EARTH’S SCIENCE REVIEWER
weathering determines the degree of weathering
Lesson 1: Weathering and The Earth’s Interior
Weathering
• Breaking down or dissolving of rocks and
minerals on the surface of the Earth
Physical Weathering
• Physical disintegration and reduction in the size
of rocks without changing chemical composition.
• Frost wedging – water gets inside the crack and
freezes that wedge rocks apart until it breaks
• Salt crystal growth – force exerted by salt
crystals that formed as water evaporates from
pore or cracks in rocks that cause the rock to
break
• Abrasion – eroding or rocks by constant
collision
• Biological activity – plants and animals are
agent of weathering
• Exfoliation – rock breaks off into sheets along
joints which parallel the ground surface
Chemical Weathering
• Decomposes, dissolves, alters or weakens rock
through chemical processes
• Dissolution – disassociation of molecules into
ions (salt and calcite)
• Oxidation – reactions between minerals and
oxygen dissolved in water
• Hydrolysis – change in chemical composition
when reacts with water
• Acid in groundwater – stalactites (ceiling);
stalagmites (ground)
Factors That Affect Weathering
• Climate – cold and dry areas have slow rates of
chemical weathering (mostly physical); high
temperatures and rainfall chemical weathering
most active
• Rock type – minerals that constitute rocks have
different susceptibilities to weathering
(crystallizes first least resistant, crystallizes last
most resistant)
• Rock Structure – rate affected by presence of
joints, faults through which agents of weathering
enter a rock (more fracture rocks weathers faster)
• Topography – physical weathering occurs
quickly on steep slopes than gentle one
• Time – length of exposure to agents of
of a rock.
Internal Heat Sources of Earth
• Primordial Heat – heat produced during the
earth’s formation.
• Radioactive Heat – heat made by long-term
radioactive decay
• Geothermal gradient – temperature increases
with depth into Earth.
Why is Earth’s internal heat important?
• Heat inside Earth moves continents, builds
mountain and keep us alive.
How Do Scientist Study the Earth’s Interior?
• Seismic waves tell scientist a lot about what
materials make up the Earth.
• Seismic data reveal whether these materials are
liquid, solid, or partially solid.
• Seismometers – detects waves
How is the Earth’s internal heat redistributed?
• Convection – transfer of heat through a fluid
caused by molecular motion
• Conduction – transfer of heat from one
substance to another due to direct contact
• Radiation – energy transmitted to waves
Magma Formation
• Melting due to decrease in pressure – pressure
prevents atoms from breaking, if pressure
affecting mantle rock decreases while
temperature remains unchanged, magma forms
• Melting as a result to addition volatiles –
magma forms at location where chemicals called
volatiles mix with hot mantle rock
• Melting as a result of heat transfer from
rising magma – when magma from mantle rises
up, it brings heat with it. This heat raises the
temperature of the surrounding rock and this rock
begins to melt.
Different Places Where Magma Can Form Two Process When Magma Rises

• Mid-oceanic Ridge – the rising magma in 1. Ejected to surface through volcanoes.

mantle convection brings heat to the surface, 2. Solidifies within the shallow levels.
transferring heat to the overlying rocks.
Viscosity of Magma
• Mantle plumes (hot spots) – similar to mid-
oceanic ridges; the source of heat is much deeper • Mafic magma is less thick than felsic magma
• Subduction Zones – oceanic slab down-thrusted since it is hotter and contain less silica.
along subduction zone.

Bowen’s Reaction Series

Lesson 2: Magma and Metamorphism • Describes the sequence of mineral crystallization

in a cooling magma.
Parts of Volcano • Infer the temperature condition in which rock was
formed.
• Vent – opening surface
• Certain minerals are stable at higher melting
• Cone – volcanic shape
temperature and crystallizes before those stable at
• Crater – steep-walled lower temperature.
depression along volcanic vent
• A single parental magma can produce various
• Ash/dust/cinder – materials kinds of igneous rocks through magmatic
spewed out differentiation.
• Lava – magma that reaches
the earth’s surface
• Magma – hot liquid below the
earth
Composition of magma (terms)

• Buoyancy – less dense than the host rock

• Viscosity – measure of a fluid resistance to flow
Magmatic Differentiation Process
• Volatile – vaporizable materials present in
magma • Process of creating one or more secondary
• Fluidity – measure of the ease of flow magmas from a single parent magma.
• Density contrast – ability of magma to rise • Crystal Fractionation – chemical process by
through crust which composition of a liquid such as magma,
• Dissolve water – water dissolved by magma changes due to crystallization.
• Felsic – rich in SiO2; higher viscosity than mafic o Crystal settling – denser minerals
• Mafic – contains less silica; lower viscosity than crystallize first and settle down while the
felsic lighter minerals crystallize at the latter
• Magma chamber – large pool of liquid rock stage.
below earth
• Silica – SiO2; determines the viscosity and
thickness of magma
• Temperature – low temperature has higher
viscosity
 • Partial Melting – generates the magma that
cools to form crystalline rocks in the earth’s crust.
Quartz and Muscovite are most stable minerals at
earth surface making them the first to melt from
parent rock once exposed in higher temperature
and pressure.
o Basaltic Magma – partial melting of
ultramafic rock.
• Magma Mixing – occur when two different
magma rises, with more buoyant mass overtakes
the more slowly rising body. Convective flow
mixes two magmas generating a single
intermediate magma.
Metamorphic Rock
• Forms when the chemical composition of a rock
changes because of heat and pressure through
metamorphism.
• Metamorphism – recrystallization of minerals
due to change in temperature and pressure.
• Foliation – pervasive planar structure that results
from the nearly parallel alignment of sheet
silicate mineral.
• Foliated metamorphic rock – layered
appearance that is produced by exposure to heat
and directed pressure.
• Non foliated metamorphic rock – the minerals
are not arranged in stripes.
• Pelitic rock – term to applied to metamorphic
rocks derived from a fine-grained.
• Metamorphic Grade – pertains to the
temperature and pressure condition to which a
rock has been subjected during metamorphism.
Metamorphic Rock Texture
• Aphanitic – small crystals
• Phaneritic – large coarse crystals
• Pegmatitic – crystals larger than 3 cm/1.2 in
• Metamorphic rocks are classified according to
their texture. It exhibits a variety of textures.
• Protolith – original, unmetamorphosed rock
from which a given metamorphic rock is formed.
• Metamorphic facies – systematic way to
determine a potential range of pressure and
temperature conditions that were present when
rocks are formed.
Agents of Metamorphism
• High Temperature – minerals convert to new
high temperature minerals; crystals grow larger;
rocks become weaker and easier to deform.
• High pressure – minerals recrystallize into more
compact/stable forms; minerals may align.
Conclusion
Density contrast: magma less dense than the surrounding
country rock. Magma rises faster when the difference in
density between the magma and the surrounding rock is
greater. At deeper levels, magma passes through
mineral grain boundaries and cracks in the surrounding
rock. When enough mass and buoyancy is attained, the
overlying surrounding rock is pushed aside as the magma
rises. Depending on surrounding pressure and other
factors, the magma can be ejected to the Earth’s surface
or rise at shallower levels underneath. At shallower
levels, magma may no longer rise because its density is
almost the same as that of the country rock. The magma
starts to accumulate and slowly solidifies. Viscosity is a
measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Magmas with low
viscosity flow more easily than those with high
viscosity. Temperature, Silica content, and volatile
content control the viscosity of magma. Mafic magma
is less viscous than felsic magma because it is hotter and
contains less silica. Also, the volatiles in magma
decrease viscosity.