juxtaposition of the Holocene Barrier IV to the
Pleistocene Barrier III (Fig. 1) to establish the modern physiography
with a single estuarine inlet named Rio Grande Channel (Dillenburg
et al., 2004; Lima et al., 2013; Santos-Fischer et al., 2016, 2018;
Bortolin et al., 2018, 2019). Since then the back-barrier deposits have
been accumulating under conditions of low energy and relatively low
accumulation rates (Bortolin et al., 2019). Following marine highstand
conditions, the lagoons become more estuarine due to increasing fresh-
water input in the late Holocene (Santos-Fischer et al., 2016; Bortolin
et al., 2018).
This lagoon system is characterized by two main sedimentological
domains; the shallow submerged banks, which serve as a substrate for
the development of sandy spits, and the deepwater lagoon floor, where
muddy sediments prevail (Toldo, 1991). Earlier studies report that
these fine sediments were accumulated since at least 8000 yr BP, at a de-
position rate of 0.75 mm/yr (Toldo et al., 2000, 2006). More recent stud-
ies have shown that at deeper zones (paleovalleys), the accumulation
rates could even reach 1.8 cm/yr, and were associated to Melt Water
Pulse events of the mid-Holocene (Bortolin et al., 2018, 2019). Modern
sedimentation rates varying from 4.4 to 7 mm/yr were determined for
different regions of the Patos Lagoon (Bueno et al., 2019; Ivanoff et al.,
2020).
2.2. Hydrology and hydrodynamics
The region corresponds to a warm-temperate climate regime, with
interannual variability modulated by El Niño-Southern Oscillation
Events (Möller et al., 2009; Távora et al., 2019; Ivanoff et al., 2020).
The PMS is oriented SW-NE parallel to the coast as modulated by pre-
vailing local NE-SW winds, acting on time scales of 3–15 days along to
the latitudinal axis of the system, but with the highest intensity from
SW during winter (Möller et al., 2001). Both wind directions modulate
the modern circulation pattern along with the 500 km fetch of the sys-
tem, and promote a water level slope (~3 m) between the margin ex-
tremities and waves that can cause erosion (Tomazelli and Villwock,
E.C. Bortolin, J. Weschenfelder, E.H. Fernandes et al. Sedimentary Geology 410 (2020) 105782

Fig. 1. Upper left panel: regional extension of the Patos-Mirim system catchment area, which includes the Guaíba hydrographic region, the Mirim lagoon, Camaquã River and coastal (CHB)
hydrographic basins. Main panel: The Patos lagoon and the main inflowing rivers, whose water flows through the Rio Grande estuarine channel; and the general geological setting
according to Dillenburg and Barboza (2014).

2000; Fernandes et al., 2002; Toldo et al., 2000, 2003, 2006, 2006b;
Oliveira et al., 2015, 2019; Miranda et al., 2019). The system is shallow,
about 6 m depth, favoring the occurrence of local 1.6 m height waves
with a period of 4.8 s (Toldo et al., 2003), mainly along the sandy mar-
gins (<5 m depth), in contrast to muddy depocenters (>5 m depth),
as described by Toldo et al. (2000).
The Guaíba and Camaquã Rivers, and São Gonçalo channel are the
main tributaries of the Patos Lagoon, with a total mean annual discharge
of 2400 m3.s−1 (Vaz et al., 2006), exhibiting a typical mid-latitude
discharge pattern with strong discharges in late winter and early
spring, and moderate discharges during summer and fall (Möller et al.,
2001). Moreover, ENSO events affect this region (Fernandes et al.,
2002), and result in higher (El Niño) or lower (La Niña) freshwater dis-
charges and consequently suspended sediment concentrations (Távora
et al., 2019). During El Niño periods the lagoon can reach peaks of
12,000 m3 s−1 (Möller et al., 1996). Under conditions of river discharge
higher than 3000 m3 s−1, the hydrodynamic setting prevents seawater
intrusion into the lagoon (Möller et al., 2001; Fernandes et al., 2002).
