Sociology

General learning outcomes

Outline principles that define the SC of analysis --> demonstrate in research. SAQ

Sociocultural environment influences behaviour = long-term: our ways of thinking via schemas
(Bartlett 1932) and tendency to conform (Berry 1967) are determined by our sociocultural environment;
short-term: our immediate behaviour can vary based on situational factors (Hartshorne & May 1928).

Concepts of the individual and self are constructed (& human concept of self reflects group
membership) = social identity theory by Tajfel & Turner 1979 displayed as the minimal group
paradigm experimentally (Tajfel at al. 1971) and in reality via interviews (Howarth 2002).

Humans are social animals; feel a need to belong = they are drawn to relationships and naturally form
ingroups and outgroups via social identity theory: Howarth 2002 interview (adolescent girls from
Brixton found their origin positive, persons outside Brixton found living there negative); Tajfel et al.
1971 experiment (British schoolboys split randomly – immediately accepted identification with the
ingroup and displayed ingroup favouritism, outgroup discrimination, and sought positive distinctiveness
via a point system) – drawn to an arbitrary extreme with Billig & Tajfel 1973.

Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the SC level of analysis. ESSAY

Lab experiments testing a theory (Tajfel et al. 1971); focus-group interviews to see how it works in
practice (Howarth 2002); large-scale surveys or questionnaires to analyse entire social groups or a cross-
section.

Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the SC level of analysis. ESSAY

Issues with informed consent deception may be required common (Milgram 1974 obedience study,
which may have also caused psychological harm); promotion of stereotypes: cross-cultural studies (Berry
1967); encouragement of rating and arbitrary competition (debatable) Tajfel et al. 1971; working with
vicarious learning and/or with children is controversial (Bandura 1961).

Sociocultural cognition

Describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behaviour. SAQ

Attribution theory is based on the assumption that we are naïve scientists seeking to explain observed
behaviour = we feel that there are motives behind behaviour and try to understand them to predict future
behaviour … behaviour is governed by external situational factors and internal dispositional factors; the
fundamental attribution error is when we overestimate situational behaviour when judging others and
mistake it for dispositional characteristics (Ross et al. 1977 quiz experiment).

Hartshorne & May 1928 show that students who behaved dishonestly in one school setting were not
necessarily likely to be dishonest in other settings: Mischel 1968 thus claimed that behaviour is largely
situational by further finding a weak correlation between student conscientiousness in attending classes
on time vs submitting homework on time.

Discuss two errors in attribution. ESSAY

Self-serving bias: success is attributed as being caused by the actor, but failure as caused by the situation
(is a distracting, false assessment, yet the lack of it often means depression) – Lau & Russell 1980 in
athletics; Bernstein et al. 1979 among students.

It is argued whether SSB serves to promote self-esteem or is simply a rational evaluation of a situation.
Miller & Ross 1975 believe the latter, whereas Zuckerman 1979 sees it as dependent on the desire to
maintain self-esteem. Building on the latter, SSB tendencies may be determined by emotional state (bad
mood may reverse the attributional pattern). Cross-cultural studies also support the latter, as Heine et al.
1999 found that members of collectivistic cultures (Japan) are less likely to strive for positive self-esteem
than those from individualistic countries (USA), thus collectivists are not as prone to SSB.

Fundamental attribution error: overestimating situational behaviour when judging others, mistaking it
for dispositional: Ross et al. 1977 quiz.

As with SSB, FAE varies across individualist vs collectivist cultures. Norenzayan et al. 2002 showed that
Koreans tended to consider situational behaviour as well as dispositional whenever it was provided,
whereas Americans adhered mostly to dispositional attributions. If only character information was
provided, both adhered to the dispositional explanation. Thus both culture and available information
influences instances of FAE.

Evaluate social identity theory, making reference to two relevant studies. ESSAY

Framework developed by Tajfel & Turner (1979) = part of one’s self-concept in the context of social
group(s) with the value and emotional significance attached to them; division into ingroups (we) +
outgroups (them) with low perceived variability within a group, high perceived variability between
groups; positive distinctiveness = ingroup is superior as a result of social comparison … leads to
discrimination

Tajfel et al. (1971) schoolboy experiment (randomly divided, still showed ingroup favouritism). Howarth
(2002) interview, persons from Brixton found their origin positive, persons from outside Brixton found
living there negative.
It appears common in theory and practice and corresponds to our natural tendency to want to belong. The
negative aspects include arbitrary discrimination and stereotyping or excessive/hostile competition.

Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behaviour. SAQ/ESSAY

We learn stereotypes from (seemingly) expert voices (friends, media) when we have limited contact with
a social group. It functions as a heuristic (like schema) to categorize information and thus hasten
decision-making; allows for quick attribution processes; creates a sense of belonging by alienating the
stereotyped outgroup.

Katz & Braly (1933) asked university students to assert descriptions to persons of different ethnicities:
adhered to stereotypes (proved that they were learned); the study found that stereotypes are overly
simplified, differ interculturally, and are slow to change.

In terms of schemas, stereotypes are essentially energy-saving devices according to Macrae et al. 1994,
thus are naturally formed with limited information and may be initially harmless.

Social norms

Explain social learning theory --> reference two relevant studies. SAQ/ESSAY

In addition to classical and operant conditioning, social learning theory suggests that we can learn through
observation (vicarious learning), with perceived reinforcement/punishment. Bandura 1961 was
important in the understanding of vicarious learning of aggression, since it was originally thought that
watching violent behaviour would lessen aggression (concept of catharsis).

A real-life response to vicarious learning of aggressive behaviour was examined by Charlton et al. 2002.
Compared to Bandura 1961, their study had high ecological validity. It proposes that social and cultural
factors are intermediate in what is learned and what is thus exhibited – they must be motivated to display
learnt behaviour.

Discuss the use of compliance techniques. ESSAY

We employ them to persuade others to comply with our appeals. Foot-in-the-door = small request
(accepted) then large request (Freedman & Fraser 1966) … revolves around the reciprocity concept,
where we feel obliged to help once we’ve initially committed. Lowballing = small request (accepted) is
revealed to be worse (Burger & Cornelius 2003) … if individuals make an initial public commitment,
they are motivated to follow up regardless of whether the initial request conditions worsen. (Door-in-the-
face = large request (declined) then small request.)

Are useful in business, politics, or in personal life. FITD and lowballing work, as the persons cherish their
self-image and want to remain consistent to avoid cognitive dissonance.
 Evaluate research on conformity to group norms. SAQ/ESSAY

Normative conformity (desire to fit in) X informational conformity (the group is an informational
authority). Asch 1951 showed that group pressure by a majority can lead a minority to conform under
unambiguous conditions (NC). Sherif 1935 showed that participants were led to comply when the
situation was ambiguous (IC).

Referent informational conformity = persons conform to their ingroup; they conform to the norm, and
the present ingroup is said norm’s medium (Abrams et al. 1990).

The findings must be considered with temporal and cultural variability. Berry 1967 found cross-cultural
differences in conformity comparing an African tribe with a Inuit group.

Discuss factors influencing conformity. SAQ/ESSAY

In normative conformity Asch 1951 manipulated private X public responses (private yielded much lower
rates of conformity), he also manipulated unanimity (when a naïve participant or confederate who did not
give false results was included, conformity decreased). Tendency to conform varies across cultures: Berry
1967 African tribe > Inuit group.

Cultural norms

Define the terms culture and cultural norms. SAQ

Culture = collective mental programming (attitudes, values, norms, behaviour) that guides a large group
and distinguishes itself from others, passed on by generations and gradually evolving.

Cultural norms = the specific rules that define a culture: a kind of social norm that covers a wider group
and may thus feel more fundamental and permanent

Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behaviour. ESSAY

Individualism vs collectivism. Individualistic cultures: emphasis on the individual; persons are

considered unique; autonomy, self-expression, competitiveness, and self-sufficiency are highly valued.
Collectivist cultures: emphasis on society; the self is seen only in context of relationships and
obligations; autonomy and self-expression not encouraged; more emphasis on group harmony rather than
individual achievement. Conformity: Berry 1967. Prosocial behaviour: Whiting & Whiting 1975;
Madsen et al. 2007.

Time orientation: whether cultural values are oriented short-term (present-oriented, impatient) vs long-
term (long-term obligations, avoid humiliation and value honour). Conflict solving: Basset 2004
(Australia vs China).
Emic and etic approach

Use examples to explain the emic and etic concepts. SAQ/ESSAY

Emic = focus on one culture, to understand its culture-specific behaviour; looking through the eyes of the
culture members (Yelsma & Athapilly 1988 – Indian arranged marriages vs love marriages). Etic =
cross-cultural comparison, general preconceptions established, and viewed in global context rather than
analysed separately (Berry 1967 – Asch replication African tribe vs Inuit group).