Lecture 9

Sediment transport
Long shore transport of sediment
 Energy Approach to Longshore Transport

1
E b  gHb 2
8
1cosa b Shoreline

Pls  E b cGb sin ab cosa b E bcG b

SURF ZONE
ab BREAKERS
Vb; Ils; Pls; Qls
L
Note: 1cosa b
Represents the fraction of the
Wave energy available.

1
Eb  gHb 2
8
 Longshore energy flux

Pls  E b cGb sin a b cosa b

1
Pls  gHb 2 gd b sin 2a b
16
Kb = {Hb/db }~ 0.78 for flat beach.

1 g
Pls  gHb 5/ 2 sin 2a b
16 Kb
Pls α
Hb: Breaker wave height
Hs: Significant wave height
Hbs: significant wave height at breaker
Sediment transport proportional to Energy flux; Q= K*Pls
 Distribution of Longshore Energy Flux
Longshore weight flux I
= K P ls
ls
Longshore Volume flux Q ls = K*Pls /(gs - g)(1 - porosity)
I ls = Q ls (gs - g)(1 - porosity)
I ls = longshore Submerged weight transport rate

Q ls = longshore volume transport rate ~ K P ls

P ls = longshore energy flux

gs = specific weight of sediment

g = specific weight of water

K is field determined coefficient SPM chart can be used to estimate K

Conversion of submerged weight units to bulk volume

Q ls = longshore volume transport rate ~ K P ls

I ls = Q ls (gs - g)(1 – porosity)

where the sand porosity ~ 0.4.

Q ls = I ls /{ (gs - g)(1 – porosity)}

 Weight vs longshore energy flux

I ls I ls = K P ls

K~0.92

P ls
Longshore Energy Flux (Pls)

• Given:
• Hb = 4 ft
• T = 5 sec
• ab = 20o
• m = 2%
• Assume Kb ~0.78

Find: 1 g
Pls  gHb 5/ 2
sin 2ab
16 Kb

515 ft-lbs/(sec.ft)
Longshore Transport Rate Ils

• Given:
• Hb = 4 ft
• T = 5 sec
• ab = 20o
• m = 2%
K = 0.92
Find:
I ls  KPls
lbs/(sec) Note: I and Pls must
have the same units.
Longshore Transport Rate (Ils)

• Given:
• Hb = 4 ft
• T = 5 sec
• ab = 20o
• m = 2%
K = 0.92
Find:
I ls  KPls
474 lbs/(sec) Note: Ils and Pls must
have the same units.
Calculations

alf b 20 o
Hb 4 ft
gam w 62.4 lbs/ft3
Ss 2.65
gam s 165.4 lbs/ft3
por 0.4
Td 4h

Pls 515.421 lbs/sec

Ils 474.188 lbs/sec K ils 0.92 for 4h
Qls 3865660 yd3/yr KQ 7500 0.000457 yr
Qls 1765 yd3/storm
Longshore Transport Rate (Qls )

• Given:
• Hb = 4 ft
• T = 5 sec
• ab = 20o
• m = 2%
KQ = 7500
Find:
Qls  KQ Pls

3.9 million yd3/(year)

Calculations

alf b 30 o
Hb 4 ft
gam w 62.4 lbs/ft3
Ss 2.65
gam s 165.4 lbs/ft3
por 0.4
Td 4h

Pls 515.421 lbs/sec

Ils 474.188 lbs/sec K ils 0.92 for 4h
Qls 3865660 yd3/yr KQ 7500 0.000457 yr
Qls 1765 yd3/storm
 Potential longshore transport equation (Q)
• The CERC equation from U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center 1984 is
the most widely used and best know equation

where g is the ratio of wave height to water depth at breaking which may be taken as 0.9, a’ is the ratio of solid to
total volume for the sediment and may be taken as 0.6 if better information is not available, and s is the sediment
specific gravity which may be taken as 2.65 if better information is not available. Hb is the wave breaker height,
commonly taken as the significant wave height at breaking. K is a coefficient commonly taken as 0.32 for typical
beach sands. For much coarser shingle beaches the appropriate value of K would be much smaller (possibly by a
factor of 10 to 20).
where g is the ratio of wave height to water depth at breaking which may be taken as 0.9, a’ is the ratio of solid
to total volume for the sediment and may be taken as 0.6 if better information is not available, and s is the
sediment specific gravity which may be taken as 2.65 if better information is not available. Hb is the wave
breaker height, commonly taken as the significant wave height at breaking. K is a coefficient commonly taken as
0.32 for typical beach sands. For much coarser shingle beaches the appropriate value of K would be much
smaller (possibly by a factor of 10 to 20).
 SPM Eq. (When deep water waves given)

This equation uses deep water or deep water equivalent waves.