The hydrological discharge of the whole PMS to the Atlantic Ocean
occurs through the Rio Grande Channel, a long and narrow inlet

3
E.C. Bortolin, J. Weschenfelder, E.H. Fernandes et al.
(Möller et al., 2001), which minimizes the tidal effects in the back-barrier
zone (Fernandes et al., 2004). The São Gonçalo channel has a gentle slope
allowing the Mirim Lagoon main flow into Patos Lagoon (Oliveira et al.,
2015, 2019), also controlled by a dam built in 1977 to prevent the flow
of brackish water from Patos into Mirim Lagoon, but also by the SW
winds which are stronger than NE summer winds (Gouvêa et al., 2010;
Oliveira et al., 2015). The PMS also has paramount importance in the
maintenance of areas of ecological interest declared Biosphere Reserve
by UNESCO, such as the Ecological Station of Taim and the Lagoa do
Peixe National Park (Santos et al., 2004; Corrêa et al., 2009).
The Patos Lagoon hydrodynamics was studied by several authors
using in situ data (Möller and Castaing, 1999; Möller et al., 2001), numer-
ical modelling (Möller et al., 1996; Fernandes et al., 2002, 2004; Castelão
and Möller, 2003; Marques et al., 2010), and remote sensing (Pagot et al.,
2007; Fassoni-Andrade et al., 2017; Távora et al., 2019). Several authors
highlighted the importance of wind and freshwater discharge on the
Patos Lagoon dynamics (Möller et al., 2001; Fernandes et al., 2002; Vaz
et al., 2006; Marques et al., 2010b). Tides (mixed, diurnal dominance)
are microtidal with reduced mean amplitude (0.23 m) (Möller et al.,
2001), being restricted to the coast and lower estuarine zone
(Fernandes et al., 2004; Marques et al., 2010). According to Möller and
Castaing (1999), the lagoon dynamics is controlled by winds (local and
remote effects) in periods of low to moderate freshwater discharges
(<2000 m3 s−1). There is an alternation of winds from NE to S-SW on
a time scale smaller than 15 days due to the passage of cold fronts
(Möller et al., 1996). Nevertheless, NE winds dominate throughout the
year (Möller et al., 2001). These authors reported that during NE (SW)
wind dominance, there is a depression (elevation) in coastal sea surface,
resulting in seaward (landward) flow between the lagoon and the coast
as a result of the Ekman Transport acting 90o of the wind direction.
Previous studies also have identified ENSO impacts on river discharge
patterns (Vaz et al., 2006), winds (Möller et al., 2001, 2009), estuarine cir-
culation (Fernandes et al., 2002), biota (Garcia et al., 2003; Möller et al.,
2009) and suspended sediments concentrations (Távora et al., 2019),
mainly due to changes in climatic conditions.
3. Material and methods
The collection of 109 surface sediment samples was carried out aboard
several research cruises in Patos Lagoon (Toldo, 1994), and the location of
the samples is shown in Fig. 2 (see Supplementary material). The sedi-
ment size classes were grouped according to Wentworth (1922), while
the textural classification followed Shepard (1954). The statistical param-
eters were calculated according to Folk and Ward (1957) but we specially
Fig. 2. Morphometry (A- left), surface sediment stations (B- center) and sedimentary facies (C- right) of the Patos Lagoon.
4
Sedimentary Geology 410 (2020) 105782
selected the arithmetic mean (Mz) to represent trends in grain size distri-
bution. The samples with gravel concentration and biogenic particles
were considered as outliers. The sedimentary facies of Patos Lagoon
were designated according the terminology proposed by Blott and Pye
(2012). Such modern terminology was also extended to the surface sedi-
ments interpreted by Vieira et al. (2020) aiming to homogenize the com-
parison between these two interconnected lagoons.
