Journal of Energy Chemistry 78 (2023) 507–525

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Energy Chemistry

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jechem

Review

Towards a business model for second-life batteries – barriers,

opportunities, uncertainties, and technologies
Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior a,d, Eleonora Riva Sanseverino b, Pierluigi Gallo b,c, Daniel Koch d, Yash Kotak d,
Hans-Georg Schweiger d, Hudson Zanin a,⇑
a
Advanced Energy Storage Division, New Energy Innovation Center, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas 13083-852, Brazil
b
Engineering Department, University of Palermo (UNIPA), Palermo 90128, Italy
c
Consorzio Nazionale Interuniversitario per le Telecomunicazioni (CNIT), Parma 43124, Italy
d
Technische Hochschule Ingolstadt, Institute for Electric, Connected and Safe Mobility (C-ECOS), Ingolstadt 85049, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Electric vehicles (EVs) and the recent pandemic outbreak give cities a new trend to primarily private and
Received 29 September 2022 shared mobility with low noise and less air pollution. Crucial factors for the widespread of EVs are the
Revised 25 November 2022 electrical charging infrastructure, driving range, and the reduction of the cost of battery packets. For this
Accepted 7 December 2022
reason, there is a massive effort from manufacturers, governments, and the scientific community to
Available online 2 January 2023
reduce battery costs and boost sustainable electrical production and distribution. Battery reuse is an
alternative to reduce batteries’ costs and environmental impacts. Second-life batteries can be used in a
Keywords:
wide variety of secondary applications. Second-life batteries can be connected with off-grid or on-grid
Business models
Batteries
photovoltaic and wind systems, vehicle charging stations, forklifts, and frequency control. The present
Sustainability work aims to analyze the main challenges imposed on the reuse of batteries, the leading technologies
Electric vehicles for their reuse, and the different types of batteries in terms of their feasibility for second-life use. The
Challenges main novelty of this work is the discussion about the barriers, opportunities, uncertainties, and technolo-
Opportunities gies for the second life market. Here we summarize the present state of the art in reusing lithium-ion bat-
Lithium-ion batteries teries discussing technical and economic feasibility, environmental impacts, and perspectives. The results
Reuse show five business models that have been proposed in the literature, three types of markets for trading
second-life batteries, and the main opportunities and barriers for each actor in the battery supply chain.
Ó 2022 Science Press and Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Published
by ELSEVIER B.V. and Science Press. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
2. Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
3. Business models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
3.1. Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
3.2. Market types for trading second-life batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
3.3. Opportunities for key players in the second-life battery supply chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
3.4. Main typologies of business models proposed in the literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
3.5. Key uncertainties and barriers in the second-life battery market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
3.6. Projects and success stories focusing on second-life batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
3.7. Key players . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
3.8. Costs involved in reusing batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
4. Second-life application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
4.1. Off-grid applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
4.2. Energy arbitrage (on-grid application). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hzanin@unicamp.br (H. Zanin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2022.12.019
2095-4956/Ó 2022 Science Press and Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Published by ELSEVIER B.V. and Science Press. All rights reserved.
Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior, E. Riva Sanseverino, P. Gallo et al. Journal of Energy Chemistry 78 (2023) 507–525

4.3. Area and frequency regulation (on-grid application) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520

4.4. EVs (mobile application) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
4.4.1. EV charging station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
4.4.2. Shorter-range trip and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
5. Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
5.1. Main findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
5.2. Comparison with other studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
5.3. Implication and findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
5.4. Strengths and limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
6. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Declaration of competing interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523

1. Introduction ipated in the upcoming years. Consequently, increased consump-

Petroleum is a commodity present in a significant portion of the
international trade balance of several countries that depend on
that. The control of petroleum reserves and the related business
chain is a multitrillion market, which has caused many conflicts
and wars around the world. Especially in the last decades, where
an incredible number of flights had crossed continents, and the
massive production and selling of internal combustion engines
took place (i.e., in 2019, it was commercialized 80 min) [1].
Several societies have to look for renewable energy sources,
focusing on the alternatives to petroleum dependence and mitiga-
tion of greenhouse gas emissions and recent events that are chang-
ing the course of history. In a scenario with abundant energy
produced from highly variable renewable energy, an Energy Stor-
age Systems (ESS) is mandatory for stationary and non-stationary
applications. For non-stationary applications, especially for Electric
vehicles (EVs), the battery is still the most expensive component.
Despite recent advances in recent years, batteries still account
for 2/3 (two-third) of the total cost of a vehicle [2–5]. Last year
EVs represented 9% of all vehicles sold [1]. Several countries are
focused on increasing the percentage of vehicles sold globally.
New research is needed to reduce the time-to-market of batteries
by reducing the cost and testing time of batteries, developing new
materials, and expanding public tax incentives policies. Within the
battery sector, there are several points of concern at the level of
scientific development, such as safety, long service life, materials
use, and recycling/post-use. After all, academia, industry, and cus-
tomers desire safe electric vehicles that do not explode in accidents
and have a long driving range. Batteries are collected, reused, and
recycled after no longer meeting the minimum requirements to
operate in an application. Several companies are interested in
investigating the reuse of batteries as a disruptive solution for elec-
tric vehicles and ESS’s, reducing dependence on oil and gas, making
the energy matrix of countries cleaner and making batteries eco-
nomically viable [5,6].
The environmental issue is a severe one. Disposing of batteries
in inappropriate locations has serious implications as batteries can
contain heavy metals and toxic chemicals that can contaminate the
soil and harm the health of animals, plants and society. Unfortu-
nately, many batteries from several different applications are dis-
carded every day in the environment, causing enormous
environmental damage worldwide [7–9].
The ever-increasing adoption of EVs has triggered the debate
regarding the disposal of batteries. It is crucial to remember that
such a rise suggests a greater requirement for raw materials, par-
ticularly lithium and cobalt. This scenario leads to the rapid deple-
tion of these resources. So it is essential to mitigate the use of these
resources through recycling or reuse of batteries [10].
In spite of the Covid-19 economic crisis and the conflict
between Russia and Ukraine, more electric vehicle sales are antic-
tion of valuable metals that are used as raw materials in
batteries such as lithium, nickel, manganese and cobalt. The price
of these materials also tends to grow stimulated by the increase
in demand. Governments must adopt strategies to reduce depen-
dence on oil and these minerals essential components of ESSs.
One way to regulate is by encouraging recycling to be a profitable
business [10].
Moreover, many resources are devoted to developing more effi-
cient, cheaper, and longer-life batteries. Therefore, the early dis-
posal of batteries is a waste of resources, making their reusing
and recycling a way to reduce environmental impacts [11]. Because
of this, the literature has dealt with batteries disposal, their recy-
cling [12], reuse [13–15], and/or reassembly [16].
The recycling of lead-acid batteries is consolidated and focuses
on recovering the critical materials. However, lithium-ion battery
recycling technology is still in its infancy and needs to overcome
several barriers due to lack of standardization, economic uncer-
tainty, high energy densities, and intrinsic issues of the application
[11]. Cell disassembly has the following deficiencies indeed:
 Specialized recovery: few places have the proper technology to
recover the chemicals. For this reason, many batteries need to
be sent abroad for recycling, which could cause serious legisla-
tion problems;
 Economic unfeasibility: the cost of recovering the element is
still very high, which makes the cost of recycling higher than
the actual cost of raw elements;
 Waste of resources: undifferentiated disposal can eliminate
both good and bad cells.
 A lack of legislation in several countries still causes uncertainty
for businesses to develop.
The battery recycling process is not yet fully developed. It
depends on the chemistry of the batteries, the price of the raw
material, the legislation, and the method used. According to [17],
Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) are reluctant to invest
in battery recycling projects because chemicals and battery design
in general change constantly.
Manufacturers advise replacing Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs)
when their capacity reaches 70% to 80% of their rated values. It is
expected that below these limits, it will not be possible to guaran-
tee the safety, performance, autonomy and proper functioning of
the EVs [18]. For this reason, the reuse of batteries is a short-
term alternative for reducing the cost of batteries and increasing
battery lifetime, increasing revenue for battery manufacturers,
and mitigating possible environmental impacts [19]. In addition
to these advantages, the reuse of batteries is also an excellent busi-
ness opportunity to store electricity for a second use [1].
The reuse of batteries consists of applying pre-used batteries in
applications that require lower performance and gravimetric

