Bull Eng Geol Environ (2015) 74:845–859
DOI 10.1007/s10064-014-0675-8
ORIGINAL PAPER
Permeability and groutability appraisal of the Nargesi dam site
in Iran based on the secondary permeability index, joint hydraulic
aperture and Lugeon tests
Abdolazim Azimian • Rassoul Ajalloeian
Received: 11 June 2014 / Accepted: 4 September 2014 / Published online: 19 September 2014
 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014
Abstract Seepage from the body and foundations of
dams is one of the most important design parameters highly
influenced by permeability. Also, permeability is one of the
basic parameters for designing grout curtains, preventing
water from escaping from the foundation and avoiding
negative seepage pressures in borrow materials used for
grouting. In this work, rock mass classification of a rock
foundation dam site was carried out using the rock mass
rating (RMR) and geological strength index (GSI) systems.
This study was mainly conducted to evaluate permeability
and groutability at the Nargesi dam site in Iran using sec-
ondary permeability index (SPI), joint hydraulic aperture
(JHA) and Lugeon tests. Also, the dam foundation was
evaluated by pressure tests (WPTs) that indicated the need
for a grout curtain below the dam foundation. The rock
mass quality of the samples obtained via the SPI in con-
junction with the drill core jointing degree acts as a useful
reference for ground treatment design. The dam foundation
groutability was zoned according to an SPI classification
point view. There is no direct relationship between the JHA
values and water take in all the sections, but a direct
relation is observed in some boreholes. Such a relationship
can be attributed to joint characteristics such as persistence,
etc. The results of this work revealed, except for a few
cases, there is a reasonable correlation between secondary
permeability index (SPI) and rock quality designation
(RQD) values. Based on these results, a grout type and
A. Azimian (&)
Department of Environmental Engineering, Science and
Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Bushehr, Iran
e-mail: azim.azimian1366@gmail.com
R. Ajalloeian
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, The University
of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
composition was suggested for construction of the grout
curtain.
Keywords Rock mass classification  Permeability and
groutability  Nargesi dam site  Water pressure tests
(WPTs)  Secondary permeability index (SPI)  Joint
hydraulic aperture (JHA)
Introduction
The sealing of dam foundations and abutments requires
considering the geological conditions of the rock masses in
question, including lithology, rock strength, hydrothermal
veins as primary discontinuities, main joint sets as sec-
ondary discontinuities, distribution of the discontinuities,
quality and strength of the joint-filling material and their
permeability conditions (Sadeghiyeh et al. 2012). The
decision to construct a grout curtain depends largely on the
results of water pressure tests (WPTs), as introduced by
Lugeon (Ewert 1997c). Turkmen (2003) evaluated the
seepage problem at the Kalecik Dam in Turkey. In this
regard, similar studies were also conducted at the Chapar-
Abad Dam in Iran by Uromeihy and Barzegari (2007);
Ghobadi et al. (2005) investigated leakage through the
Karoon-1 Dam in Iran and Nusier et al. (2002) studied
remedial measures to control seepage problems at the
Kafrein Dam in Jordan. Kocbay and Kilic (2006) studied
the hydraulic conductivity along the dam axis of the Obruk
Dam in Turkey; Romanov et al. (2003) modelled the effect
of soluble rocks on water leakage beneath a dam and
Gurocak and Alemdag (2011) studied permeability and
injection depths at the Atasu dam site (Turkey) based on
experimental and numerical analyses. Uromeihy and Far-
rokhi (2011) investigated groutability at the Kamal-Saleh
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Dam based on Lugeon tests. Rasouli Maleki (2011) studied
engineering geological problems of the Havasan Dam, with
emphasis on clay-filled joints in the right abutment.
Geological and permeability conditions of a rock mass
can be evaluated based on laboratory, field and office
studies. This paper discusses the Nargesi Dam under con-
struction in the Fars province. The river bed is at a level of
77 m and has a total storage capacity of about 113 million
m3. The dam will be built on the Shirinrood River about
45 km southeast of Kazerun southwest Iran; its geograph-
ical coordinates are 29N and 52E. The formations in the
foundation of the dam consist of Gachsaran, Mishan and
Bakhtiary formations. The main problem of this dam is that
bedding plains of the Mishan formation in the riverbed are
parallel to the flow direction. Thus, to deal with this
problem a grouting project was initiated. In this regard, the
permeability of rocks was determined and analyzed using
about 202 WPTs in 16 boreholes excavated in the dam
axis. These tests were carried out with a single packer
system. The boreholes were drilled stepwise and WPTs
were carried out in each section from top to bottom. The
borehole diameters were 76, 86 and 101 mm and the test
section length varied from 3 to 7 m.
This paper provides a permeability and groutability
assessment of the dam foundation based on SPI, JHA and
Lugeon tests and discusses the ability to control water
seepage from the foundation and abutments.
Site geology
Geologically, the Nargesi dam site is located in the folded
Zagros basin on quaternary deposits and sedimentary for-
mations. The sedimentary formations in the dam site are
Bakhtiary, Mishan, and Gachsaran formations. Pliocene
Bakhtiary formations consist of massive conglomerates
with medium strength and weak limy cement. Conglom-
erate grains are limestone, sandstone, marlstone and chert.
This formation is exposed on both the right and the left
abutments of the dam site with a maximum thickness of
about 36 m in the left abutment and 40 m in the right
abutment. The general dip and dip directions of these
layers in the right and left abutments are 05–07/310–
315 (dip/dip direction). The boundary of this formation
with the Mishan formation is an angular discontinuity. The
Miocene Mishan formation consists of greenish-gray to
light gray marlstone with interbeded fossiliferous lime-
stone. This formation is exposed in a large part of the right
abutment, in the riverbed and in considerable areas of the
dam reservoir. The Mishan formation layers are usually
overlaid by alluvium at the dam site. The general dip/dip
direction of these layers in the right and left abutments are
34–41/207–235 and 35–45/210–215. Finally, the
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A. Azimian, R. Ajalloeian
Lower Miocene Gachsaran formation consists of multi-
colored layers of marlstone, anhydrite, gypsum, gypsufer-
rous marl, limey marl, marly limestone, sandstone and
medium to weak strong limey sandstone. This formation is
exposed in a large part of the right abutment. The dip/dip
direction of these layers in the right abutment is 32–76/
215–228. In addition, the dip/dip directions of the joint
systems were measured along the dam foundation and
abutments using the hemispherical projection method
suggested by Priest (1985). Four sets of joint systems were
recorded for the left and right abutments (Fig. 1b). No
main fault, fold or karstic phenomenon were observed
during the site exploration, except for small scale tension
cracks.
Engineering geological characteristics
The engineering geological properties of the site were
evaluated on the basis of information obtained from bore-
holes drilled along the river and dam axis (Fig. 1a).
Rock quality designation (RQD)
Rock quality designation (RQD) is perhaps the most
commonly used parameter for characterizing the jointing
system of a rock mass. However, it has some limitations for
some rocks where low values are often related to the
breakage of rock during drilling operations. The relation-
ship between RQD and the engineering quality of a rock
mass, as proposed by Deere (1968), is very poor (0–25),
poor (25–50), medium (50–75), good (75–90) and very
good (90–100). Plots of the mean RQD records at different
parts of the dam site are illustrated in Fig. 2. Generally,
RQD values in the left abutment and dam foundation are
remarkably higher than those of the right abutment.
Rock strength and classification
The engineering geological properties of the rock mass
were determined from field and laboratory tests (Table 1).
The standard method of assessing the strength of a geo-
material is to recover representative core samples (length
of core in pieces [100 mm) and test them in the labora-
tory. However, in the case of the Bakhtiary formation
conglomerate, it was not always possible to recover core
samples large enough to represent the rock mass. The rock
mass rating (RMR) classification proposed by Bieniawski
(1989) and the geological strength index (GSI) proposed by
Hoek et al. (1995) were utilized to provide a basis for
estimating the deformation and strength properties of the
rock mass. The RMR values for the Mishan, Gachsaran and
Bakhtiary formations were determined as 41–62, 36–55
Permeability and groutability appraisal of the Nargesi dam site
Fig. 1 Cross-section of the dam site (a) and the joint systems of the dam site (b)
Fig. 2 RQD values at different part of the dam site
and 31–52, respectively, which stand as ‘‘fair’’ for all
formations.
According to the GSI values, the Mishan formation is
classified as blocky to very blocky and fair (GSI = 42–52).
The Gachsaran formation is classified as very blocky to
blocky/disturbed and fair (GSI = 39–48). Finally, the
847
Bakhtiary formation is classified as blocky/disturbed and
poor to fair (GSI = 32–43).
Permeability
WPTs are the most common and appropriate method for
determining rock mass permeability induced by presence
of weak planes. The results of rock mass permeability tests
are strongly related to the geometric characteristics and
weathering degree of the water paths (Ewert 1997a, b, c, d;
Karagqzel and Kilic 2000).
WPT results can be used to delimit zones of the dam
foundation with different rock mass qualities (Foyo et al.
2005). Presently, it is broadly accepted that WPTs can
induce modifications in the joint characteristics (Shibata
et al. 1981; Kutzner 1996; Foyo and Sánchez 2002). The
rock mass quality obtained from WPTs completed with the
degree of jointing of the drill core acts as a useful reference
for ground treatment design (Foyo et al. 2005). The
underlying foundation, with its unknown discontinuities,
123
848 A. Azimian, R. Ajalloeian

