Internal Assessment:

Investigating the effect of different durations of an interference task on

the accuracy of trigrams recalled.

IB Psychology HL
 Table Of Contents

Introduction 2

Exploration 4

Analysis 6

Evaluation 7

References 11

Appendices

Appendix I - Standardised Instructions 13

Appendix II - Materials Needed 14

Appendix III - Data 15

Appendix IV - Consent Form 19

Appendix V - Debrief Note 21

1
Introduction

Memory is an integral part of Psychology. Much effort has been made in attempting to

understand memory, looking at the Multi-store Model of Memory, which will be one of

the focuses of this investigation. This structural model, discovered by Atkinson & Shiffrin

in 1968, suggests that there are three storage systems; short term memory (STM), long

term memory (LTM), and sensory memory. These memories are processed at different

levels, in the sequence of; encoding (the processing of information), storage (the bank

of what is encoded), and transfer (getting information out of the memory storage). At

each level, there will be different extents of capacity (how much information can be

held), duration (the period whereby the storage can hold the information), and type of

encoding. Therefore, this model was proposed in an attempt to explain how one retains

information, while also exploring the duration of one's memory.

This model suggests that when attention is given to a specific information, it is

registered into one’s sensory memory. With its large capacity, the sensory memory then

retains this information until it is either transferred to the STM or decays, if not

rehearsed. The information now in the STM has a limited duration and storage of

between 15-30 seconds and 7+-2 chunks of information respectively, which is why

rehearsal is required to transfer it to LTM. With an unlimited capacity, LTM can store this

information for long periods and is thought to be permanent.

Peterson & Peterson investigated the duration of STM in 1959. They introduced six

conditions of different durations of the interference task (3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18

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seconds) to understand how it will impact the accuracy of the trigrams recalled. It was

found that as the interference task duration increases, the accuracy of the trigrams

recalled decreases. This suggests that the STM storage has a limited duration and if not

recalled within that time frame, information gets lost, supporting the Multi-store Model of

Memory.

This experiment aims to study the duration of STM as proposed by Atkinson and

Shriffrin (1968), suggesting that it has a duration of 15-30 seconds, done by replicating

and simplifying the Peterson and Peterson investigation. The independent variable of

the investigation is the duration of the interference task while the dependent variable is

the number of trigrams accurately recalled after the interference task. While the capacity

and duration of STM are limited, it plays a vital role in one’s life. As a student, where

memorisation is needed daily, understanding how long information can be held in the

STM store and how quickly it will decay may help one strategise learning processes to

better study and memorise information.

The null hypothesis is that there will be no difference in the accuracy of the responses

(number of accurately recalled trigrams) in the 3-second interference task condition and

the 18-second interference task condition. The research hypothesis is that the

participants in the 3-second interference task condition will recall the trigrams more

accurately than the participants in the 18-second interference task condition.

3
Exploration

This experiment followed a repeated measure design where the same sample of

participants was exposed to both the 3-second and the 18-second interference task

condition, which eliminates participant variability. Conducting the experiment online

made it a struggle to find participants, therefore, the repeated measure design was ideal

for this experiment as fewer participants are needed, since the same sample was

needed in both conditions.

In the experiment, many factors were controlled to ensure the accuracy and reliability of

the results were maintained. It was specified that the participants should go to a quiet

room to avoid auditory and visual interference that may become a confounding variable

and affect their results. A timer was used to ensure that the trigrams were displayed for

two seconds each so that the participants received the same amount of time to look at

each trigram. Another measure that was taken to eliminate confounding variables was

that the participants’ and researchers’ microphones were turned off when the trigrams

were being displayed so there was no interference.

These participants were recruited through opportunity sampling so that the sample was

representative of different genders and nationalities of the desired age group. By

sending out an invite through social media, the researchers reached out to their

connections as it was a quicker and easier method since the experiment was being

done virtually. This led us to have a diverse sample of 15 people with 10 different

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nationalities and a close to equal gender distribution (8 males, 7 females). The criteria

being first-year IB students, aged 16-18 from their school, ensured that they were at

similar education and literacy levels and being in the GMT +2 time zone ensured that it

was the same time of day. A consent form (attached in Appendix IV) was given to all

participants where the aim of the investigation was shared and a debrief was done,

assuring them that confidentiality would be maintained.

The trigrams (attached in Appendix I) were made of only random consonants that were

not consecutive or repeated twice. These characteristics were set to eliminate

confounding variables and familiarity in the trigrams, which would make it easier to

recall. Additionally, a Google Classroom and a Zoom call was set up for the experiment

to be executed smoothly in a virtual environment.

For the investigation, the participants were invited onto a Zoom call where 10 trigrams

were displayed for 2 seconds each. The participants were first instructed to count

backwards for 3 seconds, then asked to recall and note down the trigrams. This process

was repeated, with the duration of the interference task changing from 3 seconds to 18

seconds.