508
Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior, E. Riva Sanseverino, P. Gallo et al.
energy density. Less demanding applications provide and store
energy quickly, such as fast-charging stations for EVs and grid
applications like frequency regulation and peak shaving. All these
applications have fewer constraints in terms of weight and volume.
In general, stationary systems can use second-life batteries [20]. In
several countries, there are already policies that encourage the
recycling of batteries, intending to provide alternatives to battery
waste and scarcity of resources while also supporting the reduction
of pollutant emissions [21].
The reuse and recycling of batteries is a central theme of several
studies in the literature. In recent years, a discussion of the busi-
ness models and decision-making factors in the second-life battery
market has increased its market share. Few studies, however, have
examined second-life batteries as a potential business model and
described the current state of the art on the technological and
financial viability of recycling electric car batteries. The present
work elaborates on new business models focused on second-life
batteries.
Section 2 in this paper explains the methodology adopted for
this review. The business models for second-life batteries are pre-
sented in Section 3. Section 4 shows the main applications of
second-life batteries and discusses about their technical and eco-
nomic feasibility. Section 5 is the discussion of the major findings
and Section 6 provides the conclusions of this research.
2. Method
This systematic review followed a rigorous protocol with the
objective of identifying the most relevant studies in the area and
making the research reproducible and without bias (please, see
Fig. 1). The review had four main phases, namely: (i) identification
of the primary questions that will be addressed by the research, (ii)
definition of inclusion and exclusion criteria for studies, (iii) sys-
tematic search and identification of literature studies, (iii) critical
evaluation and synthesis of related works, and (iv) comparison
and compilation of work data. The major findings of earlier
research in the literature are also highlighted. The StArt software
was used as a tool in all the aforementioned steps to review the lit-
erature in a systematic and organized way. ATLAS.ti software was
used to import scientific articles, analyze and compile the concepts
presented in each article.
Fig. 1. Flowchart with the protocol adopted in this systematic review.
509
Journal of Energy Chemistry 78 (2023) 507–525
The research questions were defined and a protocol was devel-
oped to identify the most relevant studies in the literature. The sys-
tematic search in the databases was performed by executing
strings and combining the following keywords: ‘‘Business Models
& ‘‘Second-Life Batteries”, ‘‘Second-Life Batteries”, ‘‘Sustainable
Business Models & Electric Vehicles Batteries” and ‘‘Second-Life
Batteries & Electric Vehicles”. Fig. 2 shows that the number of pub-
lications that relate to sustainable business models with electric
vehicle batteries is increasing. Despite this, the number of publica-
tions focusing on business models for second-life batteries is still
low. This systematic review aims to contribute to filling this
research gap.
Primary and secondary studies available in the following data-
bases were considered: Web of Science, Science Direct, Springer,
and IEEE Xplore. All databases selected for this systematic review
have papers in English in the area of engineering, computing, and
sustainability. In addition, all articles included in this systematic
review were peer-reviewed. The criteria for the inclusion and
exclusion of each paper in the systematic review are presented in
Table 1.
3. Business models
3.1. Concepts
This subsection aims to address concerns regarding sustainable
business models focused on battery reuse, such as ‘‘What is a busi-
ness model?”, ‘‘Which value propositions, value chain, and how to
capture value by reusing batteries?”, ‘‘Which are the target cus-
tomers for the second-life battery market?”, ‘‘How to market
second-life batteries?”, ‘‘What are the main requirements of a plat-
form to sell batteries online and increase customer confidence in
second life batteries?”, ‘‘Which are the main types of markets
and transactions that can exist in the second-life market?” and
‘‘Which are the main uncertainties in the second-life market?”.
The concept of business models may differ according to context
and therefore numerous definitions have been given to the term
‘‘business models”. The choice of each definition will depend on
the context in which that term is applied. In general, Business
models are widely used to analyze and communicate the essence
of a business. Therefore, they must be scalable and repeatable.
Companies that adopt this business model must be able to supply
products or services in large quantities, with productivity gains
[22].
Several authors have defined the term ‘‘business model”.
Among them, in ref. [23], the term business model was defined
as ‘‘An architecture for the flows of products, services, and informa-
tion, including a description of the various business actors and
their roles, a description of the potential benefits for the business
actors and descriptions of the sources of revenue”. Another defini-
tion for the term is presented in [24], as ‘‘the gathering of orga-
nized flows related to value, revenue, and logistics”. The
definition adopted in this systematic review is presented in [25]
where ‘‘a business model generally describes how an organization
creates, delivers, and captures value”.
Companies seek to identify the risks and opportunities of a
business through a business model. From this, it is possible to
know the strengths and weaknesses of a business, the main com-
petitors and develop strategies to plan to positively impact the bat-
tery sector [26,27]. The tool known as the canvas business model is
used for strategic planning [26,27].
The world crisis scenario was aggravated by the pandemic
caused by SARS-COV-2 and the war between Russia and Ukraine.
This has motivated companies to seek new ways to increase their
economic revenues and new viable business models that produce
Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior, E. Riva Sanseverino, P. Gallo et al.
Fig. 2. Number of articles published over the years in the databases used in this systematic search for each of the keywords.
Table 1
Inclusion or exclusion criteria for this systematic review.
Inclusion Exclusion
Sustainable business models focused on The full paper is not
battery reuse. publicly available.
Second-life batteries applications Do not describe sustainable
business models.
Describe less demanding application
requirements for second-life batteries.
innovation and meet social and environmental needs, increasingly
stimulating a sustainable economy [26,27].
3.2. Market types for trading second-life batteries
The used auto parts market can be used to compare the second-
life battery market, and there may be relationships that involve dif-
ferent companies, companies and their customers and between
individual and independent consumers [28]. The work presented
in [28] investigated how these relationships can occur in three sce-
narios (please see Fig. 3). After collection, the OEM can sell second-
life batteries or reuse them in less demanding applications, selling
the final product built with the second-life battery. The closed
market model is expected to be adopted because battery and auto-
mobile manufacturers may not be interested in sharing data and
lose competitive advantages. In this case, the relationships estab-
lished by the business model will be between customer/company
and company/customer [28]. However, blockchain technology
can increase trust and security in sharing and protecting data
and allow new business models to emerge. Therefore, further
research is expected that investigates blockchain technology as a
way to resolve conflict of interest issues in the supply chain,
510
Journal of Energy Chemistry 78 (2023) 507–525
increase customer confidence in purchasing a used product, and
increase supply chain transparency through battery traceability
[29].
Business models presented in [28] show that the OEM can rent
or lease the batteries for owners to use in EVs in the closed market.
In this market model, after the batteries no longer have the neces-
sary requirements to operate in a vehicle, the OEM will collect the
battery, test, classify and reuse these batteries in a second applica-
tion [28]. In this type of business model, battery or automobile
manufacturers are expected to be responsible for battery recycling.
Companies that prioritize protecting their technology will adopt
this business model and are interested in profiting from the second
life market and recycling. Therefore, these companies will need to
develop their recycling processes or hire the service of a third-
party company to recycle the battery.
In the intermediate market model, the OEM can make coopera-
tion agreements so that logistics companies are responsible for col-
lecting batteries and/or with other energy storage companies to
distribute and develop storage systems built with used batteries
or EV charging stations. In this scenario, a company will be the
intermediary between the OEM and the customer. OEMs can fully
or partially share their knowledge, data and the uncertainties of
the second-life battery business with intermediaries or simply sell
second-life batteries [28]. According to [30], transferring owner-
ship of used batteries to an intermediary company may involve dif-
ferent risks for both the OEM and the intermediary company. The
OEM runs the risk of losing control of the used EV battery market,
data leakage, the ‘‘know-how” of its technology, and the risk of
damage to its brand in an accident or low performance. The inter-
mediary company can buy batteries whose quality and perfor-
mance may not be as expected, and the company is dependent
on the OEM. It may not be sure of the number of batteries available,
the quality, or the performance. Therefore the contract must be
Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior, E. Riva Sanseverino, P. Gallo et al.
Fig. 3. Different battery marketing scenarios proposed in [28].
well-drafted, if possible, on a secure platform to guarantee the
right of both parties [30].
The open market model can have a market operator providing
an online platform to connect customers and sellers and manage
inventory according to the supply and demand of second-life bat-
teries [31]. The market operator is the intermediary of the battery
trade. Therefore, profit is earned as a percentage that can be calcu-
lated based on transaction value, number of batteries sold, fre-
quency of sales, or both [28]. According to the research [32], only
21.95% of the analyzed manufacturers offer a platform capable of
assisting customers in specifying the ESS before purchase.
The open market will be a challenge without blockchain tech-
nology to protect sellers and consumers from opportunistic behav-
ior. The difficulty of pricing a battery individually is increased due
to the need to know the history of each battery because batteries
age differently when subjected to the same operating conditions.
This adds some uncertainty about the performance, lifetime, relia-
bility and safety of a battery in a secondary application. In addition
to being dangerous equipment whose handling and transportation
require specific knowledge, EV batteries also have encryption com-
ponents to protect data [30]. Therefore, it is difficult for EV owners
to market these batteries to each other. European legislation gives
batteries owners the responsibility to recover used EV batteries,
making it even more difficult for EV owners to trade in second-
life batteries [33].
3.3. Opportunities for key players in the second-life battery supply
chain
Considering these closed, intermediate, and open market mod-
els, we can mention some opportunities for OEMs, intermediate
companies, and companies, as shown in Table 2.
3.4. Main typologies of business models proposed in the literature
In ref. [34], the authors identified five typologies of business
models (being a traditional business model, three collaborative
business models, and an integrative business model) for second-
life batteries (please see Fig. 4). The authors present a deep discus-
sion of the benefits and risks of each business model for each of the
actors in each scenario. However, a comprehensive study is still
needed on the costs involved in each scenario.
The OEM transfers ownership and responsibility for the second-
life battery to another company in the standard business model. In
this scenario, the main risk for the OEM is to jeopardize the ‘‘know-
how” of the market. However, the OEM will avoid the risks and the
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Journal of Energy Chemistry 78 (2023) 507–525
Table 2
Opportunities for OEMs, intermediaries, and second-life ESSs manufacturers.
OEM
Opportunities Ref.
Postponement of the recycling phase. [17,34,35]
Use of the remaining capacity of EV batteries. [17]
It increased battery life. [17]
Reuse can help OEM companies ‘‘buy time” to develop their [34]
recycling infrastructure.
Intermediary companies
Acquisition of low-cost batteries and sufficient performance to [17,36]
meet a less demanding application than the operation in EVs
Sale, rent, or lease of the second-life batteries. [17,28]
Intermediary companies can act as intermediaries to [17,28]
remanufacture EV batteries and make them available for
reuse. These companies earn profits within the battery
market by incorporating second-life batteries into products or
by performing battery logistics and acting as an interface
between OEMs and end customers.
Act as service providers to disassemble, test and remanufacture [17,28]
batteries
Recycling companies
Recycling companies can act by recycling batteries through [17,28]
efficient recycling processes. These companies make profits in
the battery market by incorporating the extracted raw
material into new products.
need for investment in this market. For the intermediary company
that buys second-life batteries to insert them into a new product,
the risk is that second-life batteries will run out in the future
and the lack of access to battery data will imply a large cost of test-
ing and remanufacturing the product, making the reuse of batteries
economically unfeasible. In scenarios where there is no data shar-
ing, companies are forced to test the second-life battery to know
the actual condition of the battery, increasing the cost and time-
to-market of the product. These factors can make the product
unfeasible because a new battery technology can emerge with bet-
ter performance, reliability, security, and cheaper [37].
In collaborative business models, companies are expected to
share data and the recycling responsibility/expenses, risks and
profits of this multi-million market. Blockchain technology can
increase trust and transparency in this scenario. Finally, there is
complete integration between the OEM and the systems integrator
in integrative business models [37].
The trade-in used EV batteries are hampered because customers
seek guarantees regarding their performance, quality, durability,
and safety. Battery manufacturers and/or car manufacturers want
Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior, E. Riva Sanseverino, P. Gallo et al.
Fig. 4. Schematic typology of B2U business models. Adapted from [34].
to protect their brand, and an accident involving their battery can
lead to a moral hazard [30]. Therefore, protecting battery data and
storing that data in an immutable, authenticatable and secure way,
as well as implementing both parties’ consensus in smart contracts
will reduce conflict of interest issues.
The first step in developing a business strategy is to identify the
group of people who would purchase products made with second-
life batteries as the target market. The reuse of batteries can gener-
ate value for [22].
 Residential and commercial consumers: second-life batteries
can reduce the cost of ESS. These ESSs built using used EV bat-
teries can be connected with renewable energy systems to
increase self-consumption and sell surplus energy. At the end
of the day, consumer energy tariffs are reduced, and companies’
revenue increases [22]. In other words, residential and commer-
cial consumers will be able to participate in energy arbitration,
reducing their tariffs by lowering energy consumption during
peak hours [32].
 Small, medium, and large-scale energy producers: these energy
producers earn profits from the energy arbitrage market by
storing the energy produced when the energy price is low and
selling that energy when the price is high, for example [22].
 Energy utilities will be able to couple second-life batteries into
systems capable of operating in voltage control, quick reserve
and dispatch systems [22]. In addition, ESSs can reduce or elim-
inate the need for utilities to invest in infrastructure. These
companies can use second-life batteries to help balance the grid
and make plant operations more efficient. Therefore, second-life
batteries can increase the reliability of the Electric Power Sys-
tem (EPS) and eliminate the need for infrastructure investment
[34].
 Individual investors will be able to generate value by purchas-
ing assets with the possibility of future returns [22].
 Companies that manufacture batteries, EVs, and energy utilities
may enter another market segment to provide services in the
energy market to increase their revenues [22].
Defining the value proposition that the company will provide to
customers in the second-life battery market is crucial. The value
proposition can be defined as the benefit that customers will
receive for purchasing a product or service from a specific com-
pany. The value provided by a company can be financial or non-
financial. The potential customer is convinced to purchase a speci-
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Journal of Energy Chemistry 78 (2023) 507–525
fic product or service through the value proposition. Reusing bat-
teries can offer the following value propositions:
 Revenue: residential, commercial, and industrial consumers
and utilities can increase their income in various ways, such
as by selling surplus energy, providing network support ser-
vices, and more [22].
 Costs: second-life batteries can be used to reduce the intermit-
tence of photovoltaic (PV) power generation systems, increase
the efficiency of your facilities and reduce the price of energy
tariffs [22].
 Flexibility: consumers can store energy, buy energy at the most
economically viable times, and use the energy stored in second-
life batteries when energy is expensive. In addition, consumers
can choose more financially viable contracts [22].
After defining the value proposal, it is crucial to determine the
value chain, which is how the value proposition will be delivered
to the customer.
 Environmental: Reusing batteries will help to decarbonise the
transport sector and keep the global temperature rise below
2 °C assigned by the Paris agreement [38]. In addition,
second-life batteries can help companies achieve carbon credit
requirements by reducing greenhouse gas emissions, postpon-
ing the construction of new power generation plants, reducing
environmental impacts, reducing the price of ESSs making
renewable energy generation systems more accessible, and
increasing resource efficiency. Considering the current stage of
maturity of the recycling process (expensive and with high
energy consumption), even without a standard, it is likely that
the reuse of batteries is more environmentally friendly.
 Business process/operations: the business model may include a
second-life battery trading and tracking platform. In this way,
owners of EVs can be reimbursed for the battery. Manufacturers
of batteries and EVs can monitor the use of batteries in EVs,
track the battery, easily collect batteries and generate value
through the reuse and recycling of these batteries [22].
 Financing: It is necessary to define project financing through
private capital from companies, corporate partnerships, and
start-ups [22].
The reuse of batteries can capture value and generate revenue
in different ways, namely:
Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior, E. Riva Sanseverino, P. Gallo et al.
 Second-use applications: Battery manufacturers and EV manu-
facturers can increase their revenues and reduce environmental
impacts by reusing batteries. It is expected that customers will
prefer second-life batteries that are more sustainable and can
have the same performance, life and safety as new batteries in
energy storage applications [39].
 Reduction in EV costs: Reusing EV batteries can extend battery
lifetime and, consequently, the price of these batteries will be
lower by making EVs more price competitive and increasing
revenues for EV companies [39].
 Improved infrastructure for charging EVs: EV charging stations
can be built using second-life batteries to avoid costly infras-
tructure construction projects, increasing the convenience of
EV owners to charge their vehicles and consequently increasing
EV sales [34].
 Reduced operating and maintenance costs for energy utilities:
using new batteries to provide frequency regulation services
can be a waste of resources [34]. Therefore, second-life batteries
can be an alternative for utilities to balance the network, post-
pone or eliminate upgrades to their infrastructure, integrate
renewable energy sources, facilitate operation and reduce cus-
tomer tariff costs [34,39].
 Postponement of the recycling phase: The reuse of EV batteries
can postpone the recycling phase. This will enable the recycling
technologies to improve in the meantime due to research to
face a more sophisticated and higher developed situation after
the second life of the battery. Consequently, it will reduce com-
panies’ investments in energy, material, and labor to recycle the
batteries [39].
3.5. Key uncertainties and barriers in the second-life battery market
Despite notable advances in the battery field, some uncertain-
ties still remain. The work presented in [34] evaluated seven
topologies of business models existing in the second-life battery
market. The authors identified that it is still unclear whether the
amount of batteries available for reuse in the coming years will
be enough for a scaled business. In addition, there are uncertainties
about the performance, time and warranty conditions of this pro-
duct to the customer. The main competition reported by the
authors is the competitiveness that used EV batteries face with
the price of new batteries.
The work presented in [32] uses the lemon market theory to
understand existing business models. The authors used canvas to
design and propose business models for the market for second-
life batteries applied to power individual homes. The authors men-
tion that business models are changing from ‘‘selling a product” to
‘‘selling the use of the product”. This idea seems simple, but it is
profound. Battery companies and/or car manufacturers may not
want to transfer ownership of the battery to EV owners for a sec-
ond use. Then, these companies can sell the right to use the pro-
duct, thus changing their business model and capturing revenue.
According to the authors, most batteries have chemistry based on
LiFePO4 (approximately 58.5%), and some use batteries with chem-
icals based on NMC (approximately 17%). Also, according to the
survey, about 26.83% of second-life ESSs manufacturers offer a
seven to ten-year warranty, and 14.6% provide a 10-year warranty,
with the remainder not offering guarantees or it was not possible
to obtain the data. Therefore, future research must be carried out
to reduce the uncertainty that battery and automobile manufactur-
ers have regarding the ideal warranty period.
The work presented in [27] is a systematic review where the
authors highlighted that the main barrier to increasing the share
of second-life batteries in the market is the lack of regulation on
who will be the owner of the EV battery when these batteries do
not have the necessary conditions to operate in EVs, competition
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Journal of Energy Chemistry 78 (2023) 507–525
from second-life batteries with new batteries that are cheaper each
day, the uncertainty of the number of batteries that will be reused
in the future, the lack of testing procedure for second-life batteries,
what technical performance the batteries will have when they
reach the limit of 70% to 80% of remaining charge, what is the cost
of replacing degraded batteries and how to transport this type of
battery.
In [17], the authors applied qualitative research methods to
identify the main opportunities and barriers in the second-life bat-
tery market. The authors collected data through interviews with
several participants in the battery supply chain. The main opportu-
nities for OEMs are to postpone the recycling phase, making it pos-
sible to increase the company’s revenue. In that scenario, the
second-life batteries will be cheaper for residential applications.