The Telemac-3D Model (www.opentelemac.org) was performed to
infer the surface hydrodynamic conditions of Patos Lagoon, being this
procedure widely utilized in this system by several authors (Fernandes
et al., 2002, 2004; Marques and Möller, 2009; Marques et al., 2010,
2010b). The equations of Navier-Stokes are employed in this model con-
sider the local variation in the fluid free surface, but they ignore the den-
sity variations in the equation of mass conservation and consider the
approximation of Boussinesq to solve momentum equations (Hervouet,
2007). The partial differential equation outcome, combined with both
initial and boundary conditions, are computed within the model by a tri-
angular mesh of non-structured finite elements (see Supplementary ma-
terial 2). Different mesh resolutions can be introduced by this approach,
with an increased resolution for zones where large speed gradients and/
or complex floor morphometry are expected. The model efficiency in
predicting the environmental response is increased by the correct repre-
sentation of these features, which also yields a more stable numerical
solution.
Oliveira et al. (2019) and Vieira et al. (2020) successfully used this
three-dimensional approach for the Mirim Lagoon for 5-yr-long
simulation. Currently, the same model of calibration and validation
was performed to the Patos Lagoon for the equivalent period, and its
two-dimensional hydrodynamic results (surface current fields) are
used in this study (see Supplementary Material 2).
4. Results
4.1. Sediment grain size and bathymetry
The Patos Lagoon longitudinal axis is partially segmented by sandy
cuspate spits into four cells that can reach up to 60 km wide. The
sandy spits develop over the shallow (≤1 m) submerged banks, which
are best preserved and represented on the western littoral and consist
of a prolongation of the margins into the inner portion of the cells.
More than 70% of the sediments within the margins correspond to me-
dium to coarse sand, reducing their grain size towards deepest zones in
the central portion of each cell (Figs. 2 and 3), where silt and clay
depocenters were recognized. The inner zone below the 5 m isobath is
E.C. Bortolin, J. Weschenfelder, E.H. Fernandes et al.
Fig. 3. Wentworth size classes percentage of sand (A), silt (B), and clay (C). The fig. D illustrates the interactions between suspended fine sediments through the Patos Lagoon cells, the
Landsat 8 image was modified from Feldman (2018).
set in the same orientation as the longitudinal axis of the system (Fig. 1)
and consistently displays about 40 to 90% of silty sediments, up to 40% of
clay sediments at some stations, and <20% of sandy sediments (Fig. 3).
According to such grain size distribution, the sedimentary facies exhibit
a peripheral region, which extends from the contour perimeter down to
the 4–5 m isobaths (Fig. 1). Such a facies corresponds almost exclusively
to sand and to less extent to sand-silt deposits (Fig. 2). Below the 4–5 m
isobath (Fig. 2), the dominant sedimentary facies corresponds to clayey-
silt which is set in the same orientation as the maximum length of the
lagoon.
The most representative and geologically stable depocenters were
identified for all four cells and named from north to south as PMI,
PMII, and PMIII (i.e., Patos Mud-depocenter I through III). The afore-
mentioned depocenters were determined as zones in which Mz value
5
Sedimentary Geology 410 (2020) 105782
is equal to or higher than 7.5 in the northern cell (PMI), the central
cell (PMII) and southern cell (PMIII) (Figs. 2C and 5). Table 1 shows
for each depocenter the most representative station displaying the
highest percentage of fine sediments (Fig. 3A, B, C). For PMI the station
PT57 (0.1% sand; 58.1% silt; 41.8% clay) was selected, depositing clayey
silt facies. The PMII is located in a central low bathymetry depression
zone, where silty clay facies occur, and it lies around stations PT28 (4%
sand; 31% silt; 65% clay). Finally, PMIII lies on the southernmost cell,
where station PT11 was selected due the very slightly sandy silty clay fa-
cies (1% sand; 26% silt; 73% clay). The location of PMI through III shows a
very good visual correspondence with the distribution of the water col-
umn fine suspended sediments, which are concentrated in the central
zone lying above the depocenters as shown the satellite image of
Fig. 3D.