5
Analysis

Figure 1: The mean number of trigrams recalled

The data is presented visually in the form of a bar chart to aid the analysis of the

experimental results. The mean has been calculated as a measure of central tendency

and standard deviation for the measure of dispersion. The mean value for the number of

trigrams accurately recalled in Condition 1 is 2.333 whereas in Condition 2 it is 1.267.

As displayed in Figure 1 above, the participants in the 3-second interference task

condition were able to recall the trigrams more accurately than in the 18-second

interference task condition. The calculated standard deviation for the 3-second

interference task is 1.543 and 18-second interference task is 1.223. The larger value in

the 3-second interference task condition shows that the data in that condition is more

widely spread from the mean. This shows that there is a higher possibility that the

results were due to the manipulation of the independent variable, rather than it being a

coincidence.

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The calculated Z-value was -2.8031, which is less than the range of the “critical Z-score”

of -1.96 ー 1.96, suggesting that the score is below the mean average. Ergo, the

researchers rejected the null hypothesis and accepted the research hypothesis,

indicating that participants in the 3-second interference task condition recalled trigrams

more accurately than that of the 18-second interference task condition.

Evaluation

Since the number of trigrams recalled accurately in Condition 2 was lower, the research

hypothesis was accepted, which is that the participants in the 3-second interference

task condition will recall more trigrams with higher accuracy compared to when in the

18-second interference task condition. This supports the finding that the duration of

STM is around 15-30 seconds, as proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in the Multi-store

Model of Memory. In the 18-second interference task condition, the distraction task is

longer, giving the participants less time to rehearse, causing the memory on the

trigrams to decay and the accuracy to deteriorate. However, in the 3-second

interference task condition, there was a shorter duration of the distraction task, meaning

that they were able to rehearse the trigrams and keep it in their STM, as the duration for

STM is up to 15-30 seconds.

This experiment followed the repeated measure design, which eliminated the possibility

of varying IQ and understanding in the 3-second and 18-second interference task

7
condition, as they were the same group of participants in both conditions. The

experimental design made it possible for the researchers to use a small sample of

participants as each person participated in the test for both conditions, which was ideal

because it is difficult to find participants online that fit in the criteria. However, because

the same participants were used for both conditions, an order effect such as boredom or

familiarity may occur, causing participants to perform the second condition differently for

reasons other than the independent variable. The order effect can be reduced by

counterbalancing which is by conducting the 18-second interference task interval first,

and observing whether the results differ.

Since the experiment took place online due to the Covid-19 lockdown, opportunity

sampling was used as a method to recruit participants. This is because it is an easy way

to gain access to a sample of participants, as the researchers could reach out to the

contacts they already had and request them to participate in the experiment. However,

due to this, the researchers were not able to reach out to all the students in the school,

only a select group. The researchers made sure that the nature of the sample was

cross-culturally valid and representative to the best of their ability, by ensuring there was

close to equal gender distribution and participants from various nationalities. However,

the sample still lacked representativeness since the participants were friends of a

particular age group. To make the sample more representative, the researchers could

have gotten people from various age groups. This could be done by reaching out to

more people through a common platform such as assembly, going to the admissions

8
office and asking for a list of names of students, then running a random generator to

choose the participants, making it random sampling. By doing so, everyone in the

school would have an equal chance of being selected and there would be people from

various age ranges, rather than just the select group that their message reached.

Another factor that may have impeded the results is if the participants figured out the

aim of the experiment. As they were personal friends of the researchers, they could

have been biased or possibly motivated to act in favour of the research hypothesis,

hindering the validity of the results. Again, this could be solved by using random

sampling instead of opportunity sampling, as there would be no personal relationship

between the participants and the researchers.

As for the procedure of the experiment, many factors were controlled to ensure the

accuracy of the experiment. For example, a timer was used to measure the duration of

two seconds and the slides with the trigrams were changed after two seconds had gone

by to ensure that the participants received the same amount of time to look at each

trigram. If they received more time, it will be more likely that they remembered that

specific trigram. It was ensured that the trigrams consisted of random consonants only

and were meaningless, not resembling easily recognisable words. All the participants

were also told to engage in the experiment from a quiet room, to get rid of distractions.

These factors were controlled to eliminate confounding variables that may have affected

the experiment so that the results that the researchers obtained were not from any

changes due to external factors, rather the intended manipulated variable. Other than

9
that, it was to standardize the procedure so that the experiment could be replicated, with

the same results obtained. However, although the participants were instructed to be in a

quiet room, this was not possible for all the participants and hard to ensure as they

participated in the experiment from their respective homes, due to the unprecedented

times of Covid-19. If the experiment were to be replicated, it would be conducted in a

physical classroom setting, instead of a virtual one, where the environment and noise

level are controlled. Additionally, it would be possible to eliminate human error when

programming the trigram slides to change after 2 seconds, instead of using a timer to

manually change them, as it would be more standardized if done electronically. Having

these controls in place would result in a better, more accurate experiment.

The results of the investigation are significant and support the duration of STM, as

proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in the Multi-store Model of Memory. This is shown in

the investigation by the accuracy of the trigrams recalled decreasing as the time

intervals for the interference task increases.