According to the data obtained from the authors’ interviews, com-
panies need to mitigate uncertainties regarding warranty, reliabil-
ity, service specification level and cost of second-life batteries. In
addition to these uncertainties, respondents also reported some
barriers because each battery has a manufacturer that builds that
battery differently, with variations in cell type, chemistry, and
physical design. This variation imposes an obstacle for an interme-
diary to adapt this battery and update the Battery Management
System (BMS) to monitor its parameters. The authors also mention
that the transport of second-life batteries will be expensive and
highly regulated and [40] therefore the cost of this transport
should be considered in economic feasibility studies.
In refs. [17,27], it is reported that the lack of regulation about
who will be responsible for recycling batteries is a barrier that
needs to be overcome and that the technical performance of
second-life batteries in a secondary application is also uncertain
and how to transport this type of battery. In both studies, it is also
reported that the cost of batteries is also uncertain. Uncertainty
about the availability of a sufficient number of second-life batteries
for reuse in the coming years is a common concern that is reported
in [17,41]. The main barriers in the second-life battery market are
presented in Table 3.
The exponential fall in the price of new batteries puts the mar-
ket for second life batteries at risk if to reuse batteries makes the
product more expensive than new batteries. Although several
Table 3
Main barriers and challenges of the second-life battery market.
Barrier Ref.
Warranty time. [17]
Reliability in a second application. [17]
Service specification levels. [17]
Cost per transfer fee. [17]
Batteries are not labeled, so recycling companies do not know [17]
the type of battery they will receive.
The transportation of used batteries is highly regulated, [17,28,35,39]
expensive, and full of unnecessary delays. Moreover, air
freight is prohibited.
High cost of reusing degraded EV batteries. [39]
Lack of security. [31]
The difficulty of installation. [32]
High maintenance cost. [32]
Need for skilled labor for installation. [32]
EV owners and/or third-party companies do not have the [28,32]
necessary skills and knowledge about the quality and
applicability of batteries to make them capable of reusing
second-life batteries.
The market for ESSs will make it less attractive to battery [28]
manufacturers if the product built with second-life
batteries cannibalizes the market. Therefore, direct
recycling may be a better alternative for battery
manufacturers.
Battery data is encrypted, and intermediaries may not have [28]
access to this data.
Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior, E. Riva Sanseverino, P. Gallo et al.
countries provide incentives to purchase new batteries, govern-
ment incentives for second-life batteries are still lacking. Batteries
behave differently depending on their use, so uncertainty in the
second application refers to determining the operating curves of
the batteries in secondary applications to assess their performance
and lifetime. The main uncertainties in the second-life battery
market are presented in Table 4.
3.6. Projects and success stories focusing on second-life batteries
This section aims to answer the following questions: ‘‘Which
are the main second-life battery projects in progress and com-
pleted?”, ‘‘Which are the main existing business models?” and
‘‘Which are the main cases of success in implementing second-
life batteries and the cases of failure?”.
The replacement of the battery is directly related to its degrada-
tion which can be accelerated according to the conditions of use of
the battery in the EV [43]. A comprehensive study is still needed to
define capital costs, installation costs, energy costs for charging
and maintaining the battery, operating costs, and the cost of test-
ing second-life batteries to learn how to rate the battery according
to life, performance, safety, and reliability. The definition of these
parameters will contribute to the elaboration of viable business
models.
The second-life value chain removes batteries from EVs, reman-
ufactures them (if necessary), redirects them to another applica-
tion or attaches them to the second-life storage system, and
integrates them into the second application. EV batteries are the
entrance to the value chain. All processing requirements, cost fac-
tors for creating the final product, conditions of the second appli-
cation, and value chain limitations are defined. Defining the
second application is essential to consider the remaining battery
capacity, design characteristics, and main limitations [43].
A visual inspection is necessary to assess the battery’s condi-
tion, and later electrical, mechanical and abuse tests are performed
Table 4
Main uncertainties of second-life batteries.
Uncertainties
Which is the chemistry of the battery?
What will be the price of new and used EV batteries?
What will be the performance, reliability, safety and lifespan
of second-life batteries?
Is it better to recycle batteries directly than reuse them?
Some batteries experience an abrupt drop in capacity after
reaching the remaining 70% to 80% capacity range.
Who will owner, user and responsible for the battery at every
stage of its life?
What will be the battery volume available for reuse?
What condition will the battery have at the end of the first
life?
Lack of regulation and standardized tests
In the case of reusing EV batteries in an application other than
EVs, can the producer’s responsibility be transferred to a
new producer (2nd producer)?
EVs do not show the health status of batteries, which can
cause EV owners to replace batteries before or after the
expected 8 to 12-year interval.
OEMs are expected to protect their products by blocking
third-party access or, at least, making it difficult to reuse
batteries.
Batteries are safe enough to handle a second application.
OEMs will be able to design batteries that will be
incompatible with earlier or later versions between new
and old components within the product package will lead
each vehicle to have a unique and specified battery
depending on the type of vehicle.
EV batteries can be removed from EVs prematurely and made
available for reuse and remanufacturing before the
expected 7 to 8-year period due to automotive collisions.
Journal of Energy Chemistry 78 (2023) 507–525
to determine the health status of the battery. The survey of these
parameters is essential to assess the value added to each battery.
These tests are even more important when considering the sce-
nario that batteries will be removed from vehicles due to
vehicle-to-vehicle collisions, misuse and operation, among other
causes [43]. Table 5 shows the most relevant parameters for the
reuse of batteries.
Battery manufacturers are best suited to assess the potential for
battery application in second life. This is because they have the
most significant knowledge about how the batteries degrade in
the EV, the requirements for a second life, what are the second pos-
sible applications, how to optimize the battery during the first and
second life, and if it is more feasible to rent or to sell EV batteries,
battery design, architectures and control of their modules, war-
ranty time, manufacturing costs, remanufacturing and integration
of the second application [43].
There is a wide range of batteries with different chemistry,
energy density, sizes and volume. Therefore, the battery reuse
strategy to be adopted must take into account the following factors
[43].
 The business model for integrating batteries for a second use in
a competitive way;
 Define technical requirements for both the first and the second
application of the batteries;
 Establish how to recover and re-manufacture batteries to make
them applicable for second use;
 Development of business partners and criteria for integration,
rental, and sale of batteries for the second application.
Battery manufacturers must analyze business risks and esti-
mate the costs of remanufacturing and collecting batteries to
determine the viability of the business [44]. From a business point
of view, the battery manufacturers must define which business
model is most valid, Business-to-Business (B2B) or Business-to-
Customer (B2C), and it is also essential to determine the sales
strategies, channels, support, logistics, Research, and Development
(R&D), among other strategic areas [45].
Different parties may be interested in reusing batteries. The
Ref. main interested companies are battery and vehicle manufacturers,
[17] system integrators, raw material reprocessing companies, trans-
[17] port companies and startups. So it is essential to define who owns
[17,27,28,36] the batteries and who will be responsible for recycling them after
[28]
these batteries are used in EVs. Cooperation projects between
[17] industries are essential to understand the second-life battery mar-
ket, identify potential customers and possibly share knowledge
[17] about the second use of batteries. Moreover, it is a critical point
to even think about the end of the second-life application. As reuse
[27,34]
[27,28] of a battery system will only postpone the question of how to deal
with the battery at its very end, there must be a high effort taken
[27,36] on the definition of constraints that ease this process in every way,
[28] starting from the design of the battery over guarantee-
responsibility and customer/provider relationship towards recy-
[42] cling strategies. It must be of utmost importance to avoid batteries
after their second life is discarded in third-world countries, as this
would eliminate most of the environmental and social impacts the
[28]
reuse intended to have.
A business model must have, create, and capture value,
[17] enabling companies and stakeholders to make profits. For this rea-
[35] son, it is crucial to define which values will be delivered through a
product to the target customers and the main activities that will be
carried out to make this possible.
Recent business models seek to meet customer needs and over-
[35] come four main limitations. (i) Price: the high cost of batteries is
still the main factor contributing to the high price of EVs. The reuse
of batteries is significant in increasing the battery lifetime, con-
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Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior, E. Riva Sanseverino, P. Gallo et al.
Table 5
Strategic parameters for considering reuse batteries powering vehicles. Adapted from [43].
Parameter Description
Design Design parameters such as physical and electrical
characteristics and the control architecture of the vehicle’s
battery system must be evaluated in second use.
Technology One must consider the chemistry and characteristic curves of
Selection the battery cells and the used components.
Control Control techniques are essential to ensure that the cell operates
Strategy within its window of stability and tension, ensuring the cell’s
safety in the first and second life, minimizing aging
mechanisms, and maximizing lifetime and performance in an
application secondary.
Ownership Model The business model will define whether the battery will be sold,
rented, or leased to the consumer. Each stakeholder may have a
business model, such as business-to-business, business-to-
customer, and customer-to-customer (if the law allows).
Service The infrastructure network will comprise battery and
Infrastructure automobile manufacturers, including utilities, the transport
network, the service center, storage, and production facilities.
Proprietary Ensuring the intellectual property of the product is
Technology fundamental.
Price Price of used batteries in concurrency to new batteries. This will
be a strong influence on customer behavior.
Legal regulations Who will be responsible for providing a product guarantee in a
second-life use case?
tributing to the reduction in the price of EVs. Some business mod-
els propose using EV batteries used in EV charging stations, ESSs
for homes. (ii) Range: companies seek business models that over-
come customers’ so-called range anxiety. Reach anxiety is the con-
cern that customers have that EVs do not have sufficient reach to
meet their needs. (iii) Recharge infrastructure: Some business
models aim to reuse EV batteries to improve EV charging infras-
tructure, increasing the number of charging stations distributed
geographically, facilitating the penetration of EV’s in the market,
and providing more excellent reliability and convenience for EV
owners. (iv) Charging time: companies seek to reduce the charging
time for EV’s batteries. To overcome these limitations, companies
have developed direct current chargers that charge batteries with
a charging time between 30 min and 2 h for a full charge and alter-
nating current chargers that can take from 4 to 12 h to fully charge
a battery [39,46].
Although customers want fast-charging stations, this type of
charging increases the battery’s degradation process, and therefore
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Journal of Energy Chemistry 78 (2023) 507–525
Influence
Cost Knowledge of the design characteristics of the battery pack will
define the need and the disassembly mode, as well as the
requirements and in which scenarios EV batteries may behave
in another scenario.
Cost The chemistry of batteries influences electrical characteristics
(voltage level, capacity, and the number of cycles, among
others) and thermal characteristics (operating temperature and
gas flow). Understanding battery aging in a first application
helps to develop the appropriate control system to achieve the
performance, safety, useful life and reliability expected by the
application. The components used will define how this battery
will be integrated into a second application.
Value Improved control of the thermal properties of the batteries is
essential to reduce the mechanisms of degradation of the
batteries and consequently prevent their premature aging. This
control embedded in the BMS is critical to keep battery
operation within safe limits. The type of control and the
precision of the components used are essential to make it
possible to integrate the battery system in a second application.
Operational The choice of each business model will depend on the strategies
& Cost of the company or consumer and on what skills they have to
reuse the batteries throughout their useful life. Customers are
unlikely to have sufficient knowledge to reuse these batteries
and be required by law to return them to OEMs.
Oper/Cost Infrastructure is essential for collecting all end-of-life batteries,
transporting them safely, disassembling, remanufacturing (if
necessary), testing and relocating the battery in a secondary
application. The infrastructure is part of the second-life
business value chain and is crucial because it influences the cost
of reuse and can make the business model unfeasible if it is not
well planned.
Oper It may not be interesting for the OEM to share information,
knowledge, and data about its battery module to protect its
product and prevent confidential information from being
exploited by its third parties. Therefore, the BMS code is
encrypted, and it may not be possible for a third party to have
access without authorization from the OEM. The OEM also
knows the characteristic operating curves of the batteries,
mainly for the first life, and can make projections and estimates
for the batteries’ second life. A third party may not have access
to this information without the need to disassemble the battery
pack, test, replace the BMS (if the OEM does not provide access),
and integrate new electronic components.
Cost/Oper The price of second-life batteries is important in determining
whether the business is scalable. In addition, it determines
whether there is demand for this type of product.
Cost/Oper Determines how to deal with the ‘‘new” product, the reused
battery. It also includes a changed operational procedure
regarding the Handling of Dangerous Goods (ADR), as it is no
longer ‘‘protected” by EV’s crash structure.
EV owners are expected to charge their vehicles at night or during
work. Aiming at these problems, some business models aim to
replace slow-charging batteries with fast-charging batteries; how-
ever, these models still depend on expensive infrastructures. As
mentioned above, charging stations with second-life batteries
can be viable and cheaper [39,46].
Therefore, there is a clear need for business models that make
EVs economically viable as conventional vehicles. The main barrier
to this type of technology is still the cost of batteries corresponding
to approximately 1/3 (one-third) of the cost of an entire EV. This
cost may be higher if it is necessary to replace the battery before
the expected lifetime. Both EVs and conventional vehicles con-
tribute CO2 emissions to an inflection point. In the scenario where
EV batteries are replaced prematurely, it is possible to say that this
inflection point will be moved later. The EVs will contribute a more
significant amount of CO2 than in the ideal scenario where the bat-
teries will be replaced in the time expected. Therefore, sustainable
business models must consider the reuse of different types of bat-
Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior, E. Riva Sanseverino, P. Gallo et al.
teries in different life cycles, thus increasing the useful life of bat-
teries with a consequent reduction in the cost of EVs, which can
equate to the cost of conventional fuels [34].
Several authors have already discussed the technical feasibility
of reusing batteries used in EVs [19,40,47–49]. The reuse of the
batteries can increase the efficiency of the grid, make the grid volt-
age more stable, increase the reliability to optimize the power
flow, and insert solar panels and wind farms in the energy matrix.
These applications are being studied by private companies and
research institutions in several pilot projects [50,51]. According
to [51], studies prove that there are no practical technical barriers
to reusing batteries in this type of battery. However, further stud-
ies are still needed [52]. These studies should propose business
models that examine the reuse of batteries from the perspective
of e-commerce.
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) proposed a
business model by estimating costs to redirect Plug-in Electric
Vehicle (PEV) batteries for stationary energy storage, considering
a collection of battery modules, electrical test equipment, technical
labor, and capital cost [52,53]. The cost can vary according to the
vehicle’s purchase, installation size, technician handling, and test
time. According to the authors, the cost of redirection can be
approximately US$ 20/kWh [52,53].
A project proposed in [54] features a microgrid system devel-
oped by the University of California to supply the energy demand
of a brewery’s network. The proposed approach has a storage sys-
tem for second-life batteries used initially in the Nissan Leaf EV
connected to a 120 kW PV system that is capable of charging the
ESS, allowing the stored energy to be consumed at times that the
price of energy is higher and the PV system is not fully supplying
the brewery.
The NREL business model proposes to supply the second-life
batteries without the need for the customer to pay any fees, and
the profits from the reduction of energy tariffs are shared between
the NREL and the customer. In this business model, the energy util-
ity is responsible for storing and managing energy, reducing the
customer’s energy tariff during the peak period. Some authors have
proposed some business models and the main results have been
summarized in Table 6.
In addition to knowing the pilot projects and business models
that have enabled companies to succeed in the second-life battery
market, it is also essential to know the cases of companies that
have not been successful in the second-life market. One of the
cases reported in the literature is the case of Better Place, whose
business model was based on the concept of battery exchange sta-
tions in less than 5 min. The main reasons for the company to
declare bankruptcy were a high initial investment, poor manage-
ment, and overestimation of market penetration in pilot study
countries [27,58,59].
3.7. Key players
This subsection aims to answer the following questions: ‘‘Who
are the main players in the second-life battery market?”.
Nissan and Green Charge Networks have an interest in this mar-
ket. These companies have partnered to investigate the feasibility
of using Nissan Leaf batteries for commercial energy storage [60].
Nissan and Renault have projects that aim to develop ESSs built
with solar panels to meet the energy demand of homes [17].
In partnership with Yellowstone National Park, Toyota applied
second-life batteries to store the energy generated by PV panels.
General Motors has partnered with Chevrolet Volt to reuse the
EV batteries produced by Chevrolet Volt to power the General
Motors IT administration building [60].
In addition to these players, Vattenfall has applied 2600 battery
modules used in more than 100 BMW EVs capable of supplying
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Journal of Energy Chemistry 78 (2023) 507–525
2 MW of power in a network-connected installation to stabilize
the mains frequency [60]. Relectrify is also attaching second-life
batteries to power management systems capable of improving
power quality on the grid, reducing peak demand from commercial
buildings and providing other grid support such as frequency con-
trol [18]. Some players like Freewire Technologies also focus on
reusing second-life batteries by applying them to EV charging sta-
tions to improve EV infrastructure [17].
Several manufacturers of EVs and batteries are making cooper-
ation agreements to develop R&D projects. In Germany, the compa-
nies BMW, Vattenfall, and Bosch reused more than 100 deactivated
batteries from the BMW Active and i3 in a system capable of pro-
viding power in seconds to improve the stability of the network
[11,61].
In addition to these companies, there are also two pilot projects
(13 MW h and 15 MW h) in Hannover developed by Daimler and a
pilot project (10 MW h) in Berlin developed by Volkswagen
[11,61]. In partnership with the most prominent commercial
energy storage provider, Nissan LEAF developed its first system
to compensate for peak demand from commercial customers [62]
and solar lighting [63].
The first value generated by this application for energy produc-
ers refers to displacing the peak demand of less efficient and
expensive plants [62–65]. Upgrading R&D systems is still very
expensive. The application of peak shaving can increase the use
time of the existing systems, thus reducing the need for its update
[62–66].
3.8. Costs involved in reusing batteries
This subsection aims to answer the following questions: ‘‘How
much will second-life batteries cost?”, ‘‘What should be considered
for the reuse of EV batteries to be economically viable?” and ‘‘What
are the main costs involved in reusing EV batteries?”.
The first technical-economic analysis of second-life batteries is
presented in [67], where the authors evaluated the possibility of
reusing batteries from Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH), whose first
application was in EVs.
In [19], a study analyzed the costs involved in reformulating
used batteries to present the technical–economic feasibility of
using batteries in a second application. According to this study,
the cost of purchasing the second-life battery will be the main con-
tributor to the cost of remanufacturing the battery and will
account for more than half of the total costs of remanufacturing
the battery for the second use. In addition to these costs, there
are still costs related to the payment of labor, employment, and
general costs with the testing process and the conversion of used
batteries. Finally, there are also costs with purchasing materials
to repack the battery modules.
Second-life battery lifetime will depend on secondary applica-
tion requirements such as: depth of discharge, c-rates and voltage.
According to the study presented in [19], the factors that have the
greatest influence on the cost of second-life batteries are the cost of
the balancing system and the cost of second-life batteries. On the
other hand, in [5], the author studied the economic feasibility of
applying second-life batteries based on assumptions about battery
degradation, redirection costs, and competitive technologies. Based
on this study, the authors concluded that the use of second-life
batteries to balance the power system is feasible considering that
second-life batteries will have a price of US$ 38 kW h–US$ 132
kW h and the Payback time is 7 to 10 years.
Another study in [68,69] approximately 75% of the batteries
removed from EVs will have the right conditions to be reused in
second life applications. According to this study [70], in 2025,
almost a third of the batteries will be reused, equivalent to approx-
imately 26 GW h of the global market. This figure represents about
Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior, E. Riva Sanseverino, P. Gallo et al. Journal of Energy Chemistry 78 (2023) 507–525