Table 1 Summary of Properties Mishan Formation Gachsaran formation

laboratory testing results on
different rock units Min Max Mean Min Max Mean

Saturated unit weight, cs (kN/m3) 21.09 26.47 23.74 21.43 23.21 22.33
Dry unit weight, cd (kN/m3) 16.87 24.62 20.79 19.81 21.23 20.44
Water absorption (%) 2.26 19.86 11.28 8.37 15.77 12.61
Porosity percent (%) 6.01 33.76 16.46 16.95 26.52 22.06
Moisture percent (%) 0.70 10.95 5.35 1.23 9.33 4.77
Poisson’s ratio (m) 0.15 0.37 0.26 0.18 0.33 0.28
P-wave velocity (Cp, m/s) 1667.67 3959.18 2845.34 1257.43 3354.58 2345.69
S-wave velocity (Cs, m/s) 848.16 2184.70 1523.65 782.20 1945.65 1445.29
Cohesion (c, MPa) 0.41 1.2 0.73 0.28 0.82 0.58
Friction angle (/) 22.15 43.4 32.55 16.23 32.92 23.72
Elasticity modules, E (GPa) 11.43 81.87 43.34 8.83 29.67 22.49
Uniaxial compressive strength, UCS (MPa) 12.75 89.76 48.32 11.55 35.42 26.75
Point-load strength index, Is50 (MPa) 0.53 3.9 2.4 0.42 1.44 1.16

