제6장 Dry Etching

6.1 Introduction

○ Dry etching이란 ?
- Etching is occurred in the gas phase, physically by ion bombardment, chemically by a chemical reaction with a
reactive species (radicals) at the surface, or combined physical and chemical mechanisms
- Most dry etching system finds their common bases in plasmas, areas of high energy electric and magnetic fields
that will rapidly dissociate any gases present to form energetic ions, photons, electrons, and highly reactive
radicals and molecules.

○ Radicals(기)
- Radical: 원자나 원자 등의 결합으로서 전기적으로는 중성이나 불완전한 화학적 결합을 하고 있는
상태이므로 다른 물질과 매우 잘 반응하는 성질을 가짐
- Radical의 예: fluorine(F), chlorine(Cl), H, O, CFx(x=1,2,3), F*, CF3*, etc.
- 첨자 ‘*’: 전자와의 충돌에 의해 보다 에너지가 높은 여기 상태로 된 radicals를 나타냄 (e.g., F*: F*
는 F보다 반응성이 더욱 큼)

○ Dry etching의 분류
- Physical etching: sputter etching (ion etching), ion beam milling
- Dry chemical etching: plasma etching, gas phase etching without plasma
- Physical-chemical etching: RIE (Reactive Ion Etching), ICP-RIE, etc.

6.2 Plasmas

6.2.1 Physics of DC Plasmas

○ Setup
- Opposed parallel plate electrodes in a chamber at low pressure, typically 0.001~1 Torr
- Chamber is filled with an inert gas such as Ar
- e.g., Applying 1.5kV between the anode and cathode, separated by 15cm

Ions

Electrons

Ar+
e e
Cathode Anode
(-) Ar Ar (+)
e e
e
Ar+

Plasma
 Fig. Plasma의 형성 mechanism

○ Plasmas의 형성 mechanism
- Glow 방전 형성원리: 양극과 음극간에 고전압(e.g., 1.5kV)인가 → 높은 electric field 발생(e.g.,
100V/cm) → 가스내의 소량의 electron들이 electric field에 의해 양극을 향하여 가속되어 Ar atom에
충돌 → Ar atom을 secondary free electron과 positive ion으로 해리시킴 → 이 발생된 secondary electron
과 기존의 electron은 재차 가속되어 Ar atom에 부딪혀 Ar atom을 해리시킴 → 반복 → creating an
avalanche of ions and electrons that results in a gas breakdown emitting a characteristic glow → electron은 양
극으로, ion은 음극으로 이동, 즉 전류가 흐름 → 두 전극간 전압은 강하함 (e.g., from 1.5kV to
150V)
- To sustain a plasma: Ar ion hits cathode → 음극에서 secondary electron이 튀어나옴 → 이 electron이 Ar
gas에 충돌하여 해리시킴 → 계속해서 이온은 음극에 부딪치고 음극으로부터 secondary electron이
튀어 나옴 → 반복 → 안정적인 plasma를 유지

○ Plasma내에서 일어나는 반응
- ①~⑤는 플라즈마를 발생시키는데 기여하고 ⑥~⑦은 플라즈마 입자들의 소멸에 기여하는 반응임
(A, B: 기체원자)
① Excitation(여기) e + A2 → A2* + e
② Dissociation(해리) e + A2 → A + A + e
③ Ionization(이온화) e + A2 → A2+ + 2e
④ Dissociative ionization(해리이온) e + A2 → A+ + A + 2e
⑤ Dissociative attachment(해리부착) e + A2 → A- + A+ + e
⑥ Ion-ion recombination A- + B+ → AB
⑦ Electron-ion recombination e + A+ → A
- 반도체 공정에서 이용되는 플라즈마의 경우, 일반적으로 매우 낮은 이온화도(이온과 중성입자의
비는 10-4~10-6. 즉, 챔버내의 대부분의 구성물질은 중성입자로 되어 있음)를 가진다. 또한, 하전입
자의 에너지가 비교적 낮고, 플라즈마(양이온과 전자 및 음이온)의 밀도는 109~1012cm-3의 범위를
가진다.