E.C. Bortolin, J. Weschenfelder, E.H. Fernandes et al. Sedimentary Geology 410 (2020) 105782

Table 1
Sediment composition of the selected stations for sediment quality environmental monitoring within each inferred mud-depocenter. The geographic coordinates are provided in the
supplementary material. The location of Patos stations are shown in Fig. 2B, while the location of Mirim stations can be consulted in Fig. 2 of Vieira et al., 2020. The depocenters and
monitoring sites are shown in Fig. 5C and D. The sedimentary facies were inferred following Blott and Pye, 2012. PM = Patos Mud-depoceneter, MM = Mirim Mud-depocenter,
PT = Patos station, ML = Mirim station.

Station Depocenter Geographic coordinate Mz Sand Silt Clay Inferred facies

system (phi) (%) (%) (%)

PT57 PMI −51.000000/ 7.7 0.1 58.1 41.8 Clayey silt

−30.500000
PT28 PMII −51.321667/ 9.17 4 31 65 Very slightly sandy silty clay
−31.280000
PT11 PMIII −51.700000/ 9.92 1 26 73 Very slightly sandy silty clay
−31.583000
ML30 MMIV −52,708901/ 7.89 0.8 56.3 42 Clayey silt
−32.472935
ML87 MMV −53.246943/ 8.21 1.9 51.5 46.4 Very slightly sandy clayey silt
−32.987371
ML131 MMVI −53.501871/ 8.32 15.3 24.2 60.5 Slightly sandy silty clay
−33.449969

The mean standard deviation for all Patos Lagoon samples is 2.06, and
the average of the asymmetrical parameter (SK) was 0.32. This analysis
excluded biogenic particles. Thereby, the gravel concentration at stations
PT2 through PT7, PT13, PT30, PT32, and PT47 consists of biogenic
particles. The western margins show standard deviation values slightly
higher than those of the eastern margins, being most evident at the fol-
lowing stations (SD/SK): PT19 (2.97/0.2), PT33 (3.84/0.24), PT55 (3.82/
0.38), PT 87 (3.12/0.44), PT89 (3.15/0.01), and PT99 (3.65/0.35). Stations
PT19, PT33, PT87, and PT89 are located next to the main drainage mouths
of Camaquã River, Velhaco Stream, and Guaíba River (Figs. 1, 3).
4.2. Current circulation patterns and intensity
Hydrodynamic model results are presented to show the
calculated surface current velocity vectors under maximum SW
(wind velocity 9.8 m.s−1, Fig. 4C) and NE (wind velocity 3.6 m.s−1,
Fig. 4A) winds during a one year (2002) simulation, together with
the corresponding mean frequency distribution (rose diagrams,
Fig. 4B) to illustrate the current magnitude (color scale) and
frequency of occurrence (%) for each current direction in each
transect.

Fig. 4. Calculated surface current velocity vectors at different Patos Lagoon regions for the maximum northeastern wind (C) and maximum southwestern wind (A) observed
during a one-year simulation period (2002). Center panels (B): monthly frequency distribution of surface currents for extreme North (transect T1), Central (transect T2), and
extreme South (transect T3) regions.

6
E.C. Bortolin, J. Weschenfelder, E.H. Fernandes et al. Sedimentary Geology 410 (2020) 105782

Fig. 5. Schematic representation of velocity vectors under SW winds on sediments arithmetic mean (Mz) to the whole PMS (A- top left), representation of velocity vectors under NE winds
on sediments arithmetic mean (Mz) to the whole PMS (B- top right), sedimentary facies interpreted to the whole PMS, within the mud depocenters (red line) and the environmental
monitoring stations (black dashed line) proposed (C- bottom left), representation of the mud depocenters with the respective stations through the PMS sectors evidencing the interactions
with suspended fine sediments (D- bottom right).

7
E.C. Bortolin, J. Weschenfelder, E.H. Fernandes et al.
