Kuczmann FEM in Electromagnetics Presentation

The Finite Element Method
in Electromagnetics
Author
Prof. Miklós Kuczmann
Department of Automation
Széchenyi István University
Győr, Hungary
kuczmann@sze.hu
Reviewer
Prof. Anouar Belahcen
Aalto University, Helsinki, Finland
2014, 2016
Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Széchenyi István University, Győr, Hungary
Timetable

At the end you will be able to …
• understand Maxwell’s equations from the viewpoint of numerical analysis;
• understand potential formulations in detail used in the CAD-software;
• understand finite element method in detail;
• write your own code if needed;
• modify, improve open-source codes;
• model any kind of electromagnetic field problem;
• understand a kind of nonlinearity and a solver.

Let me introduce myself

~ 300 Arrabona – Roman military camp and city
~ 700 Hungarians arrive to Győr
1000- County and bishop’s seat
1300- Commerce and handwork industry
1700- Baroque age, rich merchants and craftsmen
1870- Rapid industrial development (food, textile)
1950- Extensive industrial development

Programmable logic controllers
Microcontroller applications
Design of ASIC circuits
Logical circuits
Robotics, mobile vehicles
Motors and electric drives
Control theory, soft computing
Numerical Field Computation

Short CV: Research field:

Born in 1977, Hungary • Numerical Electromagnetic Field Computation
Electrical Engineer MSc, 2000 • Finite Element Method
PhD, 2005 • Hysteresis Modeling
Dr. habil., 2011 • Antenna Simulation
DSc, 2015 • Control theory
Full Professor, 2011- • Programmable Logic Controllers
Head of Department of Automation, • Microcontroller applications
2011- • Robotics
Dean, 2015- • Motors and electric drives

Your turn
Name
Country
Your research field
Are you familiar with FEM?
What software do you know?

References
Course materials:
http://maxwell.sze.hu/~kuczmann/Anouar

References
M. Kuczmann
Potential Formulations in Magnetics Applying the Finite Element Method
Lecture Notes, 2009
Available online: http://maxwell.sze.hu/docs/C4.pdf
M. Kuczmann, A. Iványi
The Finite Element Method in Magnetics
Akadémiai Kiadó (Academic Press), Budapest 2008
ISBN 978 963 05 8649 8
J. Jin
The Finite Element Method in Electromagnetics
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2002
O. Bíró, K. R. Richter
CAD in electromagnetism
in Series Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics, Academic Press, New York, 82,
1991.
A. Ivanyi
Hysteresis Models in Electromagnetic Computation
Akadémiai Kiadó (Academic Press), Budapest 1997

References
J. D. Jackson
Classical Electrodynamics
J. Wiley, New York, 1962
G. Meunier
The Finite Element Method for Electromagnetic Modeling
John Wiley and Sons Inc., 2008
J. Luomi
Finite Element Methods for Electrical Machines
Chalmers University of Technology, Gőteborg, 1993
K. E. Lonngren, S. V. Savov
Fundamentals of Electromagnetics with Matlab
SciTech Publishing Inc., 2005
G. Bertotti, I. D. Mayergoyz
The Science of Hysteresis
Academic Press, New York, 2006
M. N. O. Sadiku
Numerical Techniques in Electromagnetics
CRC Press LLC, 2001
Content
Introduction to the numerical electromagnetic field computation
Aim of the lectures
Why numerical field analysis?
Numerical electromagnetic field computation, representative problems
Maxwell’s equations
Groups of electrodynamics
Software
• Introduction to the Finite Element Method in electromagnetic field computatio

The Finite Element Method
Simple 1D and 2D problems from scratch
Potential formulations, examples

• Hystesis in FEM • Some radio frequency problem

Magnetic hysteresis
Measurement and simulation
Scalar and vector hysteresis • Outlook
The fixed point method Parallel computation
Polarization formulation
Examples

Part I
Introduction to the
numerical electromagnetic field computation

Aim of lecture
Provide the basic skills for numerical electromagnetic field analysis
by the finite element method.

• Cheaper than a laboratory when prototyping (e.g. measurement in a FAC or design
a new motor);
• Faster than measurements and modification in the laboratory (trial and error
method);
• Parameter sweep, there are extreme situations that can not be measured, but
can be simulated;
• It is possible to look inside the arrangement (e.g. eddy currents inside transformers
or near field can be simulated easily).
Fully Anechoic Chamber
Complement!