It is for US ft units for Ho. The annual rate is in cu. yds

Q ls = I ls /{ (gs - g)(1 – por)}

KrKs

KQ
KQ
Cubic Qls  K y H o 5/ 2 [cosa o ]1/ 4 sin 2a o
Yard/year
K y  137
. * 105 for . yd 3 / year
 K values

• using breaking wave angle and Hb

lbs/sec  K=0.92 US units lbs, ft.sec
N/s  K=0.92 SI units N, m, s
yd3/year  K=7500 US lbs, ft, sec

• Using deep water angle and H0

yd3/year  Ky=137,000 US units ft, sec
Sample Problem
• Given: Ho’= 4 ft; ao = 30o; T = 5 s;
• Duration = 4 hr
• Find: Qls =
• Storm Transported Volume =

m = 0.02

co

ao
Ho’= 4 ft
 Sample Problem (summary)
Qls  K y H o 5/ 2 [cosa o ]1/ 4 sin 2a o

K y  137
. * 105 for . yd 3 / year
Qls = 3.7 million yd3/year
Volume ls = 1689 yd3

m = 0.02

• Duration = 4 h
co

ao=30o
Ho’= 4 ft
 Potential Longshore Qls
The SPM gives the Potential Longshore transport approximation:

Qls  K y H o 5/2 (cos a o )1/4 sin 2a o

Where Ky ~ 137000 for H0 in ft and Qls in yd3/year

Qls
Wind rose
Directional distribution of littoral
transport using wind rose plot

26
Example of wind regime areas

Figure III-4-2. Example wind regime areas (Solid circles denote example wind
regime areas. Open circles are nearby buoys used to construct wind roses)
27
Lake Pontchartrain – 10 year Windrose

28
29
 Bins for 10-year record on LP

fij = 0.175%
Range of wind speed = (7.2+10.1)/2 to (10.1+13)/2 = (8.64,11.5) m/s
Degrees per bin = 360/16 = 22.5o 30
What happens when the wind is parallel to the shore?

Qls  K y H o 5/2 (cos a o )1/4 sin 2a o

• Option 1: assume transport = zero

• Preferred Option: Split the bin and obtain a sub-bin with
onshore wind and a sub-bin with offshore wind. Each will be
½ of the other bins in terms of bin angle and percentage
(fij/2).

Qls

31
Example: Net/gross Longshore transport
Net transport
Gross transport
 Potential longshore transport equation (Q)
• The U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERC, 1984) equation is the
most widely used and best know equation

where g is the ratio of wave height to water depth at breaking which may be taken as 0.9, a’ is the ratio of solid to
total volume for the sediment and may be taken as 0.6 if better information is not available, and s is the sediment
specific gravity which may be taken as 2.65 if better information is not available. Hb is the wave breaker height,
commonly taken as the significant wave height at breaking. K is a coefficient commonly taken as 0.32 for typical
beach sands. For much coarser shingle beaches the appropriate value of K would be much smaller (possibly by a
factor of 10 to 20).
48
where g is the ratio of wave height to water depth at breaking which may be taken as 0.9, a’ is the ratio of solid
to total volume for the sediment and may be taken as 0.6 if better information is not available, and s is the
sediment specific gravity which may be taken as 2.65 if better information is not available. Hb is the wave
breaker height, commonly taken as the significant wave height at breaking. K is a coefficient commonly taken as
0.32 for typical beach sands. For much coarser shingle beaches the appropriate value of K would be much
smaller (possibly by a factor of 10 to 20).
49
Other transport relationship
• Schoones and Theron (1996) assembled extensive filed data (123
cases) and evaluate the skill of fifty-two relationships and determined
that Kamphuis (1991) equation provides the best fit to the date.

In which Q is the total longshore sediment in kg/s, αb is beach slope, θb

wave direction; peak wave period (Tp)
50
 Lateral grading

• Progressive longshore changes

in the size, shape or density of
pebbles and sand grains,

An upper beach of shingle and a lower beach of sand on the east coast
51
of Dungeness in SE England
 Lateral grading
• Fine to coarse sediment distribution along the shore
• Longshore drift may move finer particles further

Fine coarse
coarse Fine

52
 Long shore grading
• longshore drifting acts selectively on beaches
with particles of various sizes, the finer grains
being moved further because they are more
easily mobilized by waves and transported by
associated currents.
• Longshore drift larger particle along longshore
and fine towards sand bar in cross shore direction