Three distinct sectors namely North (T1), Central (T2), and South
(T3) were defined (Figs. 4A, B, C) based on the established circulation
patterns in response to the wind action represented by the vectors. Cur-
rent vectors show a clear response to the predominant wind direction
(i.e., NE and SW). Under maximum NE wind conditions, the natural out-
flow towards the coast is enhanced because wind action is aligned in the
same orientation of the lagoon maximum length axis. At the North cell,
currents at the eastern margin (0.4–0.6 m.s−1) were stronger than at
the western (0.1–0.2 m.s−1), but in the South cell, both margins exhib-
ited similar current speeds of 0.4–0.6 m.s−1. Weaker currents were cal-
culated in the middle sector of both cells (<0.1 m.s−1), where
concentric cells with less energy promote calm conditions for fine sed-
iment deposition. The Central cell showed a smaller cross-section and
displayed more homogeneous currents from margin to margin (0.1–
0.2 m.s−1). A similar behavior occurred under the maximum SW wind
conditions, but in the opposite direction and with stronger currents
throughout the whole system (Fig. 4A, C). At the North cell, currents
at the eastern margin (0.6–0.8 m.s−1) were stronger than at the west-
ern (0.4 m.s−1), and in the South cell both margins yielded comparable
currents ranging between 0.6 and 0.9 m.s−1, being stronger at the
Camaquã River mouth.
The rose diagrams represent the prevailing calculated mean surface
current for all the transect points (Figs. 4B and 5A, B). It is clear that the
circulation of the concentric cells calculated for a one-year period
(Fig. 4) promotes a wide range of current directions throughout the
transects, with the predominance of E-SE orientation in the North cell,
SW and E-S orientation in the Central and South cells, respectively. A
similar behavior throughout the Patos Lagoon cells is observed when
considering results from a five-year-long simulation (2002–2006, see
Supplementary Material 2), thus suggesting the maintenance of the cir-
culation patterns in all cells.
5. Discussion
5.1. Patos Lagoon
The natural outflow from Guaíba to Rio Grande is inhibited by ex-
treme SW winds, as noted by lowered velocities in Guaíba River
mouth from 0.5 to 0.2 m s−1, compared to NE winds results (see
vectors in Fig. 4A, C), but also by the increase in current velocities north-
wards, from 0.3 to 0.9 m s−1, in the southernmost sector (Fig. 4C) pro-
moting a barrier to the flow. Winter storms (SW winds) induce
turbulence, but these episodic events can be also intensified during
extratropical cyclones (Saraiva et al., 2003).
The surface currents develop concentric circulation cells accord-
ing to the direction of the winds. Such gyres show the highest veloc-
ities next to the shallow margins (0.9 m s−1), in contrast to lower
values in the inner zones. Considering the whole system, NE winds
generate well defined broad recirculation cells, less turbulent,
forming ideal low energy conditions necessary to settle mud in
depocenters (Fig. 4A), whereas SW winds create a large number of
smaller and more complex patterns (Fig. 4A, C), such less defined
pattern is likely to develop in response to a more chaotic wind
behavior during storm episodic events. The 3 m depth is the annual
average where the waves cause turbulent conditions, moving non-
consolidated sediment under oscillatory water waves, but during
strong wind events (>14 m.s −1 ) the movement of the orbital
waves reaches the entire water column in the lagoon, thus allowing
the transport of particles in suspension (Toldo et al., 2003).
An important amount of muddy sediments from the large drainage
basins feeding PMS is deposited in the central portion of the cells
(Bortolin et al., 2019). The silty fraction is predominant, mainly in the
northern cell of Patos Lagoon, thus suggesting that the clayey fraction
remains in suspension through such cell. Probably SW storm events
do not allow complete clay sedimentation, due to the large fetch that in-
fluences waves in this area (Fig. 3D), therefore clays tend to be
8
Sedimentary Geology 410 (2020) 105782
transported towards the Atlantic Ocean (Calliari et al., 2009). The floccu-
lation process due to brackish water intrusion in the estuarine region
settles part of the suspended clay at the southern cell of Patos Lagoon
(Toldo, 1994), increasing the rate of clay/silt.