Powertrain testbed
Load machine/dynamometer
~3million euro
Drive
Numerical electromagnetic field computation
Design and simulation of electrical machines
• Voltage
• Current
• Characteristics
• Impedance
• Force
• Torque
• Heat
• Vibration
• Noise
Effect of eddy currents – testing
Effect of eddy currents – heat

Parameters of transmission lines
• Capacitance • Resistance
• Inductance • Conductance

Waveguides

Antenna simulation, design and measurements

Heroes of electrodynamics

Field quantities
H = H(r,t) magnetic field intensity, [H] = A/m

E = E(r,t) electric field intensity, [E] = V/m
J = J(r,t) current density, [J] = A/m2 Electromagnetic field
D = D(r,t) electric flux density, [D] = C/m2 representation
B = B(r,t) magnetic flux density, [B] = T

r = r(r,t) charge density, [r]=C/m3
1862, Maxwell’s equations

1873, A treatise on electricity and magnetism

Let us warm up ;-)
(enjoy break)

1820
1888


1831



Constitutive relations
isotropic/anisotropic, frequency dependency, temperature dependency and so on

Polarization formulation
characteristics
linear component
Direct characteristics Inverse characteristics

Interface conditions

Repeat …
Scalar product
Vector product
Integral
Nabla operator
Curl
Divergence
Gradient


Groups of field problems
• Electrostatics field
• Static magnetic field
• Currents in conducting materials
• Eddy current field
• Electromagnetic field
Partial differential equations

Partial differential equations
• Electrostatics field (elliptic pde)
• Static magnetic field
• Eddy current field (parabolic pde)
• Electromagnetic field (hyperbolic pde)

Electrostatic field

Static magnetic field
Toroid transformer

Eddy current field

Electromagnetic field
Time harmonic situation
conical antenna
excitation
means perfect electric wall

enjoy break
Some simple problems by hand
• Capacitor
• Magnetic field around a wire
• Eddy currents inside a plate
• …

Introduction to SciLab
www.scilab.org

Introduction to SciLab
The very basics we need:
• Variables
• Vector, Matrix
• For cycle
• Linear algebra
• Plot
Let us write a code to plot the potential inside the capacitor!
Homework:
1.) Try to find the analytical solution of a capacitor with two dielectrics!
2.) Find a paper for beginners in the course material (33 pages)!
3.) View YouTube videos about SciLab!

Timetable

Part II
Introduction to the
Finite Element Method (FEM) in
electromagnetic field computation
Maxwell behind a mesh

Aim of lecture
Provide the basic skills for numerical electromagnetic field analysis
by the finite element method.

• Cheaper than a laboratory when prototyping (e.g. measurement in a FAC or design
a new motor);
• Faster than measurements and modification in the laboratory (trial and error
method);
• Parameter sweep, there are extreme situations that can not be measured, but
can be simulated;
• It is possible to look inside the arrangement (e.g. eddy currents inside transformers
or near field can be simulated easily).
Fully Anechoic Chamber
Complement!

The origin
Walter Ritz (1878-1909) Borisz Grigorjevics Galjorkin (1871-1945)

Main steps of numerical analysis (FEM)
• Problem definition, Model setup
• Geometry, Symmetries, Simplifications
• Appropriate equations and conditions
• Material data
• Mesh (discretization of geometry)
• Mathematical formulation
• Partial differential equations
• Boundary conditions
• Weak formulation and Galerkin technique
• Equations of one finite element
• Discretiazion in time if necessary
• Assembly and solve the equations
• Post processing the results

Main steps of numerical analysis (FEM)
eq
ua
tio
ns
,s
ol
ve
r,
…

Laplace-Poisson equation
Electric scalar potential
+ boundary conditions

Case study in COMSOL Multiphysics 3.5.a
2D – AC/DC Module – Static, Electric – Electrostatics
Physics – Subdomain Settings

E2-E1
Physics – Boundary Settings
• Draw two circles E1 and E2

• Compose E2-E1
• Set Physics
• Mesh by default mesh
• Solve by default solver
• Post process

Case study in COMSOL Multiphysics 3.5.a
Capacitance:
34.6 pF/m

Case study in Infolytica MotorSolve
Brushless DC Motor design

TEMPLATES

Torque: -68Nm

Case study in Comsol with Matlab

ANSYS Maxwell 3D

ANSYS HFSS

Free: FEMM, Gmsh, FreeFEM, Agros2D, …

Our code

Our code

The Finite Element Method (FEM)
Partial differential equations with
boundary conditions
Multiply by a weight N or W, and

integrate over the domain W
Weighted residual method
Weak formulation is obtained after some math
Galerkin method = weighted residual method +

weighting functions and approximation
functions are the same
This results in FEM

What FEM is about
• f(x) is an unknown function and h(x)
a known function, define c1 and c2
for the best fit  1,1  1,2  c1   f 1   1,0c0   1,3c3 
Y      
 2,1  c
2,2   2   2f   c
2,0 0   c
2,3 3 
y  c1 y  c3
f ( x )  h( x )  0
f ( a)  c0
y  c0 y  c2
f (b )  c 3
x 0  a x1
X
x1 x 3  b
Simple 1D problem from scratch – capacitor
í U
Capacitor
1D model
x=0 x
x=d
Analytical solution is known!
Let us solve by FEM! – Details are shown in the course using blackboard!