○ Voltage distribution in Plasma

 Anode Cathode

V Vp

0
Glow

Electrons Ions

Ve

Plasma sheath
(dark space)

Fig. Voltage distribution in a DC plasma[1]

- Why positive voltage Vp in glow 방전영역 ?

for a random velocity distribution, the flux of ions, ji , and electrons je , is given by:
ni , e vi , e
ji , e =
4
where n and v are the densities and average velocities, respectively.
Mass of ions >> that of electrons (4,000 to 100,000 times heavier) → ve >> vi → je >> ji → plasma loses
electrons to the wall (anode) very fast, thereby acquiring a positive charge.
(부연설명: 플라즈마 내의 전자는 이온에 비해 매우 가벼우므로 운동속도가 빨라 양극으로 빨리
빠져나가나, 이온은 무거우므로 천천히 음극을 향해 움직임 → 어느 순간에 glow 방전영역을
보면 양이온이 전자보다 많이 존재함. ∴positive voltage Vp)
- Why plasma sheath(덮개) near Anode ? Electron 이 양극 가까이 있으므로 Ar 원자에의 충돌 전에 양
극에 흡수되어 버림
- Why plasma sheath near Cathode ? Cathode로부터 튀어나온 electron의 속도가 아직 느려 그 에너지가
작으므로 Ar 원자에 electron이 충돌해도 Ar 원자의 해리가 발생하지 않아 plasma가 형성되지
않음

○ Paschen’s curve
- The degree of ionization in a plasma depends on a balance between the rate of ionization and the rate at which
particles are lost by volume recombination and by losses to the walls of the apparatus
- Wall losses generally dominate over volume recombination
- Gas의 breakdown 발생에 영향을 주는 인자: gas pressure(particle density), electric field strength(electron
velocity), etc
- Paschen curve: DC breakdown voltage (V) as a function of gas pressure (P) and electrode spacing (d) for plane
parallel electrodes in air
 A ⋅ ( Pd )
V=
ln( Pd ) + B
where, A and B are constants
 Why sharp rise in the breakdown voltage at the left side ?
1. Too small electrode spacing, or too low gas density → electron are lost to walls without colliding with gas
atoms to produce ionization
 Why slow rise in the breakdown voltage at the right side ?
1. Too large electrode spacing → the electron energy is too low to cause ionization
2. At high pressures → too frequent electron collisions with gas atoms → electron can not gather sufficient
energy to ionize the atoms

○ Comments
- Plasma 안에 반응성 neutral gas를 주입하면 electron과의 충돌에 의해 높은 반응성을 가지는 free
radicals(e.g., F*, CF3*)을 생성함. 이 reactive radicals는 substrate와 화학반응을 일으켜 volatile
products(evaporate됨)를 생성하여 substrate를 화학적으로 etching하게 됨; chemical etching
- The substrate to be etched is placed on the cathode (target) in an Ar plasma → Ar ions bombard the substrate
surface because of the high plasma sheath potential (Vp-Ve) → the atoms of substrate are billiard ball-wise
ejected from the surface; physical etching (sputter etching or ion etching)
- In physical etching, 가스압력의 증가 → 이온의 mean free path의 감소 (∵이온이 음극에 도달하기 전
다른 gas species와 더 많이 부딪히게 됨) → 이온의 kinetic energy 감소 → etching 효율이 저하
- DC plasma의 경우, 음극은 반드시 도체이어야 함
∵Target에 도달한 ion의 중성화와 secondary electron의 발생으로 인한 양전하의 전기적 중화를 위
해서는 음극으로부터 전자를 공급받아야 하는데 목표물이 부도체인 경우 전자를 공급받을 수
없음. 따라서, target의 전위가 높아져 음극으로서의 기능이 상실되므로 플라즈마가 지속되지 못
함.
- 전자의 경우, 양극을 때리나 전자는 질량이 매우 작으므로 양극은 닳지 않음