Table 6
Some companies with business models focus on second-life batteries. Adapted from [55–57].

# Project Company/ Company Profile Consumers Value Proposition Value Chain Value Capture
Location Join venture
1 China Yinlong - The company - Private - Affordable electric - The company leases the - Sale of electric
Energy sells electric consumers. buses, plus reliable battery to owners of EVs buses;
(Zhuhai) buses and rents - Bus companies. services. and offers the warranty - Maintenance of
EVs to bus com- and maintenance of this electric buses;
panies; battery for a specified - Sale of ESS based
Regional. time. on second-life
- After use on buses, the batteries;
company collects the bat-
teries and reuses these
batteries in another appli-
cation. The type of con-
tract is called a lease.
2 USA FreeWire - The company - EV owners - EV charging service. - Charging stations that use - Charging for EV
links EV charg- - Companies that - Improvement of the second-life batteries can charging service.
ing stations to have many EV’s infrastructure by be up to six times cheaper - Energy storage at
the power employees driv- increasing the number than conventional charg- the network level.
management. ing EVs. of charging stations. ing stations. - Load leveling.
- Electricity cost reduc- - Response to
tion: The company demand.
can charge vehicles
using electricity at
night and outside peak
hours.
- Easier for EV users.
3 Japan 4R Energy - Nissan and - Owners of - Provide clean, safe, and - ESS are composed of sec- - Sale of ESS built
Sumitomo joint homes, condo- reliable energy for ond-life batteries. with second-life
venture builds miniums, homes. batteries.
ESS based on schools, indus- - Reduction of cus-
second-life bat- tries, and com- tomers’ energy
teries; Regional. mercial tariffs.
buildings. - Consulting
services.
4 Germany Daimler - Venture - Energy - Provision of services to - ESSs are composed of sec- - Commercialization
GETEC/ The between Daim- concessionaires improve the power ond-life batteries. of stationary bat-
Mobility ler, The Mobility quality of the network, tery storage in the
House House, GETEC, such as frequency reg- energy market.
Remondis/ and REMONDIS; ulation and reduction - Recycling of these
EnBW Regional. of peak demand. battery systems
- Energy cost reduction. after the end of life
cycle.
- Raw materials are
returned to the
production
department.
5 USA Spiers New - Repair, remanu- - Vehicle - Repair, remanufacture, - Battery life and stock - Repair, remanufac-
Technologies facture, recondi- manufacturers recondition, and reuse management. ture, recondition-
Inc, service tion, and reuse advanced batteries ing, testing, and
provider of advanced bat- used in hybrid and EV reuse of second-life
‘‘4R” teries used in systems. batteries.
hybrid and EV
systems.
6 UK Renault and - Regulation of - Industrial - Maintains network - ESS based on second-life - Second-life batter-
Umicore the network Building stability. batteries. ies are sold Umi-
frequency. - Improvement of the core to build ESS.
- Stationary quality of the electrical
energy storage. network.
7 UK Renault and - Fast charging - EV owners. - EV charging service. - Charging stations depen- - EV charging
Connected stations for EVs. - Improvement of the dent on second-life service.
Energy - Integration with EV’s infrastructure by batteries.
renewable increasing the number
energy sources. of charging stations.
- Loading EVs during
off-peak hours.
8 Australia Relectrify - Peak shaving. - Residential and - Improve the reliability - ESS dependent on sec- - Sale of ESSs built
small commer- and resiliency of the ond-life batteries. with second-life
cial grid. batteries.
installations.
9 Germany Bosch, - Peak shaving. - Energy - Stabilize the network - ESS built with second-life - Selling ESS that are
Vanttenfall - On-grid energy concessionaires. and reduce peak batteries. built from second-
and BMW storage. demand. life batteries.
- Renewable energy
sources are integrated
to grid.