Weak formulation
PDE
W.R.
Gauss
theorem
Approximation

Linear shape functions

Sample code in SciLab
clear; clc // Element equation
Ke = [gN1; gN2] * eps * [gN1, gN2] * (x2 - x1);
// Constants be = rho * [(x2 - x1)/2; (x2 - x1)/2];
eps = 8.854e-12 * 10;
rho = 1e-2; K(e,e) = K(e,e) + Ke(1,1);
d = 1/1000; K(e,e+1) = K(e,e+1) + Ke(1,2);
U = 10; K(e+1,e) = K(e+1,e) + Ke(2,1);
K(e+1,e+1) = K(e+1,e+1) + Ke(2,2);
// FEM mesh b(e) = b(e) + be(1);
N = 9; b(e+1) = b(e+1) + be(2);
X = 0:d/N:d; end // of for e
// Boundary conditions
// K*f=b, initialization K(1,:) = K(1,:) * 0;
K = zeros(N+1,N+1); K(1,1) = 1;
b = zeros(N+1,1); b(1) = 0;
K(N+1,:) = K(1,:) * 0;
// Assembly K(N+1,N+1) = 1;
for e = 1 : N b(N+1) = U;
// x1 and x2
x1 = X(e); // Solution
x2 = X(e+1); fi = K \ b;
// Gradients // Post processing

gN1 = -1 / (x2 - x1); a_fi = -1/2*(rho/eps)*X.^2+(U/d+(1/2)*(rho/eps)*d)*X;
gN2 = 1 / (x2 - x1); plot(X, fi, X, a_fi, 'ro');
Solution
N=9 N=4
N=100

hFEM vs pFEM
Let us use 2nd order approximation!
Details are shown on course’s material.

1D nodal elements

Homework
1.)
Prepare the equations of the 3rd order approximation
Modify the code
Check the results
2.)
Simulate a capacitor with two different dielectric (linear or second order)
3.)
Neumann boundary condition

Timetable

Part II - continued
Introduction to the

Static magnetic field – blackboard
Toroid transformer

Static magnetic field problem
Problem is solved from scratch on the blackboard!
Please study the code written in SciLab!
A-formulation and F-formulation

Area functions

Area functions

2D nodal triangular elements

2nd order
3rd order
2D nodal triangular elements

Homework
1.)
Write the equations of the 2nd order approximation of A
Study the SciLab code of the 2nd order approximation of A
2.)
Realize the code for the 2nd order approximation of scalar potential
3.)
Study the following problem (see next slides)

Wave equation – inhomogeneous

Wave equation – homogeneous
Charge-free and current-free situation
(wavegauides and cavities)
Magnetic vector potential A also can be used with Lorentz gauge!

Simple 2D problem from scratch – waveguide
Nodes = ... Connect = ...
[0,5;... [1,6,7;...
2,5;... 1,7,2;...
4,5;... 2,7,8;...
6,5;... 2,8,3;...
8,5;... 3,8,9;...
0,3.5;... 3,9,4;...
2,3.5;... 4,9,5;...
4,3.5;... 5,9,10;...
6,3.5;... 6,11,12;...
8,3.5;... 6,12,7;...
0,1.5;... 7,12,13;...
2,1.5;... 7,13,8;...
4,1.5;... 8,13,9;...
6,1.5;... 9,13,14;...
8,1.5;... 9,14,10;...
0,0;... 10,14,15;...
2,0;... 11,16,12;...
4,0;... 12,16,17;...
6,0;... 12,17,18;...
8,0]/100; 12,18,13;...
13,18,19;...
13,19,14;...
14,19,20;...
Dirichlet = [1,2,3,4,5,6,10,11,15,16,17,18,19,20]; 15,14,20];
Weak formulation
PDE
eigenvalue problem
W.R.
Gauss
theorem

Assembly
• Global matrix terms differ from zero only if both nodes
corresponding to sub-indices belong to the same
element:
• Sij  0if node i and node j do not belong to the same
element
• Global matrix is assembled from element matrices by
adding the element matrix terms to the corresponding
row and column of the global matrix.
1 2 4 2 7
1 3
2 4
3 4 5 1 8
5 7
S14  S41  0 6 8
6 3 9