needs to be improved by improving its engineering prop-
erties and ensuring a watertight reservoir. Grouting with
cement for bedrock improvement is a common remedy
(Verfel 1989; Deere 1982; Houlsby 1992) and there are
numerous examples of its application (Ewert 1985; Weaver
1991; Warner 2004). In this paper, the permeability and
groutability of the dam foundation was investigated based
on SPI, JHA and Lugeon tests.
Water pressure test (WPTs)
WPTs, in which pressurized water is injected into the
borehole, are an effective field test of rock mass perme-
ability and are mostly conducted using the Lugeon method.
The water take (discharge) is measured under increasing
(loading) and decreasing (unloading) pressure steps
(amount of pressure changed) at proper time intervals
along the borehole.
The Lugeon (LU) value should be calculated for a
selected amount of pressure applied during the test and
based on the tangent slope of the P–Q diagram (Ewert
1997a, b, c, d). Nonveiller (1989) believes that the tangent
slope of the P–Q diagram is a proper expression of the LU
value at any point on the diagram and may explain many
complex cases.
According to Nonveiller (1989), the LU value may be
calculated as:
10Q
Lu ¼ ð1Þ
Pe L
where Lu is the LU value; Q is the water take (discharge)
in l/min; L is the length of the tested (injected) interval in
m; Pe is the effective pressure at the middle of the tested
interval in bar.
The LU value is the volume of water (l) in a unit of time
(min) over a unit of length (m) for a tested interval at a
pressure of 10 bar (Nonveiller 1989; Houlsby 1990).
The LU value is the best physical parameter for
expressing the status of discontinuities in a dam founda-
tion. The test pressure is usually adjusted to take into
account the depth and type of rock mass. Information
obtained from WPTs can also be used to determine the
water/cement ratio and grout injection pressure. Houlsby
(1990) suggests that when the LU values are below three,
no grouting is necessary; when they are between 3 and 10,
a single row of grouting holes is required, while with
values of over 10, a grout curtain should include three rows
of grouting holes. The result of this test introduces a
P–Q diagram with five behaviors: linear, turbulent, joint
filling, wash out and dilation. Kutzner (1996) also found
five behaviors based on the P–Q diagram, which are dif-
ferent from the view point of Houlsby. However, Ewert did
a geological interpretation of the Lugeon test using
P–Q diagrams. In addition to the five behaviors, he inter-
preted WPT results such that saturation and tight rock
mass, for the first time, were used to analyze hydraulic
fractures. Lugeon was the first to describe WPTs; other
researchers then did many interpretations of this test.
Houlsby (1990) interpreted this test and also the hydro-
jacking phenomenon.
Investigation and analysis of permeability in dam site
based Lugeon test
To investigate permeability and conduct other studies in
the Nargesi dam site, 44 exploratory boreholes were drilled
and 342 Lugeon tests were carried out. WPT results are

123
Permeability and groutability appraisal of the Nargesi dam site
Fig. 3 LU values measured at various parts of the dam site
Fig. 4 Type of water flow in various parts of the dam site
plotted in Fig. 3. As shown in the figure, 57, 60, 53 and
56 % of the boreholes in the left abutment, foundation,
right abutment and total dam site, respectively, indicate LU
values less than 3. The higher values in the right and left
abutments and dam foundation may be related to the rate of
weathering, the fracturing of the rock mass and lithology.
The analysis to determine the water flow mechanism in the
left and right abutments, dam foundation, and total dam site
is shown in Fig. 4. As shown in the figure, 48, 61, 63, and
59 % of the boreholes at the left abutment, foundation,
right abutment and total dam site, respectively, showed no
flow. Dilation, turbulent and laminar flows are predominant
in the left abutment, dam foundation and right abutment,
respectively. Analysis of the frequency percent of each
flow mechanism, based on permeability values, in the left
and right abutments, dam foundation and total dam site is
shown in Fig. 5. The majority of laminar and dilation flows
occurred in the sections with permeabilities between 3 and
10 Lu. Also, most of turbulent flow occurred in the sections
with a permeability in the range of 30–60 Lu. Washout
flow occurred in the sections that mainly had a perme-
ability varying from 3 to 30 Lu. Finally, the majority of
void filling flow occurred in sections indicating a perme-
ability less than 3 Lu (Fig. 5). After the dam site
849
Fig. 5 Frequency percent of each flow mechanism based on perme-
ability values
investigation and considering the fact that relevant factors
such as the permeability of the surrounding rock units in
the left abutment are medium, a 45–60 m deep grout cur-
tain was proposed in one linear row with a minimum of
2 m spacing in the left abutment. Additionally, taking into
account the relevant factors such as permeability, discon-
tinuities and lithological properties of the rock foundation,
it was proposed that a 57–106 m deep grout curtain in one
linear row with a minimum of 2-m spacing is needed in the
right abutment. The ratio of cement to water was decided
as 0.7:1 at the injection process.
Secondary permeability index (SPI)
To describe and estimate the permeability of jointed rock,
WPT results should be transferred to k-values instead of
LU values. Much more effort had been done to find a
correlation between WPT results and k-values. This prob-
lem was solved by using the SPI method. SPI values are
usually expressed as the conversion of the take in the WPT
into a permeability coefficient analogous to a porous mass
(Foyo et al. 2005). Typically, dam foundation grouting
requires the rock mass be previously divided into zones
with different ground treatments. The SPI, which is based
on water flow through fissures, allows zoning the dam
foundation into different quality classes. The importance of
the SPI method is the possibility of distinguishing differ-
ences between dilation and hydraulic fracturing. Dilation is
occurs in an elastic manner, whereas hydraulic fracturing
occurs in a plastic manner (Ajalloeian and Moein 2009).
Therefore, the SPI is defined as follows:


Ln 2le
r þ1 Q
SPI ¼ C ð2Þ
2ple Ht
where SPI is the secondary permeability index in l/s per m2
of borehole test surface; C is a constant dependent on
viscosity and an assumed rock temperature of 10 C, equal
to 1.49 9 10-10 (Snow 1968); le is the length of the test
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section (m); r is the borehole radius (m); Q is water flow
absorbed by fissured rock mass (l); T is duration of each
pressure level (s); and H is total pressure expressed as
water column (m).
The proposed index has the following features:
1. The SPI index is based on classical parameters such as
water pressure and water absorption. Also, the index
does not require being converted to an LU value;
2. The index unit is in l/s m2; however, it is related to the
rock mass introduced for rock mass classification;
3. It is a source for rock mass classification; and
4. It expresses the permeability.
Based on the SPI, rocks are classified into four groups.
Cclassification does not prove the strength and geome-
chanical characteristic of a rock; rather, it classifies rocks
based on permeability.
Class A: If rock permeability (based on SPI) is
2.16 9 10-14 l/s m2 or less, it is placed in class A, des-
ignating the rock as impermeable and as the best class of
rock; as such, the rock does not need any improvement.
Rock permeability in this class is almost 1 Lu.
Class B: If the permeability is in the range of
2.16 9 10-14–1.72 9 10-13 l/s m2, the rock is placed in
Class B. Rock permeability in this class is 1–8 Lu. Here,
permeability is relatively low to appropriate; the rock needs
to be locally improved.
Class C: In this class, the SPI is in the range of
1.72 9 10-13–1.72 9 10-12 l/s m2, denoting the presence
of rock mass zones with a water take that greater than 8 Lu.
The rock mass quality is defined as ‘‘poor’’ and ground
treatment is considered necessary. Additional WPTs con-
firming the need for improvements are recommended.
Class D: Permeability is 1.72 9 10-12 l/s m2 B SPI.
The rock permeability in this class is equivalent to over
80 Lu. For this status, the rock needs to be extensively
improved. Additional WPTs confirm the need for ground
improvement for sections of this class.
During WPTs, it is recognized that characteristics of frac-
tures and hydraulic routes are affected; these changes influ-
ence the permeability of rock and rock classification,
respectively. Therefore, to present a suitable classification of
rock mass and permeability, it is necessary to identify the
changes that occur during the test. These changes are properly
described using Pressure-SPI (Pt-SPI) diagrams. According to
Foyo et al. (2005) and Ajalloeian and Moein (2009), five types
of Pt-SPI graphs are recognized. These graphs are as follows:
Type A: In this type of diagram, a fixed amount of the
SPI is used to calculate the different pressures of the SPI,
which means that the SPI for increasing and decreasing
pressure steps are similar. Thus, the SPI in relation to the
maximum pressure is used to classify the rock mass;
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A. Azimian, R. Ajalloeian
Type B: This type indicates the wash behavior of
fractures. This process is initiates at the beginning of the
test. The resulting index of the descending pressure is
higher than the ascending pressure, while the higher SPI
amount is applied to categorize the rock mass;
Type C: In this type hydraulic fracturing is manifested as
splitting. The joint opening is irreversible and at
descending pressures the SPI value is higher than
ascending pressures. It must be noted that this process
occurs due to the test reducing the rock mass quality of
the test section during the test. As a result, the test
reflects an important SPI value increasing at descending
pressures.
Type D: This type shows the caulk of the existed
fractures by means of the fillers in each section. The
filled cracks, which cause a reduction in SPI values with
advanced pressure, are developed. Occasionally, a drop
in the decreasing pressure disappears (turbulent current)
and the least SPI value is used in the rock mass
classification.
Type C.2: This type, proposed by Ajalloeian and Moein
2009, indicates hydrojacking. The joint opening is
reversible and the SPI values are similar for descending
and ascending pressures because the rock mass condi-
tions recover when the pressure is decreased. The test
reflects a significant increase in the SPI value at
pressures higher than the maximum ; the initial condi-
tions return at the end of the test. Houlsby (1990)
proposes the process of dilation; when at the maximum
pressure level the water absorption is much higher. The
peak pressure produces a much higher LU value as
compared to the values before or after it. This pressure is
sufficient for local dilation cracks to develop, induced by
compression of softer materials or by closure of adjacent
parallel cracks.
SPI-based evaluations of permeability and groutability
Left abutment
On the left abutment of the Nargesi Dam, along the dam
axis, 56 WPTs tests were carried out in 5 boreholes to
determine the permeability in the Mishan and Bakhtiary
formations. In this abutment, 48 % of the sections have
RQD values higher than 90 %, which fall in the ‘‘very
good’’ class. Also, more than 21 % of the sections fall in to
the ‘‘good’’ class in term of their RQD values (Figs. 2, 6a).
Based on the RQD values, the Bakhtiary formation in left
abutment is placed in the ‘‘poor’’ class, as it has weak
cement, whereas more than 80 % of the tests indicated
RQD values less than 50 %, which represents the ‘‘poor’’
and ‘‘very poor’’ classes. In the Mishan formation, about
Permeability and groutability appraisal of the Nargesi dam site
Fig. 6 Comparison between
degree of jointing (RQD) and
rock mass classification
obtained from the SPI (SPI with
logarithmic scale): a left
abutment; b riverbed; c, d right
abutment
91 % of the sections are placed in the ‘‘good’’ to ‘‘very
good’’ classes. In this abutment, about 90 % of the tests
indicated an accurate correlation between rock mass
quality definition as per the SPI and the degree of jointing
as defined using the RQD index (Fig. 6a). Moreover, based
on the SPI values, class D was not observed in any section.
In this part, the majority (39.5 %) of sections fall in the C
class and need ground treatment. Also, additional WPTs
confirmed that improvement is recommended. The test
results also showed that a larger number of C class sections
851
exist in the Bakhtiary formation, mainly due to its weak
cement and the washing of its cementatious materials
during the WPTs. As most section RQD values are ‘‘good’’
to ‘‘very good,‘‘ it can be concluded that one or more wide
joints with high hydraulic activity exist in this area, where
using a thick grouting mixture is recommended. Moreover,
based on SPI values, 35 % of the sections fall in class B;
consequently, local improvement is required, although
their RQD values are being placed on the ‘‘good’’ class.
Finally, 25 % of the sections fall in class A, implying no
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need for ground treatment. In general, this abutment shows
a reduction in permeability with increasing depth.
Dam foundation
Along the dam axis, 51 WPTs tests were carried out in 5
boreholes on the dam foundation to determine the perme-
ability in the Mishan formation. In this area about 49 % of
the sections have an RQD greater than 90, which situates
them on the ‘‘very good’’ class, while more than 27 % of
the sections are situated in the ‘‘good’’ class based on their
RQD values. In the dam foundation, about 8 % of the
sections fall in the ‘‘poor’’ and ‘‘very poor’’ classes
(Figs. 2, 6b), whereas 49 % of them are situated in class A
based on SPI values, implying no need for ground treat-
ment. In this part, more than 76 % and 24 % of the sections
are placed in the ‘‘good’’ to ‘‘very good’’ and ‘‘medium’’ to
‘‘poor’’ classes, respectively. Low permeability and high
RQD values in these sections indicate low jointing and
small opening,s again implying no need for ground treat-
ment in these sections.
Based on SPI classification, 25 % of the sections are
placed in class B, implying the need for local ground
improvement; although most RQD values equate to the
‘‘good’’ class. In this part of the dam, sections in the C class
are most frequent (21.5 %) and require treatment. Results
of new WPTs also confirm the need for ground improve-
ment in this part. Since in most sections RQD values are
‘‘good’’ to ‘‘very good,’’ implying the presence of one or
more wide joints with high hydraulic activity, using a thick
grouting mixture is recommended. Based on SPI classifi-
cation, 4 % of the sections fall in class D, emphasizing the
need for an extensive ground treatment program. Also, the
results of new WPTs confirm the urgent need for ground
treatment in this part. Finally, in the dam foundation about
76 % of the tests show an accurate correlation between
rock mass quality definition from the SPI and the degree of
jointing as defined using the RQD index (Fig. 6b).
Right abutment
Along the dam axis on the right abutment, 95 WPT tests
were carried out in 6 boreholes to determine the perme-
ability in the Mishan, Gachsaran and Bakhtiary formations.
In this part, about 18 % of the sections have an RQD more
than 90, placing them in the ‘‘very good’’ class, whereas
about 47 % of the sections are placed in ‘‘good’’ and
‘‘medium’’ classes (Figs. 2, 6c, d). Moreover, 40 % of the
sections fall in the Class A SPI classification, indicating no
need for ground treatment (Fig. 6c, d). In addition, 12 % of
the sections are placed in Class B, implying the need for
local ground treatment, although most RQD values are
being placed in the ‘‘good’’ class. As 47 % of the sections
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A. Azimian, R. Ajalloeian
Fig. 7 Hydraulic behavior obtained by the SPI at various parts
are C and D classes, ground treatment must be extensive in
this part. Here, about 84 % of the tests show an accurate
correlation between rock mass quality definition from the
SPI and the degree of jointing as defined using the RQD
index (Fig. 6c, d).
Generally, in this abutment, except for borehole BH-34,
the permeability decreases with depth (Fig. 6c, d). The test
sections with a low degree of jointing, but high perme-
ability activity (such as depth 38–43 min borehole BH-
24A), should be highly noted, as they indicate presence of
at least one joint with a very high activity. In this state, a
thick grouting mixture is recommended for ground treat-
ment. On the other hand, at a depth of 70–115 m in BH-34
borehole, a different situation is represented. Since the SPI
also shows a class D designation in this case and the degree
of jointing is high, a thin grouting mixture is required.
Generally, for sections of the D class, the rock needs to be
extensively improved. The results of new WPTs also
confirm the need for ground improvement in this part.
Comparison of hydraulic behavior obtained
from the SPI
After performing WPTs in the Nargesi dam site, the SPI
was calculated for each step. Then, using the results the
curves proposed by Foyo et al. (2005) and Ajalloeian and
Moein (2009) were plotted. Using these curves, the rele-
vant behavior of each section was determined.
According to Foyo et al. (2005) and Ajalloeian and
Moein (2009), five types of Pt-SPI graphs are recognized
(Fig. 7). In the right and left abutments (Fig. 7), the
dominant behaviors are D and A. In the dam foundation,
dominant behaviors are also D and A types; type B
behavior was not observed in any dam foundation sections.
At three locations, the dominant behavior is D and B-type
behavior was observed in the left abutment more than the
Permeability and groutability appraisal of the Nargesi dam site 853