(continued on next page)

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Table 6 (continued)

# Project Company/ Company Profile Consumers Value Proposition Value Chain Value Capture
Location Join venture
10 USA General - Uninterruptable - Residential and - Reduced energy costs - ESS built with second-life - Reduction of cus-
Motors and power supply. industrial for homeowners. batteries. tomers’ energy
ABB - Grid power bal- consumers. - Integrating renewable costs.
ancing system. energy sources into - Sale of ESSs built
- Reduce peak the grid. with second-life
demand. batteries.
11 Germany Audi - Short-range - Industries - Space-saving in the - An ESS is composed of - Second-life batter-
vehicles. battery charging area. second-life batteries for ies are sold for
- Reduced effort to short-range EVs. applications such
replace batteries. as forklifts and
- It does not need a tow tractors.
coated floor for fork-
lifts to move around
(unlike forklifts that
use lead-acid
batteries).
- Fast recharge.
12 Germany Volkswagen - Fast charging - EV owners. - EV charging service. - Charging stations that use - Charging for EV
stations for EVs. - Improvement of the second-life batteries charging service.
EV’s infrastructure by
increasing the number
of charging stations.
13 Finland Fortum - Short-range - Auto Rickshaw - Affordable short-range - ESS are composed of sec- - Second-life battery
vehicles (auto- owners. vehicles. ond-life batteries that leasing lets auto-
rickshaw). links to short-range EVs. rickshaw owners
return used batter-
ies and receive
charged batteries.

47% of the global supply of lithium-ion batteries in 2015 [71] and
65% of the estimated global battery demand for EVs in 2016 [72].
Regarding market size, it is estimated that the market for
second-life batteries will be US$ 3 million in 2035 [73]. Several
studies in the literature evaluated the costs of transportation, logis-
tics, tests, and renovations, among others, to estimate the market
price of used batteries [5,44,72,74]. Table 7 presents the main eco-
nomic challenges in the second-life battery market.
‘‘Which values each secondary application can deliver to
customers?”.
Second-life batteries can be an alternative to satisfy peak
demand, and meet variable energy demand and supply, regulate
frequency, and integrate renewable energy sources. In [12], the
authors classified the applications of second-life ESSs into three
categories: off-grid stationary applications, on-grid stationary
applications, and mobile applications.