The morphology of the cells influences the current direction and ve-
locities. The shallow margins show the highest speeds of surface cur-
rents as mentioned above, and differences were observed between
eastern and western margins. During SW intense events (Möller et al.,
1996), the eastern margin displays higher surface currents velocities
(~0.9 m s−1) in the northern part of the bay beach of each cell, that con-
forms to the southern portion of bank-spit structures (Fig. 4), where an
erosion pattern is observed (Miranda et al., 2019, 2020), what develops
low bathymetry regions next to the eastern margins (Fig. 2A). Wave
predictions developed by Toldo et al. (2003) estimate that the east
side of the Patos Lagoon received at least two times more wave energy
flux in comparison to the west side. The waves propagating across the
lagoon main axis undergo attenuation and refraction by the bank-spit
structure, such features promote a sheltering effect on its leeward side
(shadow zone) according to both dimension and orientation, working
as a natural protection for coast stability by reducing the energy
reaching the margins, especially during storms (Miranda et al., 2020).
These submerged banks are best marked in the western margins,
representing interfluves of paleovalleys (Bortolin et al., 2019), recog-
nized by Weschenfelder et al. (2014).
These velocities (~0.9 m s−1) are mainly recorded in just two regions
of western margins, i.e., around the Camaquã River mouth and
respective bank-spits, but also in the bank-spit where Transect 2 is set
(Fig. 4). The shallow area caused by bank-spit structures also changes
the orientation of the currents, according to the refraction principle
(Bortolin et al., 2019; Miranda et al., 2020). The narrow sectors of the la-
goon also promote higher current velocities in comparison to the
broader zones of the cells. This is the most noticeable next to the Guaíba
River mouth and in the extreme southern portion of the lagoon (Fig. 4A,
C). Transect 2 is the narrowest and agrees with this observation and the
corresponding rose chart shows the highest current velocity (Fig. 4B) in
comparison to T1 and T3, which reach 0.7 m s−1 towards NE and 0.4
towards SW.
The surface sediment composition and distribution are set in rela-
tion to the hydrodynamic conditions described above and show a
very well-developed surrounding sandy littoral zone (Toldo et al.,
2003), especially all along the west margin. However, as also inferred
for Mirim Lagoon (Vieira et al., 2020), the composition and origin of
such sandy facies of both margins are different. The east littoral sand-
source consists of reworked material of the sand barrier formed dur-
ing the Pleistocene and contains well-sorted sand with very reduced
silt content (Vieira et al., 2020), while the west littoral sand is sup-
plied by both Camaquã and Jacuí River, but also Velhaco Stream
(Fig. 1), and therefore, such a sandy facies are very poorly sorted
(SD ≥ 2.97), as described by Martins et al. (1989). The internal
boundary of this surrounding external sandy facies extends up to
the 5 to 6 m isobaths (see the comparison between sedimentary fa-
cies and morphometry, Fig. 2A and C). The surface current speed at
the marginal areas shows maximum values flowing parallel to the
coast under either NE or SW wind dominance. The morphometric
and hydrodynamic setting promotes fine particle resuspension in
the margins (Toldo et al., 2003). Therefore, the shallow bathymetry
zone presenting particle resuspension is modulated by the interrela-
tion between morphometry and current speed, mainly parallel to the
maximum length axis. Similar environmental processes of resuspen-
sion have been inferred for Mirim Lagoon (Vieira et al., 2020) and
other similar shallow systems elsewhere (Naya et al., 2004). The cen-
tral sedimentary facies located below the 6 m isobath shows domi-
nance of clayey-silty sediments, where the current velocities are
clearly lower to those of the peripheral marginal zone (Fig. 4A, B,
C) thus generating calm water conditions. Satellite images (Fig. 3D)
show the highest values of total suspended solids within such a
E.C. Bortolin, J. Weschenfelder, E.H. Fernandes et al.
calm central region, and the combination of morphometry and cur-
rent velocity/direction promotes fine sediment fraction deposition,
where de mud depocenters are developed (Fig. 5C, D). Therefore,
Patos Lagoon shows similar processes modulating the interplay be-
tween surface sediment composition, morphometry, and hydrody-
namics, to those already inferred for Mirim Lagoon (Vieira et al.,
2020). The sediment bed composition depends on the water circula-
tion regime evolved from predominant wind exposure, which pro-
duces a littoral resuspension zone dominated by sand, and a central
deposition zone dominated by silt.