53
The coastline of Hawke Bay, New Zealand,
showing lateral grading of the beach east
from the mouth of Mohaka River (A) to
Waitaniwha (F), as indicated by modal
grain size graphs. The wind rose shows
the prevalence of SW waves (X) and SE
waves (Y), but there is also a southerly
swell (W). Predominant longshore drifting
is eastward, and grading has been
attributed to attrition of pebbles to sand
as they move along the shore.
There are local variations alongshore
because sand and gravel is added from
eroding cliff sectors. It is also likely that
some sand and gravel have been swept in
from the sea floor

54
Cross Shore Processes
Process of movement of sediment in a
direction perpendicular to the shore
• Dune and berm erosion
• Beach erosion
• Beach and berm rebuilding
• Dune rebuilding
• Beach stability
• Bar formation
• Rip currents

Cross shore sediment transport (Method)

Fall time model
Simple cross-shore transport model (Moore 1982)
Traction model for cross-shore transport
55
56
Onshore Transport -- Beach

• Hurricane Ivan – residual waves

• Low amplitude long period waves - swells
57
Cross-shore Movement

58
Shoreward Wave Currents Seaward Wave Currents

L’ Fd L’ Fd

Wsinf Wsinf Ff

f Ff Ff=N tanf f
N N

W’ L’ = Lift force W’

59
 Energy Flux

Cross-shore sediment
transport
Shoreline distance

• 30 m variation of shoreline position;

• Strong correlation with wave energy flux (large
fluxes associated with storms caused a shoreline
retreat, after the storm shoreline retreat was
rapid
Beach Slope

60
Cross-shore Fall time
model (Dean 1973)

• Model for cross-shore transport in the surf zone based on suspension

of sand grains by wave breaking and the eventual settling of sand to
the bottom Criteria dividing line between storm and normal beach profiles Dean 1973

S S=βHb

t, w

If the fall time is greater than T/2, the sand particle would be carried offshore, and Fall time is less than T/2 sediment will be
carried to onshore motion; β=0.3; D is the Dean number; 61
Cross-shore transport: Barred and nonbarred profile
Kraus and Larson (1988) large wave
tank: line separating barred and
nonbarren profiles

Lab 4<c1<5 large scale

2<c1<2.5 small scale;
w cm/s

63
 Example Problem
• Given: H0 = 4 ft; T = 6 sec; D50 = 0.5 mm; Temp ~ 20oC; m~2%
• Determine if the tendency will be to form bars or berm.
• Solution:
• Find w
• Find Lo = gT2/(2p)
• Find Ho/Lo =
• Find pw/(gT)=

64
w cm/s

65
66
67
68
69
Ho 4 ft
T 6 s
0.5
D50 mm
Temp 20 oC
m 0.02

w 7.4 cm/s 0.243 ft/sec

Lo 184.5 ft

Ho/Lo 0.022

p w/gT 0.004
Fig 8.14 Slightly favoring Berm formation

70
Berm-Bar criteria based on
dimensional fall velocity

71
Berm-Bar criterial based on
dimensional fall velocity and wave
height to grain size ratio

72
Beach Stability: relationship between beach slope,
sand size, level of protection (Exposed to protected)

73
 Example Problem
• Given: H0 = 4 ft; T=6 sec; m=2%; D50=0.5mm
• Determine: for this wave is movement on or offshore?
• Is the beach stable? Assume “exposed” beach.

m=2% = Beach slope = 1:50

D50 = 0.5mm

74
Beach Stability

75
 Example problem:

Ho 4 ft

T 6 s

D50 0.5 mm 0 ft

Temp 20 oC

m 0.02

w=Vf 7.4 cm/s 0.24 ft/sec

Lo 184.5 ft

Ho/Lo 0.022

Ho/(wT) 2.746
Fig 4.29 Favoring offshore Bar formation

Ho/Md 2440
Fig 4.30 Favoring offshore Bar formation

Fig 7-20 Stable Beach

76
Onshore-offshore currents
• Onshore-Offshore exchange: Limited exchange of water
• Mass transport velocity in shoaling waves
• Wind induced surface drift
• Wave-induced setup
• Current induced by irregularities on the bottom
• Rip current
• Density current

Rip currents are narrow and concentrated seaward-directed

flows that extend from close to the shoreline, through the surf
zone, and varying distances beyond.
77
 Basic Rip Current Mechanics

Relationship Of Rip Currents to Bars

•Waves break on the sand bars before they break in the channel area.

•Wave breaking causes an increase in water level over the bars* (between bars
and shore) relative to the channel level.

•A pressure gradient is created due to the higher water level over the bars*
(between bars and shore).

•This pressure gradient drives a current along the shore (the feeder current).