right abutment. Hydraulic fracture behavior (C type) was

observed in the dam foundation more than in other
locations.

Assessment of the damaged piece as a result

of the hydraulic fracture phenomenon

Hydro fracturing occurs when the fluid pressure in the

isolated portion of the borehole reaches a critical level,
called ‘‘breakdown.’’ At breakdown, the rock tension
fractures cause borehole fluid loss and a drop in pressure.
When pumping is stopped, the hydraulic line feeding the
test interval is held shut. The pressure when the injection
ceases and when the test zone is ‘‘shut in’’ is called the Fig. 8 Vulnerability and quality drop in response to hydraulic
fracturing
shut-in pressure. In any case, the shut-in pressure reflects a
balance between the internal pressure in the fracture and
the in situ stress acting on the fracture face. Fracturing
causes a major change in rock mass classification and is
based on the SPI; this phenomenon is easily identifiable
using Pt-SPI grapgraphs. This phenomenon is similar to the
type A diagram prior to the critical pressure of the curve.
At the critical pressure PC, the intimidated pressure
appears in the SPI, due to the fact that the SPI, which is
related to the critical pressure, is introduced as the rock
mass classification. Consequently, the rock mass damage is
explained by the highest amount of SPI. By applying the
suggested SPI factor, it is possible to grade the amount of
changes in rocks due to hydraulic fracturing, based on the
case study introduced in three groups: Fig. 9 Analysis of the results, depth versus SPI