6.2.2 Physics of RF Plasmas

○ Setup
- One of the two electrodes is capacitively coupled to the RF generator
- RF(Radio Frequency, 교류 13.56MHz, 1-2kW) voltage is applied between the two electrodes

○ Plasmas 형성 mechanism
- RF 전압으로 인해 electron은 상하 전극간을 full로 왕복하며 gas molecules을 때려 해리시켜 plasma
를 형성시킴
* RF-excited discharges can be sustained without relying on the emission of secondary electrons from the
electrode (cathode)

○ Self-bias voltage의 형성 mechanism

- RF voltage로 인해, 전자 뿐만 아니라 이온도 상하운동을 하게 되나 이온의 경우 무거우므로 그 운
동의 진폭은 작음
- Electron의 경우, 그 질량이 작으므로 상부 및 하부전극을 때리게 되는데, 하부전극(Fig.의 anode)에
 닿은 것은 ground로 빠져나가나 capacitor에 연결되어 있는 상부전극에 닿은 것은 전극에 charging
되어(no charge can be transferred over the capacitor) 상부전극은 하부전극에 대해 cathode가 됨 (이를
self-bias라 함) → 그 전에는 작은 상하운동만을 반복하던 이온들이 음전압을 가지게 된 cathode를
향하여 이동하여 cathode를 때림
→ Cathode에 에칭할 substrate(target)를 장착하면 substrate가 etching됨
* 이러한 self-bias 현상으로 인해 RF plasma를 이용하는 경우, metal 뿐만 아니라 절연체(dielectrics)
의 sputtering도 가능함

Substrate holder for ion etching Matching network

Ground shield

Cathode
(RF electrode with target) 13.56MHz
RF Generator,
1-2kW
Anode

Substrate holder for deposition Vacuum chamber wall

Fig. Two electrode set-up for RF ion sputtering or sputter deposition. For ion sputtering, the substrates are put on the
cathode (target); for sputter deposition, the substrates to be coated are put on the anode[1]

6.3 Physical Etching: Sputter Etching (Ion Etching) and Ion Beam Milling

6.3.1 Introduction

○ Principle of ion etching or sputter etching (DC or RF)

- With ions of sufficient energy, impinging vertically on a surface, momentum transfer (sputtering) causes bond
breakage and ballistic material ejection, throwing the bombarded material across the reactor (if necessary, to
deposit on an opposing collecting surface), provided the surrounding pressure is low enough

○ Various physical processes

- Ion energy는 substrate 표면에서 발생하는 event의 종류를 결정
- A low pressure and a long mean free path are required for material to leave the vicinity of the sputtered surface
without being backscattered and redeposited.
 Incident ion(Ar+) Reflected ion or neutrals

Sputtered atoms

Implantation

Fig. Various reaction of ions according to ion energies

6.3.2 Sputtering or Ion Etching

○ Characteristics
- Volatility of the etch products is not critical as for dry chemical etching (only a billiard ball effect plays a role in
physical etching)
- No large differences in etch rates for different materials (sputter yield for most materials are within a factor of 3)
- Directional anisotropy
- Etch rate is slow, typically a few hundred Å/min → to increase the etch rate, a magnetron is used
· Most electrons do not cause ionization events with Ar atoms. they end up being collected by the anode, where
they cause unwanted heating → A magnetron adjusts this situation by confining the electrons with magnetic
fields near the target surface
· In DC(RF) magnetron sputtering, magnet is usually installed above the cathode → 전계와 직교하는 방향
으로 자계를 가하면 방전가스내의 전자가 자계의 작용으로 자계와 수직인 면내에서 회전운동
(사이클로이드(cycloid)운동)을 한다(Appendix G 참조). 따라서 전자가 Ar 가스분자와 충돌하는 횟
수가 증가하여 이온화의 효율이 향상되어 이온수가 증가한다. 이 때문에 저압에서도 방전이 일
어나고 에칭(증착)속도가 빨라진다.
· In Current densities at the target can increase from 1 mA/cm2 to 10~100 mA/cm2.
- Sputter etching is nonselective → masking problem
- Surface damage from ion bombardment