•The longshore currents converge and turn seaward, flowing through the low
area or channel between the sand bars.

79
 Rip Current: observational summary
• Speeds are typically 1-2 ft/sec but can pulse up to 8 ft/sec.

• Speed increases with Wave breaker height.

• Cross shore structures like jetties redirect longshore currents in the offshore direction causing a rip current to
develop.

• Headland points that often separate littoral cells, can cause rip currents.

• They are caused by a longshore variation in the build up of water

in the surf zone
• Topographic Refraction
• Wave-Wave Interactions
• Coastal Structures
• Rips increase with:
• Increasing onshore wind
• Decreasing water level (tides /seiches)
• Rips evolve in both space and time
Components of rip currents
When do rip current occurs?
• Extremely large wave events
• Tropical cyclone swells
• Observation from New Jersey
• Extreme waves>8ft, T>8s
• Long period wells of any height
• Energy propagation is an important factors P=E*Cg
• Rip current index is the ratio of swell energy flux multiplied by the
ratio of the wave height to water depths
Rip current drowning in
continental US (1994-2012)
Common features of rip current: spacing and size

Flatter Slope: Wider surf zone on gently sloping

beaches.

• A commonly observed feature of rip currents is their relatively regular spacing along the shore
• Hino ( 1975 ) suggested that the spacing, y, was determined by the surf zone width, xb, with Y/Xb = 4

with H the breaker height, T the incident wave period

• Short (1985)
and w the sediment fall velocity (Dean, 1973 ).
Rip current and bathymetry (wave setup driven)

Variable Longshore Bathymetry

Rip current and Structure Cross shore structures like jetties and redirect longshore
currents in the offshore direction causing a rip current to
Groin Jetties develop.
Pier
Variable longshore wave height:

Variations in Longshore Wave Height

87
 Equilibrium Beach Profile

•Hypothetical state of the actual shoreline

•Sandy beach: approach ideal state
•Rocky/marshy beach do not reach
• Dynamic state: Balance between
material (size), process (wave, tide, wind)
and climate
•Two dimensional equilibrium
•Three dimensional equilibrium
88
Two- and three-dimensional equilibrium profile
90
91
Kamphuis et al. (1986) show that beach slopes through the breaker zone
are a function of the ratio (Hb/D50) which represents the ratio of
disturbing wave forces to restoring particle forces.

• If D50 is constant, larger waves generate milder beaches;

• If Hb is constant, larger grain sizes generate steep beaches;
Equilibrium beach profile: Application

• EBP methodology is useful for variety of engineering applications

• Beach nourishment with materials different than the native material
• estimating the cross-shore sediment transport
• Characteristics of EBP (from many years of study)
• They tend to be concave upward
• Slopes are greater for coarser materials
• Higher waves result in milder slopes
 Equilibrium Beach Profile
The equilibrium beach profile:
a. Long-term
b. Subaqueous beach shape
c. Dynamic equilibrium
d. Balance between destructive forces (wave climate) and constructive
forces

o y

h(y)

94
Destructive forces:
(1) gravity;
(2) high turbulence level in the surf zone;
(3) seaward return flow - undertow

Constructive forces:
(1) the net onshore shear stresses at the bottom that result from
the nonlinear (asymmetric) form of a shallow-water wav;
(2) the streaming velocities at the bottom;
(3) the intermittent suspensions and selective transport of the
particles by the wave-induced crest (shoreward) velocities.
95
 Uniform Wave Energy Dissipation Model

Assumption: The turbulence in the surf zone, created by the breaking

process, is the dominant destructive force.

The amount of turbulence is represented by the amount of energy

dissipated per unit water volume by the breaking waves.

96
The uniform energy dissipation per unit volume for a given grain size is D*(d)

y
XX
X F

X
F is energy flux.
This equation states that any change in water energy flux F over a certain
distance divided by the water depth must be equal to the average wave
energy dissipation per unit volume for which the sediment is stable.

y’ is the shore-normal coordinate directed onshore

The energy flux in the surf zone

Therefore,

The dissipation per unit volume is

y is oriented in an offshore direction

98
Integrate the above equation for h, we have

• The equilibrium beach profile has a two-thirds power law;

• The dimensional parameter A is the profile scale factor, which is a
function of energy dissipation and grain size;

o y

h(y)
99
Power 2/3 rule for equilibrium profile and
empirical evidence
 1. A=(1.04+0.086lnD)2
0.0001<D<0.001
2. A=20D0.63