1. Less vulnerability in response to hydraulic fracturing;

2. Average vulnerability in response to hydraulic
fracturing;
3. High vulnerability in response to hydraulic fracturing;
Low vulnerability and a drop in quality as a result of
hydraulic fracturing are not that much when compared to
that of the rock when graded on its own. In middle vul-
nerability group, the quality drop is enough for a quality
down-grade; in this situation, the phenomenon just happens
when cracks start to open. In comparison, in the high
vulnerability group, the drop in quality is enough to down-
grade the rock quality two levels; in this situation the
phenomenon just happens when a new crack appears.
To qualify a hydraulic fracture and its rate, different
sections of boreholes were examined. Two grades can be
distinguished from WPTs conducted in the Nargesi dam
(Fig. 8).
Less vulnerability: The decrease in quality caused by the
hydraulic fracturing doesn’t move the rock mass quality to
an inferior order (BH-37 18–23 m, BH-2 35–40 and
60–65 m, BH-4 58–63 and 73–80 m, BH-7 17.5–22.5 m,
BH-9 74–79 m, BH-22 59–64 m and BH-34 70–75 m).
Average vulnerability: Consequently, with the joint
opening and persistency, the SPI shows a significant
deterioration in the quality of the test section. This grade
implies transition to an inferior class order (BH-5 30–35
and BH-8 40–45 m).
Relationships between SPI and depth
In this work, the rock mass classification defined by the SPI
and test depths were analyzed (Fig. 9). The analysis was
carried out using the tests conducted in three intervals.
Surface tests were carried out at depth of less than 15 m.
Results indicate mainly class C and D. Nevertheless, a
number of class B tests appear associated with a high
degree of unloading. Class D reflects the presence of
especially active zones. Intermediate tests were carried out
at depth between 15 and 30 m. Results indicate dominance
of class C and, more or less, class D. However, an
important number of Class B tests appear associated to the
high degree of unloading. Deep tests were carried out at
more than 30-m depths. The results indicate the prevalence
of class A and B, but still more or less C and D classes are

123
854
Fig. 10 Cross section of dam regarding different rock mass quality
present. Therefore, an improvement of the rock mass
quality is confirmed. This interval was considered long
enough to ensure the rock mass quality is not excessively
increasing. At this depth, the presence of discontinuities
with high permeability is possible.
Comparison between SPI and degree of jointing
A comparison between the rock mass quality and the SPI
and the degree of jointing for five boreholes in the left
abutment, five boreholes in the riverbed and six boreholes
in the right abutment reveals the following (Fig. 6):
1. Less than 20 % of the tests show an accurate
correlation, indicating differences between rock mass
quality definition from SPI and the degree of jointing
defined using the RQD index;
2. Sections indicated by SPI as having a low degree of
jointing, but high permeability activity, such as depths
5–30 m in borehole BH-8 (Fig. 6c), are required to be
noted. The RQD index indicates on average a low
degree of jointing; however, the SPI confirms that at
least one joint with very high activity exists. As a
result, the rock mass quality of the test section is class
D, ‘‘very poor.’’ Under these conditions a thick
grouting mixture is recommended;
3. For depths of 70–115 m in borehole BH-34 a different
situation is present, where the SPI shows class D and a
high degree of jointing, requiring a thin mixture for
ground treatment.
For both cases, the Pt-SPI graphs show the presence of
in-fill weathering, so it is necessary to wash the best section
123
A. Azimian, R. Ajalloeian
before the test. The rock mass quality of the dam founda-
tion is defined using the SPI (Fig. 7), allowing determi-
nation of different zones, each one requiring a separate
treatment. In this section, treatment must be carried out in
two series (Fig. 10):
Series A: This series involves grouting the zones in
which the SPI indicates poor rock mass qualities of class C
and class D. These classes are persistent zones extending
from the right abutment to left abutment. In this series,
grouting can be done in WPT boreholes, with respect to the
reduced opening of the joints. It seems advisable to grout a
thick mixture with maximum penetration capacity (0.5:1.0
W/C ratio), except at 70–115 m for borehole BH-34 where
the SPI shows class D and a high degree of jointing,
requiring a thin mixture. The Pt-SPI graphs of the WPTs
carried out in borehole BH-24A at depth 3–8 m reveals the
presence of clogging of the in-fill. Therefore, washing of
the test sections before grouting is recommended.
Series B: Here, grouting corresponds to the sealing of
the test zones where the SPI indicates Class B and medium
to low degree of jointing, requiring local treatment. This
criterion is exclusively fulfilled by BH-37 at a depth of
18–38 m. In these conditions, a grouting mixture with a
thickness of 0.5:1.0 W/C is recommended. Nevertheless, as
a security measure, for those test sections in which the
degree of jointing is high, the Pt-SPI graph showed the
presence of weathering clogging of the in-fill. These sec-
tions are BH-1 (depths 39–44 and 69–80 m), BH-34 (depth
40–45 m) and BH-24A (depth 38–43 m). Therefore, the
test sections must be sealed with a medium to thick gro-
uting mixture (1:1 W/C) and the rest with a thin mixture
(3:1 W/C). It must be noted that the presence of weathering
Permeability and groutability appraisal of the Nargesi dam site
in-fill requires the washing of these test sections before
grouting. Here, the presence of Class A implies that ground
treatment is not required.
Joint hydraulic aperture (JHA)
In order to understand and quantify the influence of dis-
continuities on rock mass behavior, it is necessary to
measure and represent the relevant characteristics of the
discontinuities quantitatively. Characteristics of joints
greatly influence permeability and cement take. These
characteristics include aperture, roughness, frequency,
persistence, filling, orientation and dip (Bell 2000). The
mechanical aperture or opening (em) of a discontinuity is
defined as the distance between the opposing interfaces
measured along the mean normal to the discontinuity sur-
face. Mechanical aperture is usually generated as a result of
geological shear displacement along an irregular disconti-
nuity surface. Discontinuity apertures in rock immediately
adjacent to a free surface are also particularly susceptible
to opening as a result of blast induced vibrations, erosion
and washing out of in-fill (Priest 1993). The permeability
of most igneous and metamorphic rock materials, and
many sedimentary rocks, is negligible. This low perme-
ability means that the flow of fluids through the material
and, hence, the permeability of rock mass of this type are
dependent on the geometry of the fracture network. Since
the flow of fluid along a single fracture is dependent on its
aperture, any measure of permeability of a mass provides
an indirect measure of the effective hydraulic aperture of
the conducting discontinuities as (Priest 1993):
 