4.1. Off-grid applications

4. Second-life application
This section aims to answer the following questions: ‘‘Which
applications are less demanding you can use the battery second-
life?”, ‘‘Which secondary applications are viable? Can we quantify
viability?”, ‘‘Which secondary application has the largest market?”,
‘‘Which secondary application degrades batteries more and in
which secondary application do batteries degrade less?” and
Table 7
Main economic challenges of reusing EV batteries.
Economic challenges
Second-life batteries should be more economically viable than new
batteries.
Determining the economic viability of reusing EV batteries is a
complex task that involves transportation, recycling, and battery
testing costs.
Economic viability depends on the requirements of the second
application, ease of installation, and the possibility of maintenance
of the ESS.
The reuse will drive increased sales of used batteries for energy
storage, reducing the need for customers to buy new batteries from
battery manufacturers. Some battery manufacturers may be more
interested in recycling batteries directly than in reusing them, even
if that battery still has a residual charge. For this reason, there is an
‘‘arms race” in the EV market formed by battery manufacturers and
EV manufacturers to assign those responsible for the costs and
profits of the battery reuse and recycling market. According to the
producer responsibility principle, if the batteries become a new
product, performing another function and having a new brand, the
transfer of ownership may occur.
Second-life battery systems can supply power to isolated power
systems that can operate autonomously, without connecting to the
primary electrical system, for example, to supply power to remote
areas [11]. Given this scenario, integrating renewable energy gen-
eration systems with second-life batteries may be feasible and
offer different environmental and economic advantages [75,76].
Another promising market is the market for telecommunica-
tions towers and remote mining that demand energy, usually sup-
plied by diesel generators to keep up and running 24 h a day, seven
days a week. This market can be powered by second-life battery
Ref.
systems in conjunction with photovoltaic systems, with India
[28] and China being the leading countries with many telecommunica-
tions towers [77]. In future projections, around 165 000 towers are
[27]
expected to be out of the network by 2020, with 10% being in India
[77]. Fresh food distribution centers are also potential customers
[32] for ESSs built with second-life batteries. These locations have many
refrigerators and freezers with high energy demand and can be
supplied by used batteries [49].
[28]
Commercial and industrial electricity consumers pay a percent-
age of their tariffs on consumption and another percentage of elec-
tricity demand [77]. The consumption of energy by customers is
measured in 15 min. When this consumption exceeds the value
of the contracted demand, the concessionaire charges an additional
amount (acceptable) due to the consumer having exceeded the
peak demand that had been previously established in the contract.
Concessionaires charge this additional fee as they design their
infrastructure to meet the maximum network load. An increase
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Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior, E. Riva Sanseverino, P. Gallo et al.
in peak demand makes concessionaires need to invest more in
their facilities. In other words, it can be said that these charges
are intended to cover the costs that utilities have to supply elec-
tricity [77].
Distributed generation allows the customer to generate their
own energy in a distributed manner and, therefore, reduces the
amount of energy sold by concessionaires to each customer. For
this reason, concessionaires have an interest in increasing fixed
tariffs and demand tariffs [77]. To avoid this type of fine, con-
sumers can use renewable energy sources and/or energy storage
devices to supply energy as the demand for the baseload is
exceeded.
In short, the application of peak reduction refers to the use of
renewable energy sources that are coupled to second-life batteries
and connected to the grid to reduce the peak energy consumed by
industries, households or commercial facilities. Reducing peak
demand is essential for the utility to ensure the network’s stability
and reduce the price of consumers’ energy tariffs.
The study proposed in [78] presents a model for the distribution
network to reduce peak demand and control voltage fluctuations.
The results presented are from the simulation of a photovoltaic
matrix connected in parallel to the second-life batteries for steady
connection of the electrical network to the residential PV systems,
with an aim to reduce grid demand. The authors considered two
numerical simulation models, the first one regarding the equiva-
lent model of the battery, measuring energy production from solar
and residential loads to asses the performance of the system. The
later model assessed by the author has considered steps at each
hour and round trip efficiency for the battery, including climatic
data and the demand from residences. The results showed that
the system could significantly reduce the amount of energy gener-
ated from solar, transferred to the network and reduce the influ-
ence of sudden fluctuations in PV energy production.
In [79] the authors improved the model presented in [78] by
developing a rule-based control model to estimate energy price
and demand. The authors combined thermal storage and managed
to reduce the cost of electricity by 13%–25%. Rule-based control
can present low computational cost and good results when well
designed. However, this type of control may not provide good
results in more complex scenarios. Therefore, researchers will be
able to explore artificial intelligence techniques to increase the
flexibility of these models.
4.2. Energy arbitrage (on-grid application)
Concessionaires can postpone and/or reduce the need to build
new electricity-generating plants and reduce the need to purchase
energy from third parties in the wholesale energy market. Finan-
cial market investors can buy energy at lower prices and sell it
when prices are most attractive [55,63,66,67,80,81].
The value generated for customers is the reduction of their
energy tariff by changing part of their load from peak hours to
the time when energy demand is lowest [62–65]. For the conces-
sionaire, the value obtained is the reduction in the operating cost
of the generating plant and the need for no investment in infras-
tructure [82].
The increase in the number of second-life batteries on the mar-
ket will enable a technology that facilitates generalized Renewable
Energy Sources (RES). It is essential to serve as a rotating reserve
eliminating the intermittence of RES and increasing the participa-
tion of end users in the supply of electricity and in the provision of
auxiliary services. The main advantage of large-scale grid-
supporting storage is improving power systems’ reliability and
supply quality. However, specific applications may have financial
disadvantages and security and reliability risks associated with
EV battery storage units for energy support [49].
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Journal of Energy Chemistry 78 (2023) 507–525
In addition to these factors, it is essential to mention that
improper handling of lithium-ion batteries has the risk of explo-
sion and fire. This risk is more significant in applications that
require high-power batteries. From an investment point of view,
smaller scale applications are less risky as the number of residen-
tial and commercial customers is large [49].
Second-life batteries can complement existing generator sys-
tems in buildings, storing energy and selling surplus energy. How-
ever, applications in these locations can be challenging due to
limited parking space options, and applications in urban areas
can pose a risk to the population near the region where the batter-
ies are installed [49].
In addition to the applications mentioned above, it is possible to
consider the scenario in which the user buys energy when this
energy is cheaper, stores it in second-life batteries, and later sells
that energy at times your price is higher. However, it is necessary
to analyze technical aspects such as energy loss, excess discharge
depth and inefficiencies that can reduce the efficiency of ESSs in
these scenarios [49].
In this case, the second-life battery system must be installed at
the consumers’ premises. These consumers must establish a model
energy contract. It separately contracts the peak demand and the
maximum energy consumed for a month [77].
It is still possible for the customer to obtain secondary values.
They can avoid buying energy at times when energy is expensive,
avoiding overloading the utility’s infrastructure. The ESS can also
improve the quality of electrical energy consumed and increase
the reliability of the electrical installation. In California and New
York, there is an incentive program for consumers to increase
energy self-generation, and the government provides incentives
for Con Edison energy storage. This program offers US$ 1.46/W
for energy storage to promote the reduction of peak demand and
the mitigation of greenhouse gases. On the other hand, New York
storage incentives offer storage systems above 50 kW to reduce
peak summer demand by about US$ 2100/kW [77].
Therefore, in [80], a study aims to estimate the return on invest-
ment considering installing an ESS. The authors estimated that the
payback based on Southern California tariffs and considering the
installation of an ESS based on second-life batteries is US$ 300/
Wh and US$ 300 kW in California. According to the authors, the
payback is at least three years.
The work proposed in [55] presented a linear optimization
method applied to manage the load demand in a peak shaving
application, takes advantage of the energy production by the pho-
tovoltaic system to optimize the output power flow, and minimizes
demand loads. The authors simulated different PV system designs
and estimated that the net present value is positive for applications
that have installation costs lower than US$ 450 /kWh, considering
the San Diego city tariff schedule for industrial customers. The
authors demonstrated the efficiency of the demand forecasting
system in a traditional market, however, they did not evaluate
the degradation of batteries in their model, the uncertainties and
the complexity of the wholesale energy market. Comparing the
results presented in [55,80] it is possible to notice a reduction in
the cost of installing the energy storage system through the use
of second life batteries. Comparing the results presented in
[55,80] it is possible to notice a reduction in the cost of installing
the energy storage system through the use of second-life batteries.
In the work proposed in Economic analysis of second use elec-
tric [49], the authors analyzed the economic feasibility of reducing
electricity tariffs or additional fees for homeowners in Ontario by
purchasing using second-life batteries for energy arbitrage. The
authors assumed that the batteries will be removed from the vehi-
cle and replaced with new batteries when these have reached 80%
of their remaining capacity. The results presented by the authors
show the importance of the government providing tax incentives
Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior, E. Riva Sanseverino, P. Gallo et al.
to encourage the generation of jobs, increase the penetration of
renewable energy sources while reducing the need for investment
in expanding the electricity grid.
The work proposed in [83] carried out a case study with four
stakeholders to assess the impacts of reusing batteries. The results
obtained reaffirm that although the reuse of batteries does not mit-
igate all the environmental impacts caused by EVs, it is still a
pretty necessary measure to support the widespread adoption of
this type of vehicle. The authors identified the need to define
who is responsible for reusing batteries after use in EVs and there
are differences of opinion among actors in the battery supply chain
about situations in which the concept of extended producer
responsibility can be used. It is possible to mention that the con-
cept of extended producer responsibility alone is not sufficient to
resolve all conflicts of interest in the battery supply chain.
In [55], a study of a residence composed of actual charges and, a
photovoltaic system (with accurate data) connected with second-
life batteries were presented. The authors considered actual con-
sumption data, Spanish market price, photovoltaic system costs,
batteries’ costs, and the batteries’ degradation characteristics to
carry out the simulations. The authors concluded that the use of
second-life batteries is feasible and reduces the price of energy
bills despite the low price paid for electricity. Further studies
should investigate the benefits offered by different governments
can be credited to the energy system.
4.3. Area and frequency regulation (on-grid application)
Keeping the voltage, current, and frequency within limits estab-
lished by current regulations is essential in the EPS. An example of
these strict standards is that the frequency of the electrical system
has a maximum variation threshold of 0.5%, as established by Sub-
module 10.8 of the National System Operator (NSO) Operating
Standard published in 2001 [11].
The variation in the fundamental frequency of the power sys-
tem is usually caused by differences between the generation and
the load and, in some regions, by electricity trading itself when
the providers negotiate the distribution of power amongst the
plants [84]. For this reason, a frequency regulation system is essen-
tial to guarantee the stability of the EPS by controlling the injected
active and reactive energy [11].
The power plants that generate energy must keep their genera-
tion constant to avoid system stability problems. The amount of
energy generated is equal to the amount of energy consumed.
However, consumer demand changes in real-time because it is
related to the fact that consumers connect and/or disconnect elec-
trical charges at all times [77,85]. To monitor the variation in the
network load, the NSO operator adjusts the output of the genera-
tors to supply the appropriate amount of energy provided by the
regulation system.
The main strategies to stabilize the frequency of the electrical
power system are the conventional primary, secondary and ter-
tiary control reserves. However, batteries can also offer a profitable
alternative to this problem for both customers and dealers [77]. In
addition, hybrid applications of storage systems with second-life
batteries and gas turbine generators may also be viable [11].
Traditional power generators have two main problems, they
are: (i) they have a high mass and, consequently, high inertia,
which makes it difficult to change their speed to supply energy
to meet rapid load variations in the EPS; (ii) generators must meet
both the baseload and provide energy for a regulation [43].
As mentioned above, traditional generation systems have iner-
tia and cannot meet significant changes in electricity demand.
Therefore, when demand is reduced, it is necessary to have a reg-
ulation system that absorbs the supplementary energy from the
power system. On the other hand, the regulation system must pro-
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Journal of Energy Chemistry 78 (2023) 507–525
vide energy in the short term in the scenarios as the energy
demand increases. Second-life batteries are an excellent alterna-
tive for area and frequency regulation systems [43].
In most electricity markets, customers contract a certain amount
of energy demand. In this way, customers pay for contracted
demand even if this capacity is not used and purchase this energy
demand through bids made every hour in the energy market [85].
The regional network operator pays for the area regulation ser-
vice, which consists of small generating plants connected to the
network capable of supplying and absorbing energy to keep
demand constant. These generating plants can be composed of
gas turbines or batteries since both can supply energy to the grid
in a short time [85].
Area regulation can be classified in two ways: (i) Up-Regulation
and (ii) Down-Regulation [85]. Upward regulation consists of aux-
iliary systems that inject energy into the network, and, on the
other hand, downward regulation consists of systems that remove
capacity from the network through energy absorption [85].
It is important to emphasize that when the batteries absorb
energy from the network to regulate the energy in the area, the
energy absorbed has a cost. That is, it is paid for the absorbed
energy. On the other hand, when the stored energy is injected into
the network, the energy can be sold at higher prices, generating rev-
enue for the company that provides area regulation services [85].
The process of storing energy in batteries has losses. The
amount of energy purchased by the grid operator is greater than
the amount sold. For this application to be viable, the energy must
be sold when the energy price is highest [85].
The work proposed in [86] estimates the lifetime of second-life
batteries needed to support a power generation plant (500 kW
up/down) composed of several gas turbines that provide area reg-
ulation services and frequency. For the prediction of the battery
life, the authors considered two possible scenarios in which bat-
teries would deliver energy to the gas turbine plant and deter-
mined the time period of the batteries that can withstand
variety of loads.
The authors simulated all the working conditions of the system
in just one cycle of 1 (one) hour. Therefore, they emphasize that it
is necessary to carry out studies that consider the regulation of the
area with constant change so that the demand curve is not the
same. In addition, there is a need for studies that evaluate the sys-
tem working 24 h a day and take into account the complex phe-
nomena of battery degradation, such as the aging knee.
In the first scenario considered by the authors, which was less
aggressive to the battery, the second-life EV batteries had a lifes-
pan equivalent to 1880 cycles. In the second later, the estimated
useful life for the battery was 1241 complete equivalent cycles,
considering that the batteries age differently, based on the abu-
siveness of the scenario.
It is worth mentioning that the generating plants must pay to
remove the additional energy from the power plant in times of less
demand because the regulatory energy should not be delivered
from an asset that is not yet operating. However, the Federal
Energy Regulation Committee (FERC) Order 755 (2011) made it
possible for utilities to receive fair and reasonable fees to guaran-
tee regulatory services in the United States of America (USA). Sub-
sequently, FERC order 785 extended order 755 to all auxiliary
systems making ESSs with second-life batteries attractive to serve
the USA energy market regulation [43].
The regulation of the area can supply the concessionaire with
the regulation of the network frequency, making it easier for the
concessionaire to meet the electricity quality standards. As a sec-
ondary value, the regulation of the area assists in the recovery of
disturbances, making it possible for the concessionaire to comply
with disturbance control rules. Among the promising markets for
this type of application, Germany and the United States stand
Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior, E. Riva Sanseverino, P. Gallo et al.
out, given that these countries have incentives for systems that
provide the frequency regulation service [77].
Among these incentives, FERC’s request 775, which regulates
the remuneration of frequency regulation service providers, can
be mentioned. The FERC 775 application encourages faster and bet-
ter performance technology that provides the frequency regulation
service. Therefore, this request allocates more financing to services
with a shorter response time [77].
The work of [87] presents an estimation of the return on invest-
ment in an ESS composed of lithium-ion batteries applied in the
frequency regulation market for a concessionaire. This study
showed that the payback period is 5 and 6 years for 5 MW or more
ESSs. For systems with a capacity greater than 50 MW, the net pre-
sent value suffers approximately 20%. The authors’ results show
that frequency regulation applications with a capacity greater than
5 MW will have better economic viability. However, the authors
only investigated the performance of new batteries. Several works
have investigated the performance of second life batteries. How-
ever, there are still uncertainties about the replicability and scala-
bility of implementing second-life batteries in this scenario.
4.4. EVs (mobile application)
4.4.1. EV charging station
A crucial factor for the deployment of EVs is the infrastructure.
The increase in EVs will increase the demand for electric energy,
requiring the improvement of the EPS and the construction of
charging stations for EVs [11].
Second-life battery systems can be applied to charging stations
for EVs. However, the most significant disadvantage is the inclined
cost of implanting these stations [11].
The work proposed in [76] presents a study on the viability of
using a second-life battery in an off-grid PV vehicle charging sys-
tem. The authors built a structure composed of a PV matrix battery
charging using a maximum power point tracking controller and,
thereafter, the inverter charges the vehicle.
The system consists of a power manager for managing second-
life battery parameters, and the results were satisfactory for the
application. The startup FreeWire announced that it was reusing
Nissan batteries for charging mobile vehicles.
4.4.2. Shorter-range trip and vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
As mentioned above, electrical energy systems must be
designed to meet the demand for electricity at peak times. Accord-
ing to [88], vehicles are parked 97% of the time. Therefore, when
the vehicles are parked, they can be connected to charging stations
to supply energy to the grid, thus declining the dependencie to
improve the electrical power system reliability. This fact makes it
possible for every EV consumer or logistics company to use power
from second-life batteries to supply power to the system and mit-
igate high upfront battery costs [20].
The vehicles used for this service can be vehicles made up of
new batteries or used batteries. Vehicles made up of used batteries
are low-speed, short-range vehicles intended for local travel or
delivery [11].
The most frequently studied applications seek to integrate bat-
teries into the grid’s renewable energy. Some studies focused on
applying second-life batteries to balance energy in intelligent grids
[56,84,89–91]. In addition to batteries, there are also supercapaci-
tors with fast storage capacity, capable of storing energy in the
order of seconds and of charging and discharging quickly. There
are hybrid applications that seek to combine the advantages of bat-
teries and supercapacitors [57,92–99]. However, combining cost
and performance in hybrid applications is not trivial.
Second-life batteries can be applied to short-range vehicles in
off-grid applications such as forklifts, and low-speed and short-
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Journal of Energy Chemistry 78 (2023) 507–525
range cars used in shopping malls, condominiums, boats, and elec-
tric scooters, among other applications.
5. Discussions
5.1. Main findings
There is great interest from different supply chain actors in the
second-life battery market. The data extracted from the papers
evaluated by this systematic review show that the interest of com-
panies in this market is mainly motivated by the possibility of
extending battery life, extracting maximum resources and profit-
ing from this expensive product.
The recycling phase is also a strategic factor for companies that
need time to internally develop their recycling process and find
effective solutions for separating the so-called ‘‘black mass”, which
is mainly composed of lithium, manganese, cobalt, and nickel. For
intermediary companies, the second-life battery market still pre-
sents a high risk, mainly in relation to lack of access to battery data,
remanufacturing and testing costs, price of new batteries that are
getting cheaper every day, and enough second-life batteries for a
scaled business.
Therefore, there are still uncertainties that need to be overcome.
One of the uncertainties reported in the works is in relation to the
person responsible for the second-life battery. In some countries,
there is a principle of extended producer responsibility which
states that the first company that places the battery on the market
will be responsible for recycling the battery. However, it is still not
clear what it means to put the battery on the market, and further
studies need to be conducted to define this question.
The results show that stakeholders are concerned about the
quality that the battery. Therefore, it is important to develop
second-life battery health prognostic systems, timely maintenance,
and real-time battery monitoring. Therefore, it is essential to con-
sider studies that propose business models that reduce costs and
increase revenues for both suppliers and customers. Business mod-
els must also consider sustainability to generate value for the cus-
tomer. In this sense, there is essential for studies that consider
economic impacts and evaluate other ways of generating value,
such as environmental and social impacts [74].
5.2. Comparison with other studies
In secondary applications, define the required energy demand,
current, voltage, number of batteries used, charge and discharge
rate, discharge depth, number of pulses, and frequency. Usually,
some tests need to be performed as visual inspection, SOH assess-
ment, capacity test, quasi-OCV test, State of Charge (SOC) test, Elec-
trochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), and Open-Circuit
Voltage (OCV).
In [72], the authors investigated the aging mechanisms of
second-life batteries in residential demand management and
renewable energy smoothing. The evaluated modules are com-
posed of three cells connected in series, and heterogeneous mod-
ules and homogeneous modules were evaluated. The cells used
were aged in the laboratory. They had a capacity of 20 Ah
(ampére-hour), and the chemistry is based on NMC. The authors
concluded that not all cells are available for second use because
some cells that had their internal resistance increased by more
than 175% were unable to meet second-life applications. The
authors pointed out that the cells that were reused before reaching
the ‘‘aging knee” they applied to the second-life application, and
those that were not reused before going to the ‘‘aging knee”
showed a very accelerated degradation.
In the work presented in [99], the authors analyzed the perfor-
mance of second-life batteries in four second-life applications:
Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior, E. Riva Sanseverino, P. Gallo et al.
vehicle charging stations, PV applications to generate energy to
residences, area regulation, and transmission deferral. The authors
investigated how each of the four second-life applications affects
calendar aging, discharge depth, tension, and temperature. More-
over, they concluded using simulation that the investigated mod-
ules of 6 to 12 cells, prismatic NCM, with an individual capacity
of 12 A h, can meet the applications of EV charging for 30 years,
high consumption for 12 years, deferral transmission for 12 years
and area regulation for six years. The least demanding application
in this study was the application of fast EV charge, and the most
demanding was area regulation. Therefore, on-grid and mobile
applications are expected to degrade second-life batteries and
off-grid applications to degrade batteries less.
To determine which best secondary application is more eco-
nomically viable, the factors that needs to be considered are, mar-
ket size, the number of packages required, cycle frequency,
operation mode, and level of degradation in each application. In
[49], the authors compare the power and frequency of use between
eight applications of ESSs. The results showed that the residential
market is the largest market requiring 3 million units, followed
by the market for telecommunications towers and commercial
buildings with an estimated market of 100,000 units, and the com-
mercial lighting and distribution centers markets. Fresh food can
demand from 10,000 to 100,000 units. The stranded power (renew-
ables) and transmission support markets are still uncertain.
5.3. Implication and findings
The outcomes of this systematic review are of practical rele-
vance for companies with a strategic interest in the second-life
battery market, which need to develop the business models and
mitigate the risks involved in each scenario. The main technologi-
cal challenge refers to the lack of regulation on who will be respon-
sible for the battery in second use, considering the scenario in
different countries. The second-life battery market is an excellent
economic opportunity for companies interested in increasing their
revenues and spreading the cost of recycling. The results of this
work show that the applications of second-life batteries in forklifts,
electric vehicle charging stations, and PV and wind power genera-
tion systems are in high technical and economical.
Companies that integrate the batteries used in EVs in second-
life applications will have to risk not having enough batteries if
the company responsible for that battery is no longer interested
in supplying the battery to a third company. On the other hand,
when battery manufacturing companies transfer responsibility
for the second use of the battery to an intermediary company, they
may lose the market and their competitive advantages. For these
complex low-confidence scenarios, battery tracking information
systems need to be investigated as a possible solution to these con-
flicts of interest.
The results showed the existence of only one test standard for
second-life batteries. This shows an area that still needs to be
explored to develop new standards that can guarantee the perfor-
mance, lifetime, reliability, and safety of second-life batteries. The
results also present the cost and time of collecting, transporting,
testing, and certifying the battery can make second-life batteries
economically unfeasible. The clever combination of physical test-
ing with virtual testing to save the time and cost of second-life bat-
tery testing remains investigated.
5.4. Strengths and limitations
This review shows a study of the literature focused on identify-
ing the main barriers, opportunities, and uncertainties in the
second-life battery market. Although there are business models
identified in the literature, the battery market is still premature,
522
Journal of Energy Chemistry 78 (2023) 507–525
and further research is needed to propose sustainable business
models.
This paper discussed some potential applications of second-life
batteries, further research aimed at determining their technical
and economic feasibility in secondary applications is welcome.
And new models to predict battery performance and health status
are needed, especially in second-life applications. The study
demonstrated that testing and certification standards for second-
life batteries are still limited. New testing standards need to be
developed with a primary focus on reducing the time and cost of
this product.
6. Conclusions
Electric vehicles are a solution to decarbonize the energy matrix
of countries and achieve the environmental goals. Although the EV
market is promising, advances in battery technology are needed to
reduce price, increase energy density, lifetime, performance and
safety. In addition to these criteria, it is also necessary that batter-
ies meet sustainability criteria and companies must be prepared to
collect, treat and recycle as much as possible of batteries that reach
the end of their useful life.
This paper aims to present a comprehensive review of the
second-life battery market, identify the main business models in
the literature, the main barriers and opportunities for battery reuse,
the main projects in progress and the players in this battery market.
The markets can be open, closed and intermediary. Each market
offers different opportunities and risks, and the main factors to con-
sider are access to historical battery data in a first application, gov-
ernment subsidies, volume of batteries available for reuse, need for
remanufacturing and battery testing to assess the actual actual bat-
tery condition and conditions at the end of the first application.
Among the most promising secondary applications are energy arbi-
trage, coupling of second life batteries with power generation sys-
tems connected or not with the grid, energy supply for works and
events, peak shaving, energy storage in power stations. vehicle
charging and traction applications in short-range vehicles.
The results showed that there is still a lack of public policies
that encourage companies to improve the infrastructure for col-
lecting, reusing and recycling batteries. Punishment and reward
mechanisms can be implemented to punish companies that do
not achieve targets and reward companies that achieve targets.
While there are studies that have investigated the second-life
battery market, the field of business models for this type of market
is still in its infancy. The main challenges are the lack of specific
standardization and the cost of testing second life batteries. It is
still unclear what the cost of used batteries will be, who will be
responsible for battery reuse and recycling.
The second-life battery market is complex because it involves
both collection, testing, remanufacturing, operating the battery in
a second application and assessing environmental impacts. The
time that the battery will last in a secondary application will
depend on the conditions experienced by the battery during oper-
ation in electric vehicles, and estimating this time is a complex task
since two batteries subjected to the same operating conditions
may degrade differently. and consequently the lifespan for the bat-
teries will also be different.
The area of research of business models for second life batteries
will grow in the coming years, in view of the change of the business
models that were previously focused on selling a product for the
sale of a service. In the second-life battery market, business models
could be the sale of the battery or the sale of a service performed
by a product built with the second-life battery, for example: vehi-
cle charging service at vehicle charging stations built with second
life batteries.
Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior, E. Riva Sanseverino, P. Gallo et al.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Moura Batteries for the finan-
cial support, especially Gustavo Tinelli, Businesses Director. Also,
the authors would like to thank financial CNPq (159332/2019-2,
301486/2016-6), FAPESP (2014/02163-7, 2017/11958-1,
2018/20756-6), and also Shell oil company through ANP (Brazil’s
National Oil, Natural Gas, and Biofuels Agency) funded part of this
research. The authors would also like to thank the BloRin Project –
‘‘Blockchain for renewables decentralized management”, PO FESR
Sicilia 2014/2020 – Action 1.1.5 – identification code: SI_1_23074
CUP: G79J18000680007 for all the support given to the authors.
This work was partly founded by the Bavarian Ministry of Eco-
nomic Affairs, Regional Development and Energy in the program
BayVFP Digitalisierung, grant number DIK0384/02.
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363. Currently, he is working on his Ph.D. thesis under the
supervision of Prof. Dr. Hans-Georg Schweiger. He
works as a research associate in the CARISSMA Institute
of Electric, Connected and Secure Mobility at THI. His
MSc. Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior received his BSc.
research interests focus on battery systems, their state
Degree in 2016 in the department of Electrical Engi-
evaluation and modelling.
neering from Federal Institute of Minas Gerais (IFMG-
Campus Formiga), Formiga, Brazil. He obtained his
master degree in 2019 Systems Engineering and
Automation from the University of Lavras, Brazil. Cur-
rently, he is pursuing his Ph.D. degree under the fel-
Dr. Yash Kotak completed his Master’s in Renewable
lowship of Academic Doctorate for Innovation (DAI) at
Energy Engineering from Edinburgh Napier University,
the UNICAMP/USP/UNESP Bioenergy Program, Brazil.
UK in the year 2013 and his Doctorate degree from
Currently, he works as a Research Associate at an
Heriot-Watt University, UK in the year 2017. He was
automotive research center in the Integrated Safety
working as a Lecturer at Edinburgh College, UK (2014-
Systems and Measurement Area called CARISSMA
2017) in the Engineering department, and thereafter as
within the University of Applied Sciences in Ingolstadt/Bayern (THI). His research
a Programme Leader at Blackpool & the Fylde College,
interests focus on batteries and blockchain technology and Data Science.
UK (2017-2020) in the field of Project management. His
expertise areas involve both Engineering and Project
Management. He started working as a Research Asso-
Prof. Dr. Eleonora Riva Sanseverino received the
ciate at CARISSMA-Center of Automotive Research on
master’s degree in electrical engineering from the
Integrated Safety Systems and Measurement Area,
University of Palermo, Italy, in 1995, and the Ph.D.
Technische Hochschule Ingolstadt, Germany in the year 2020. Thereafter, he got
degree in electrical engineering, in 2000. She has been
promoted to Technical Head at CARISSMA in the year 2022. He is also a certified
an Associate Professor of electrical power systems with
professional for, Earned Value Management Foundation from APMG International;
the University of Palermo, since 2002, where she is
and Level 2 (Expert for HV System in Motor Vehicle, FHV), Level 3 (Specialist for
currently a full professor, since November 2019. She is a
Working Live HV Components), and Responsible Electrician (vEFK) as per DGUV
scientific coordinator of various research projects with
Regulation. His current research focus is towards safe and sustainable solutions for
research organizations and companies. She is also
future mobility. He has contributed to European projects such as COBRA and
responsible of various research and teaching coopera-
HYPOBATT. He has published 4 books, 3 book chapters, 9 journal articles, 5 con-
tion agreements with foreign institutions and private
ference papers, and several other conference papers, posters, technical reports and
companies. These include European institutions Aalborg
encyclopedia topic reviews along with being the journal‘s guest editor and
University (DK), Chalmers University (SE) and extra-European institutions like
reviewer.
Electric Power University and the Institute of Energy Science both in Hanoi,