6.3.4 Etching Profile in Physical Etching

○ Etching profile
- No undercutting of the mask but the walls of an etched cut are not necessarily vertical

○ Some problems in physical etching

1. Faceting due to angle-dependent sputter rate
 Fig. Faceting. Sputtering creates angled features[1]

- The corner of the mask, always a little rounded even when the mask walls are very vertical, etches faster than
the rest
→ Faceting at the mask corner arises
∵The sputter yield for materials usually is a function of the angle at which ions are directed at the surface.
For example, the etch rate of resist reaches a maximum at an incidence angle of about 60° (more than
twice the rate at normal incidence)
→ Sloped mask sidewalls may eventually be followed by sloped etch steps in the substrate
- The faceting is more pronounced with an applied bias due to increased electric field at corners
- To minimize the faceting
① Making the mask sufficiently thick
② Making a more ideal resist profile, with very little rounding of the mask corners
(Control of post-baking temperature → prevention of rounding of the resist features due to the reflow of
resist)

2. Redeposition
① Involatile species sputtered from the bottom of the trench settle on the sidewalls of the mask and etched
trench → sidewalls is tapered and the width of trench becomes narrower → ditching 발생 and 높은 종횡
비(>1)를 가지는 trench의 etching이 난이함
② backscattering에 의한 redeposition
- A fraction of the sputtered species is backscattered onto the substrate after several collisions with gas-phase
species → contaminants from the walls and fixtures in the vacuum chamber may be involved
- Significant redeposition take place at pressures as low as 10 mTorr ← upper pressure limit

2. Ditching (Trenching)
- The side wall of the mask or substrate has a slight taper → some of the ions collide with the sides → the ions
are reflected from the sides → local increase of the etch rate in the vicinity of corners → ditching
* The cause of the sidewall taper: faceting or redeposition
- Ditching is a small effect (e.g., 5%) → if thick layers are not etched, ditching often goes unnoticed

○ Tilting and rotating configuration

- Why ? to obtain better etching profiles (to get the vertical sidewalls for HAR device)
- Effects
① The bottom of the step around unexposed sidewalls is shadowed → reduce trenching
② The sidewall exposed to ion beam etching exhibit combined etching and redeposition → reduce
redeposition in the sidewall
 참고문헌

<도서>
[1] Marc Madou, Fundamentals of Microfabrication, CRC Press, 1997
[2] Gregory T.A. Kovacs, Micromachined Transducers: Source Book, McGraw-Hill, 1998
[3] S. Fatikow and U. Rembold, Microsystem Technology and Microrobotics, Springer, 1997
[4] R.C. Jaeger, Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1988
[5] 황호정, 반도체 공정기술, 생능출판사, 1999
[6] 반도체(공정 및 측정), 전자자료, 1994
[7] 김용권역, 마이크로머신의 세계, 대명사, 1995
[8] 이덕출, 황명환역, 고전압 플라스마 공학, 동일출판사, 1999
[9] 이문희편저, 실리콘테크놀로지, 청문각, 2002
[10] 한병성, 이현수, 박성진, 반도체공학, 동일출판사, 2002
[11] 일본전기학회, 전기자기학, 일본전기학회, 1992

<논문>
[12] “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom”, A talk given by R. P. Feynman on December 26, 1959, at the Annual
Meeting of the American Physical Society at Caltech. (Reprinted in Journal of Microelectromechanical
Systems, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 60-66, March 1992.)
[13] W. S. N. Trimmer, “Microrobots and Micromechanical Systems”, Sensors and Actuators, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp.
267-287, Sep. 1989.
[14] L.-S. Fan, Y.-C. Tai, and R. S. Muller, “IC-Processed Electrostatic Micro-motors”, IEEE Int. Electron Devices
Meeting, pp. 666-669, Dec. 1988.