42Qt m 1=3
eh ¼ ð3Þ
kgphHo
where Qt is total flow (m3/s), k is the discontinuity fre-
quency, h is the section length, v is the viscosity of water,
and Ho is the effective pressure in the section. All of the
parameters in Eq. 3 can be measured directly, except dis-
continuity frequency k, which may be obtained from Eq. 6.
Barton et al. (1985) concluded that the theoretical
smooth wall effective hydraulic aperture eh is generally
less than the mechanical aperture em determined by the
physical measurement techniques outlined above. They
found that flow test results reported for a range of rock
types indicate that the ratio em/eh was close to unity for
smooth-walled discontinuities with a relatively large
aperture, but this ratio increases to values exceeding seven
as the roughness and the aperture increase. Barton et al.
(1985) also found that the following equation is valid for
em C eh and provides the best model for the observed flow
test data trends (Barton et al. 1985; Barton 2008).
855
e2m
eh ¼ em  eh ð4Þ
ðJRCÞ2:5
Discontinuity frequency k is one of the fundamental
measures of the degree of fracturing in a rock mass. Fre-
quency can be expressed in terms of the frequency dis-
continuities that are observed or predicted to occur in a unit
volume, a unit area or a unit length of a sample from a
given rock mass (Snow 1968). Also, RQD proposed by
Deer (1964) as a measure of the quality of a borehole core
is defined as the percentage of a given length of core (or
length of borehole) that consists of sound, intact pieces
0.1 m (4 inch) or longer (Deer 1964; Deer 1989). Figure 11
shows variation of the theoretical TRQD given by Eq. 5
plotted against discontinuity frequency k (Priest and
Hudson 1976) for a general threshold value of t = 0.1.
TRQD ¼ 100ekt ð1 þ ktÞ ð5Þ
Priest and Hudson (1976) showed that a linear approx-
imation to Eq. 4 for t = 0.1 m is given by the tangent to
the curve at the inflection point where Eq. 5 for this tangent
is given by:
TRQD0:1 ¼ 110:4  3:68k ð6Þ
To estimate the discontinuity frequency k for the bore-
hole core, Eq. 4 cannot be inverted to yield k explicitly in
terms of an RQD. Therefore, it is necessary to adopt an
iterative method for determination of k. A good starting
point for this iteration can be found by inverting the linear
approximation in Eq. 6; hence
110:4  TRQD
k¼ ð7Þ
3:68
Effect of aperture frequency
Using the data obtained from WPTs and k obtained from
Eq. 7, hydraulic aperture values were calculated for each
pressure step. As the representative of hydraulic behavior
of rock mass, the aperture for each step is selected using
Lugeon graphs and the given step. The zonation and mean
frequency of the apertures of boreholes along the dam axis
were also computed and shown in Fig. 12. As shown in the
figure, only 2 % of the joints have an hydraulic aperture
greater than 0.3 mm, while 33 % of them have an aperture
of 0.05–0.1 mm. This percentage is even higher for bore-
holes at greater depths.
Effect of aperture frequency and flow rate
Dalmalm (2004) applies parameter Q (lit/min m) for
computing flow for each joint. Due to its unclear rela-
tionship with pressure, this parameter is not accurate
enough. Using the Lugeon equation (Eq. 1), it is possible to
123
856
Fig. 11 Relation between
TRQD and mean discontinuity
frequency (after Priest and
Hudson 1976)
Fig. 12 Effect of aperture frequency
also calculate the effect of absorbed water on effective
pressure.
Since it is intended to measure flow passing from each
joint, this parameter is rewritten as follows:
Passed flow = flow rate (l/min) for each joint at a
10 bar pressure.
Fj ¼ 10Q=Pe NJ ð8Þ
where Fj is flow passing from each joint and Q is water
take [discharge, (l/min)], Pe effective pressure at the mid-
dle of the tested interval (bar), and NJ is the total number of
joints used in test section.
Since this parameter is calculated statistically and the
flow rate percentage is calculated with respect to the total
flow, a pressure value of 10 bar and other Lugeon criterion
coefficients or other criteria have no impact on computa-
tions and are applied equally to all data. Next, the effective
aperture range and percentage of flow rate passing from
each aperture were determined and compared with the
frequency of the corresponding aperture (Fig. 13).
123
A. Azimian, R. Ajalloeian
Fig. 13 Frequency of apertures versus flow
As shown in Fig. 13, hydraulic apertures smaller than
0.3 mm, having the least frequency (3 %), pass a small
share of the flow (3.5 %). Also, those with an aperture
0.1–0.5 mm, having the maximum frequency (34 %), pass
a small share of flow (5 %). In comparison, the maximum
passing flow (52 %) is for joints with an aperture
0.2–0.3 mm, attributed to apertures in corresponding joints
(Table 2). Also, a meaningful relation could not be estab-
lished between joint frequency and water take. Finally,
there is no direct relationship between joint aperture and
water take in all the sections, but a direct relation is
observed in some boreholes. This may be due to other
characteristics of joints such as persistence, etc.
Effect of grouting on apertures and frequency
of the joints
A graph of water absorption reduction is plotted in Fig. 14,
using information from Table 2 and Fig. 13. Figure 14
shows that flow rate can be decreased by filling of the joints
and their sealing.
Permeability and groutability appraisal of the Nargesi dam site 857