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Carlos Antônio Rufino Júnior, E. Riva Sanseverino, P. Gallo et al.
Prof. Dr. Hans-Georg Schweiger was born in Ingolstadt
1977. He studied chemistry at the University of
Regensburg (Germany) from 1998 to 2002 and gradu-
ated as Dipl.-Chem. in 2002. He started his PhD thesis in
the field of electrochemistry in the workgroup of Pro-
fessor Heiner J. Gores at the University of Regensburg
(Germany) and in the end of 2004 he received his Dr.
rer. nat. degree in chemistry there. He joined EVA
Fahrzeugtechnik GmbH (Munich) as a development
engineer for HEV energy storage systems in 2005. In this
position, he was appointed as an engineering consultant
to BMW AG (Munich, Germany). January 2007 he joined
the HEV department of Continental AG (Berlin, Germany). In this company, he
worked as an expert for lithium ion batteries, In 2008 he was appointed as project
leader for energy storage systems in the same company. In this position, he was
leading series development projects for HEV and EV battery systems as well one
basic research project for the development of 5 V Lithium ion cells. He was also part
time lecturer on electrochemical energy storage systems at the Technical University
of Berlin (2009-2011). 2011 Prof. Dr. Schweiger was appointed as Professor for
Automotive Electronics and Electric Mobility at Technische Hochschule Ingolstadt.
He founded the research group ‘‘Safe Electromobility”. 2020 this research group was
transformed into CARISSMA Institute of Electric, COnnected, and Secure Mobility for
. Since then, he is head of this research Institute. The primary field of his group are
energy storage systems for automotive applications and automotive safety of
electric vehicles. His workgroup of 17 coworkers is working on 9 industry and
525
Journal of Energy Chemistry 78 (2023) 507–525
government financed research projects in the field of automotive energy storage
systems. He is also director of study programs in the field electric engineering and
electric mobility. He author/coauthor of more than 39 research papers and he holds
more than 10 patents. He is member of IEEE, VDE and VHB.
Prof. Dr. Hudson Zanin graduated in Physics in the
University of São Carlos (2006), and Master (2008) and
PhD degrees in Electrical Engineering from the Univer-
sity of Campinas (2012) focused on Materials Science
and Instrumentation. He worked as a post-doctorate
fellow at the National Institute for Space Research
(INPE), Brazil, in 2013 and as a post-doctorate fellow at
the University of Bristol, UK, 2014-2015. Currently,
Hudson works with the School of Electrical and Com-
puter Engineering as a Professor and a Coordenator
Researcher with the Advanced Energy Storage Division
of the Center for Innovation on New Energies (CINE,
www.cine.org.br). Prof. Zanin’s research focuses on developing functional (nano)-
materials and their application in Energy Storage and Conversion Devices. He has
experience in supercapacitor, batteries and fuel cells materials and devices, where
he has published more than ninety papers, two book chapters and ten patents. His
h-index is 25. He is the founder of the first south America Lab-scale batteries and
supercapacitors manufacturing.