5.2. The definition of Holocene mud depocenters of the Patos-Mirim System
Both lagoons cover together a 500-km-long latitudinal section of the
South American continent, being the largest shallow system of the
world. The huge dimensions enable the development of stable Holocene
sedimentary structures at a geological scale, i.e., mud depocenters,
which source origin comes from three hydrographic basins (Fig. 1),
transporting and depositing fine material according to the interplay be-
tween hydrodynamic processes and bathymetry described above
(Toldo, 1991; Miranda et al., 2019, 2020; Vieira et al., 2020). Mainly
muds are settled in the central calm water deepest portions (≥5 m) of
this huge back-barrier system, and sandy sediments are deposited
along the shallow margins (≤5 m) where high energy hydrodynamic
conditions are observed (Figs. 3 and 5). The geographical distribution
of the main mud depocenters of Patos Lagoon indicates that there are
three depocenters (Fig. 5C), whose sediments contain on average a
low sand content, while muddy fractions defined as the combination
of silt and clay (Folk, 1954; Blott and Pye, 2012) account for 90%, located
in deep water portions.
The three main Patos Lagoon Mud-depocenters from north to south
were named as PMI, PMII, and PMIII (Fig. 5C, D, Table 1) following the
criterion that Mz value is equal to higher than 7.5. In PMI we inferred
dominance of the clayey silt facies (Mz = 7.7), whereas in PMII and
PMII we inferred silty clay facies (Mz = 8). Therefore, the depocenters
are well defined by their high Mz value but also by their finer sediment
composition as well. These deposits are developed beneath the base
level for wave action, usually limited by at least the 4 m isobath
(Toldo et al., 2006, 2006b). Similarly, using the same criterion, we iden-
tified three depocenters for Mirim Lagoon (see Fig. 3 in Vieira et al.,
2020, Table 1), which were also named from north to south as MMIV,
MMV, and MMVI (Fig. 5C, D) and whose sediment composition
corresponded to clayey silt and silty clay facies. The northeastern cell
is the largest section, reaching almost the maximum width of the lagoon
(~40 km). This cell is limited in the south by a bank-spit structure, acting
as an extension of the shallow (≤4 m isobath) sandy margins to the
inner muddy portion of depressed bathymetry (≥4 m). Southward,
there is an elongated body morphologic section, which is a relatively
narrower zone (~20 km), but also reaches >4 m in the deepest portions
(Fig. 1).
5.3. The depocenters as environmental monitoring sensitive sites
The thickest post-Last Glacial Maximum muddy deposits of Patos La-
goon were interpreted as depocenters by Bortolin et al. (2019), also ob-
serving the positive effect of the paleotopographic depressions (unfilled
paleovalleys) on the high fine fraction accumulation during sea-level ris-
ings. Mud depocenters occurring in depressions of coastal and continental
shelves exhibit a strong local morphology control and the aggradation of
such mud depocenters is often characterized by well stratified and lami-
nated records (Hanebuth et al., 2015; Bortolin et al., 2018). The stations
within the Holocene stable mud-depocenters showing the best sorting
of fine sediments, mainly clays, were selected as potential future environ-
mental monitoring sensitive sites because they exhibit the highest capac-
ity of chemical adsorption (Awad et al., 2019). The structure (hydrous
phyllosilicates) of clays makes them prone to ion exchange, retaining
9
Sedimentary Geology 410 (2020) 105782
the surrounding chemical elements, often non-biodegradable
contaminants as organic pollutants found in water bodies, such “as
hydrocarbons, aromatic compounds (e.g. phenols, bisphenyls), poly-
cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g. Naphtalene, phenantherene,
pyrene), pesticides, herbicides, pharmaceuticals, detergents, pro-
teins and plasticizers” (Awad et al., 2019). The importance of setting
sediment quality monitoring stations in the PMS is an extremely
timely contribution to the transboundary monitoring and manage-
ment of this huge geo-limnological system. In this sense, the
Global Environment Facility (GEF) has conferred a 5-yr-project (https://
www.thegef.org/sites/default/files/web-documents/10550_IW_PIF_v1.
pdf) upon Uruguay and Brazil, with the Food Agriculture Organization
(FAO) as executing agency, in partnership with Dirección Nacional de
Aguas (DINAGUA, Uruguay) and Agência de Desenvolvimento da Bacia
da Lagoa Mirim (ALM, Brazil).