Notes:
(1) The A values above, some to four places, are not intended to suggest that they are known to
that accuracy, but rather are presented for consistency and sensitivity tests of the effects of
variation in grain size.
(2) As an example of use of the values in the table, the A value for a median sand size is A=0.112
m1/3. To convert A values to ft1/3, multiply by 1.5.
101
Notes:
(1) The A values above, some to four places, are not intended to suggest that they are known to
that accuracy, but rather are presented for consistency and sensitivity tests of the effects of
variation in grain size.
(2) As an example of use of the values in the table, the A value for a median sand size is A=0.112
m1/3. To convert A values to ft1/3, multiply by 1.5.
102
 Limitations:

1. The beach slope goes to infinity at the shoreline;

2. The profile scale factor A is dimensional;
3. The profile deepens monotonically in the offshore direction. Thus, it
is unable to describe sandbars.
4. Need to account for gravity and forces from wave setup
 Example Problem

D50 = 0.29 mm (Virginia Beach)

o y
From Table 7.2
h(y)
Ap = 0.123 m1/3

At y = 100 m

h(y) = 0.123 * 1002/3 = 2.65 m

104
 Depth of Closure
The offshore depth beyond which beach profiles taken over time at a given site coincide
is known as the depth of closure.
Seaward of this depth, the net sediment transport does not result in significant changes
in mean water depth.

Hallermeier (1981)

He is the “effective” wave height, which is the significant wave height that is exceeded
only 12 hours per year.

(Kamphuis) 105
 Depth of closure (approximation)
Birkemeier(1985) based on numerous beach profile in
U.S. Army Field Research Facility with the CRAB, More appropriate
For field data

or
Huston 1995 express the DoC in terms of mean annual significant wave
height

Application of depth of closure for offshore disposal of material:

• Planning beach surveys
• if it is sand, which is expected to be moved by the waves onto the beach, the material should be placed in depths
shallower than hin
• If the material is not wanted on the beaches, such as would be the case for most dredged material from harbors,
it should be placed offshore of the depth of closure.
• Hallermeir (1978) noted that the depth of closure is about half that depth predicted for incipient motion, as
discussed in the last section.
 Sea Level Rise
One effect of sea level rise

• higher water levels allow larger waves closer to the shore;

• erosion of the shore face

Over Long-term
• material moved offshore not returned
• erosion (decrease in sediment volume)
• recession of beach profile (moving landward)
 Bruun Rule
• The Bruun Rule predicts a landward
and upward displacement of the
equilibrium cross-shore profile in
response to a rise in mean seal level
The profile is considered to translate landward and upward without
change in form. The Bruun rule can be derived based on the conservation
of sand volume.

The volume generated by a horizontal profile recession R

ΔV+ = R(h*+B)

The required sand volume from a sea level rise

ΔV_ = W*S
We now equate the two volumes

(Bruun Rule)

R – recession (erosion) distance

S – seal level rise
W* - distance to the depth of closure
B – berm height
tanθ – average slope over the active profile
Assumptions: Bruun Rule
Standard Bruun Rule: strictly 2- dimensional and assumes the following:
• The upper beach is eroded due to the landward translation of the profile;
• The material eroded from the upper beach is transported offshore and deposited,
the eroded volume is equal to the volume deposited; and
• The rise in the nearshore bed from this deposition is equal to the rise in sea level.
• It assumes no offshore sand losses beyond the DoC or landward (overwash
and/or Aeolian) losses;
• It does not accommodate a substantial proportion of fine sediment in the
eroded material too fine to remain in the littoral zone; and
• It does not accommodate variations in sediment properties across the beach
profile (i.e sediment within the beach berm and dune is assumed to be of
similar character to that in the offshore zone).
Bruun rule:
• As nearshore beach slope (h/W*) is about 0.01 to 0.02 for
many of the world’s coastlines, the standard Bruun Rule
gives a retreat (R) of between 50xS and 100xS, which are
commonly applied as a ‘rule-of-thumb’ in engineering
practice (SCOR, 1991).
• The underlying assumptions made in the standard Bruun
Rule places limitations on its application
Equilibrium profiles in front of vertical barriers

S’=S/hw1
S’=S/hw1; h*’=h*/hw1; ∆ h’w= ∆ hw /hw1

∆ h’w=S/hw1

h*’=h*/hw1
 Example Problem

A beach has a grain size of 0.2 mm and a berm height of 2 m. If the

depth of the active profile is 6 m, what is tanθ and what is the shoreline
response to a sea level rise of 1 m?

1m
Step 1: Equilibrium beach profile 2m
6m

D50 = 0.2 mm, A = 0.1 m1/3 (Table)

Step 2 Depth of closure, find W*

Step 3 Beach slope W*

Step 4 Recession distance