As shown in Fig. 14, by reducing the aperture to foundation, right abutment, and total dam site showed
0.1 mm, flow is reduced to 72.34 % and a permeability of no flow records. The dilation state mainly occurs in the
3.45 9 10-6 m/s is obtained. As the aperture is reduced to left abutment, but in the right abutment and foundation
0.05 mm, flow and permeability values reach 94.5 % and the dominant states are turbulent and laminar.
2.46 9 10-7 m/s, respectively (Table 3). • The majority of laminar and dilation flow occurred in
sections with permeabilities ranging from 3–10 Lu.
Also, turbulent flows occurred in sections with perme-
Conclusions abilities mostly in the range of 30–60 Lu. Washout
flows occurred in sections with permeabilities of
Due to the complexity of a rock mass, rock mass perme- 3–30 Lu. Finally, the majority of void filling flow
ability and groutability is not possible to be evaluated by occurred in sections have a permeability less than 3 Lu.
only applying WPTs. The main objective of the present • Since the Bakhtiary formation has weak cement and
study is to cope with this shortcoming using the JHA and cementatious material is easily washed during WPTs,
SPI methods, Lugeon tests and degree of jointing. The the major part of the left abutment can be classified
results and conclusions of this work can be listed as mainly as Class C (SPI). Therefore, ground modifica-
follows: tion is necessary for this part. Besides, as 35 % of the
sections are placed in the Class B, local improvement is
• It can be seen that 57, 60, 53 and 56 % of the sections
recommended for them. Additionally, since 25 % of the
at the left abutment, foundation, right abutment and
sections fall in Class A, ground treatment is not needed.
total dam site have LU values less than 3. Also, 48, 61,
Finally, there is no D class in this abutment.
63 and 59 % of the sections at the left abutment,
• In the dam foundation, 49 % of the sections are SPI
Class A, which implies no need for ground treatment.
Table 2 Effect of each aperture frequency on flow rate In addition, 25 % of sections are placed in Class B,
Joints aperture (mm) Frequency (%) Flow (%) indicating that local ground treatment is required.
Finally, 26 % of the sections were determined as Class
\0.3 3.30 3.5 C and Class D; extensive ground treatment is needed
0.2–0.3 7.04 52.70 for this part.
0.15–0.2 7.12 12.81 • In the right abutment, 40 % of the sections fall in SPI
0.15–0.1 23.05 21.87 Class A, indicating no need for ground treatment, while
0.1–0.05 34.44 5.77 12 % of the sections are Class B and need to be
[0.05 25.05 3.35 improved locally. Also, 47 % of the sections are Class
C and D, requiring extensive treatment.
• Vulnerability to hydraulic fracture is low in most
sections, except for BH-5 and BH-8. The SPI amount in
BH-5 and BH-8 boreholes shows a significant deteri-
oration in the quality of the test section, implying
transition to an inferior class order.
• Based on SPI classification, the dominant behavior of
the total dam site is classes D and B,observed more in
left abutment than the right abutment. Hydraulic
fracture behavior (C type) was observed in the dam
foundation more than other parts.
• Surface borehole test results mainly indicate classes C
and D, while for the intermediate boreholes the results
indicate the dominance of Class C. Finally, for the deep
Fig. 14 Relationship between flow reduction and decreased aperture borehole tests, the results indicate higher frequency of

Table 3 Comparison between decreased aperture and reduced flow

Joints Primary Residual aperture at Residual permeability at Residual aperture at Residual permeability at
distribution permeability 72.34 % decrease in flow 72.34 % decrease in flow 94 % decrease in flow 94 % decrease in flow
(m/s)

Fine 5.2 9 10-5 0.1 mm 3.54 9 10-6 0.05 mm 2.46 9 10-7

123
858
classes A and B; however, C and D classes are still
present in this part.
• Generally, in the Nargesi dam site about 80 % of tests
show an accurate correlation between the SPI rock
mass quality definition and the degree of jointing as
defined using the RQD index.
• In light of the dam investigation results and considering
the permeability of the surrounding rock in the left
abutment is medium, a 45–60 m deep grout curtain was
proposed in one linear row with a minimum of 2 m
spacing in the left abutment. Additionally, taking into
account the permeability, discontinuities, and litholog-
ical properties of the rock foundation, it is necessary to
construct a 57–106 m deep grout curtain in one linear
row with a minimum spacing of 2 m. The ratio of
cement to water (C/W) was decided as 0.7:1 at the
injection process.
• Hydraulic apertures smaller than 0.3 mm (3 %) pass a
small share of the flow (3.5 %). Also, apertures
0.1–0.5 mm wide (34 %) pass a small share of the
flow (5 %). In comparison, most of the flow (52 %)
occurs in joints with an aperture 0.2–0.3 mm wide,
attributable to apertures in corresponding joints.
• A meaningful relation could not be established between
joint frequency and water take. In addition, there is no
direct relationship between joint aperture and water
take in all the sections, but a direct relation is observed
in some boreholes. This may be due to other charac-
teristics of joints such as persistence, etc.
To prevent dissolution grains of gypsum and anhydrite
during grouting of the Gachsaran formation, a cut-off wall
is recommended. Moreover, it is necessary to provide a
grout curtain below the dam foundation. Also, according to
the findings of this work, except for some cases, there is a
reasonable correlation between SPI and RQD values.
Based on these results, grout type and composition can be
suggested for construction of the grout curtain.
Finally, results also show that the greatest amount of
water seepage occurs in the left abutment. In terms of
permeability and groutability, the Mishan formation pre-
sents better conditions as compared to the Gachsaran and
Bakhtiary formations.
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