Fig. 5C shows the mud depocenters (red line) and the identified
monitoring sub-area (black dashed line) for assisting the above-men-
tioned GEF-project. The Patos Lagoon presented the following stations
as the best monitoring sites (see Table 1, Fig. 5C, D): station PT57
(PMI), station PT28 (PMII), station PT11 (PMIII). Similarly, (Table 1,
Fig. 5C, D), from the 142 sediment sampling locations of Vieira et al.
(2020; Fig. 2), station ML30 (MMIV, Fig. 5C, D), station ML87 (MMV,
Fig. 5C, D) and station ML131 (MMVI) are the most appropriate sites
for monitoring sediment quality. Comparing the sediment grain size of
the inner areas and depocenters of both lagoons, the Patos Lagoon
holds slightly finer sediments than those of the Mirim Lagoon on the
order of 2 units of phi, as shown more clearly in Fig. 5A and B. In
terms of spatial distribution, the depocenters and fine-grained sedi-
ments with phi above 7.5 are larger in Patos Lagoon (Fig. 5C). Such fea-
tures reflect the dimension and consequently the hydrodynamics
related to the Patos and Mirim depocenters. Previous studies also iden-
tified the highest Holocene muddy sedimentation rates of Patos Lagoon
in the interior of the morphological cells, and others assessed anthropo-
genic pollution in the sediments of Patos Lagoon (Bortolin et al., 2019;
Bueno et al., 2019; Ivanoff et al., 2020). The present work provides a
guide to the following studies focused on contaminants associated
with sediments.
6. Concluding remarks
The inferred modern conditions for fine sediment deposition
and mud depocenter formation indicate a depth of about 5 m, below
the base level for wave action, and an associated current velocity of
0.1 m s−1, together with paleotopographic control.
The recognized mud depocenters are geological deposits
infilling paleotopographic depressions throughout the Holocene.
The morphometry was the main factor controlling the Holocene de-
velopment of mud depocenters in PMS in long-term periods, and
the hydrodynamic response to morphometry can be interpreted
as a short-term (current) conditioning to the suspended fine
particle.
Both resuspension and deposition zones are set parallel to the max-
imum length axis of the lagoons and they are distributed in relation to
the bathymetric features. Fine particles, mainly clays are trapped in
the determined mud depocenters or bypass to the ocean.
The findings of this paper also support the concluding remarks
of Vieira et al. (2020) about surface sediment composition in relation
to the water circulation regime, with a littoral resuspension zone
dominated by sand, and a central deposition zone dominated by
silt. Similarly, conditions for resuspension were a depth <5 m and a
current velocity of 0.2 m s−1. The six inferred depocenters are pro-
posed as sensitive sites for environmental monitoring for regional
management.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2020.105782.
E.C. Bortolin, J. Weschenfelder, E.H. Fernandes et al.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento
Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) for the research grants J. Weschenfelder
(Process No 301668/2017-5), F. García-Rodríguez (Process No 304007/
2019-6), Osmar O. Möller (302231/2010-2), E.E. Toldo (307143/
2017-1), and the LOAD Project - Long-term analysis of Suspended
Particulate Matter concentrations Affecting port areas in Developing
countries, sponsored by the Office of Naval Research (contract
N62909-19-1-2145). Special thanks to Grasiela L.L Pinho for motivation
to undertake this study. Eduardo Bortolin dedicates this paper to the
loving memory of his brother, Rafael Bortolin, who recently passed
away diving during an expedition in Colombia.
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