10
References

Jean, M., & Peterson (1959). Journal of Experimental Psychology Short-term Retention

of Individual Verbal Items.

Atkinson, R., & Shiffrin, R. (1971). The Control of Short-Term Memory. Scientific

American, 225(2), 82-91. Retrieved January 28, 2021, from

http://www.jstor.org/stable/24922803

Willén, R. M., Granhag, P. A., & Strömwall, L. A. (2016). Factors Affecting Two Types of

Memory Specificity: Particularization of Episodes and Details. PloS one, 11(11),

e0166469. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166469

Cowan, N. (2008). What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working

memory? Progress in Brain Research Essence of Memory, 323-338.

doi:10.1016/s0079-6123(07)00020-9

Mchugh, M. L. (2003). Descriptive Statistics, Part I: Level of Measurement. Journal for

Specialists in Pediatric Nursing,8(1), 35-37. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6155.2003.tb00182.x

Craik, F. I. M., & Watkins, M. J. (1973). The role of rehearsal in short-term memory.

Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12(6), 599–607.

https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-5371(73)80039-8

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Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory

research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 671–684.

https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-5371(72)80001-x

Popov, A., Parker, L., & Seath, D. (2017). Cognitive approach to behaviour. In IB

Diploma Programme: Psychology Course Companion (2nd ed., pp. 123-160). Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Norman, D. A. (1971). Models of human memory. Retrieved January 28, 2021, from

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=sGQhBQAAQBAJ&lpg=PA203&ots=kB_Hg1aXf

f&dq=multi store model of memory&lr&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=multi store model of

memory&f=false

Koriat, A., Goldsmith, M., & Pansky, A. (2000). Toward a Psychology of Memory

Accuracy. Annual Review of Psychology, 51(1), 481–537.

https://doi.org/10.1146/annure1v.psych.51..481

RepovŠ, G., & Baddeley, A. (2006). The multi-component model of working memory:

Explorations in experimental cognitive psychology. Neuroscience, 139(1), 5–21.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.12.061

12
Appendix I: Standardised Instructions

“Please go onto the Google Classrooms and have your Google Document

“answer sheet” open. Do not note anything on it until we tell you to”

Condition 1:

1. “We will be showing you a number of trigrams, try to remember them as

many of them as accurately as possible. Do not write or note them down

until we tell you to”

2. After displaying 10 trigrams “Now, count backwards from 243 until you

hear the timer ring”

3. After 3 seconds “Now, please recall and note down all the trigrams you

can remember”

Condition 2:

1. “We will now be showing you a number of different trigrams, try to

remember as many of them as accurately as possible. Do not write or note

them down until we tell you to”

2. After displaying 10 trigrams “Now, count backwards again from 243 until

you hear the timer ring”

3. After 18 seconds “Now, please recall and note down all the trigrams you

can remember”

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Appendix II: Materials needed

- A Google Classroom

- A Google Document “Answer Sheet” (attached below)

- A list of 20 trigrams, presented one per slide (attached below)

- A timer

- A Zoom call

Answer Sheet:

List of Trigrams:

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Appendix III: Data

Raw Data

Participant Number of Trigrams Accurately Recalled

Condition 1 Condition 2

1 1 0

2 0 0

3 0 0

4 1 1

5 4 4

6 4 3

7 3 2

8 5 1

9 1 1

10 2 0

11 2 1

12 2 0

13 4 2

14 3 2

15 3 2

Average 2.333 1.267

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Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test Results:

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17
Standard Deviation:

Condition 1 (3-second interference task):

Condition 2 (18-second interference task):

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Appendix IV: Consent Form

The consent form for our experiment was done on Google Forms. Attached is a picture

of the consent form that was made.

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Appendix V: Debrief Note

This study was aimed at determining the duration of short term memory. Previous

studies, such as Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) found that this was a short period of time,

around 18 seconds and that without rehearsal, it cannot be transferred to long term

memory. The researchers also showed that short term memory is different from long

term memory in terms of duration.

How this was tested:

In this study you were shown 10 trigrams on slides, you were then asked to count

backwards from 243 for three seconds. After which you were asked to recall the

trigrams, and record them on a google document. You were then asked to repeat this

experiment with a different set of trigrams, counting back from 243 for 18 seconds this

time.

Our Main Question and Hypothesis:

The researchers had expected to find that short term memory has a duration of about

18 seconds and that making you do a different task for that amount of time would lead

you to more errors in their recollection of the trigrams. We also expected to find that the

filler task preventing you from rehearsing would also make it harder to recall the

trigrams.

Why is this important?

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This is important because it allows us to understand just how long short term memory is

and plays a large role in telling us how memory and the brain works. It also confirms

that there is more than one type of memory as opposed to the other hypotheses.

Want to know more?

If you want to know more about the study and short term memory, you may want to

consult simplypsychology.org. Should you like to receive a report of our findings once

complete, you can contact anyone of us through the IB group chat.

Thank you once more for your participation.

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