Sample code
W = [1/3 1/3 1/3];
L = [2/3 1/6 1/6; 1/6 1/6 2/3; 1/6 2/3 1/6];
K = zeros(size(Connect,1),size(Connect,1));
B = zeros(size(Connect,1),1);
for i = 1:size(Connect,1),
// Point number of an element
p1 = Connect(i,1); p2 = Connect(i,2); p3 = Connect(i,3);
// Coordinates of the nodes of element

x1 = Nodes(p1,1); x2 = Nodes(p2,1); x3 = Nodes(p3,1);
y1 = Nodes(p1,2); y2 = Nodes(p2,2); y3 = Nodes(p3,2);
// Area of the triangle

D = 0.5 * det( [1 x1 y1; 1 x2 y2; 1 x3 y3] );
// Gradient of the basis functions

gN1x = 0.5 * (y2-y3) / D; gN2x = 0.5 * (y3-y1) / D; gN3x = 0.5 * (y1-y2) / D;
gN1y = 0.5 * (x3-x2) / D; gN2y = 0.5 * (x1-x3) / D; gN3y = 0.5 * (x2-x1) / D;
// Left hand side matrix

Ke = ( [gN1x;gN2x;gN3x] * [gN1x gN2x gN3x] + [gN1y;gN2y;gN3y] * [gN1y gN2y gN3y] ) * D;
……

Sample code
……
// Gaussian quadrature
Be = zeros(3,3);
a = x2-x1; b = x3-x1; c = x1;
d = y2-y1; e = y3-y1; f = y1;
for j = 1:3,
kszi = L(j,2); eta = L(j,3);
x = a*kszi + b*eta + c;
y = d*kszi + e*eta + f;
D1 = 0.5 * det( [1 x y; 1 x2 y2; 1 x3 y3] ); N1 = D1/D;

D2 = 0.5 * det( [1 x1 y1; 1 x y; 1 x3 y3] ); N2 = D2/D;
D3 = 0.5 * det( [1 x1 y1; 1 x2 y2; 1 x y] ); N3 = D3/D;
Be = Be + W(j) * ( [N1;N2;N3] * [N1 N2 N3] ) * D;

end;
// Assembly
K(p1,p1) = K(p1,p1) + Ke(1,1); K(p1,p2) = K(p1,p2) + Ke(1,2); K(p1,p3) = K(p1,p3) + Ke(1,3);
B(p1,p1) = B(p1,p1) + Be(1,1); B(p1,p2) = B(p1,p2) + Be(1,2); B(p1,p3) = B(p1,p3) + Be(1,3);

end;

Sample code
// Dirichlet boundary conditions
for i = 1:length(Dirichlet),
K(Dirichlet(i),:) = K(Dirichlet(i),:) * 0;
K(Dirichlet(i),Dirichlet(i)) = 1;
B(Dirichlet(i),:) = B(Dirichlet(i),:) * 0;
B(:,Dirichlet(i)) = B(:,Dirichlet(i)) * 0;
end;
// Eigenvalues
[E,lambda] = eig(K,B);
[k,ki] = sort(sqrt(diag(lambda)));
// Numerical solution
k(1) -> 80.9
// Analytical solution wavenumber

sqrt((pi/0.05)^2+(pi/0.08)^2) -> 74.1
COMSOL -> 71.1
RF Module – Perpendicular Waves – TM Wave

Timetable

Part II - continued
Introduction to the

Eddy current field

Eddy current field problem
Please study the code written in SciLab!
A-formulation and T,F-F-formulation

Area functions

Area functions

Comments on the mesh – edge elements
Nodes = ... Edges = ...
11 12 [0,5;... [6,1;...
2,5;... 7,5;...
4,5;... 7,2;...
... 8,2;...
1 2 3 4 5 0,3.5;... 8,3;...
2,3.5;... 11,6;...
4,3.5;... 6,12;...
... 12,7;...
13 14 0,1.5;... ...
...]; ...];
Connect = ...
[1,6,7,-1,13,2;...
1,7,2, -2,3,-11;...
6 7 8 9 10 2,7,8, -3,14,4;...
2,8,3, -4,5,-12;...
...
6,11,12,-6,15,-7;...
6,12,7, 7,8,-13;...
15 16 7,12,13,-8,16,-9;...
7,13,8, 9,10,-14;...
...];

2D vector triangular elements

Potential formulations
• Reduced magnetic scalar potential, F-formulation
static magnetic
• Total magnetic scalar potential, Y-formulation
•
field
Combination of magnetic scalar potentials, F-Y-formulation
• Applying F-formulation with appropriate representation of source current
• Magnetic vector potentail, A-formulation
• A, F-formulation
current field
• Current vector potential and magnetic scalar potential, T-F-formulation
eddy
• Magnetic vector potential and electric scalar potential, A-V-formulation
• Modified vector potential, A*-formulation
• T,F-F-formulation
• A,V-A-formulation gauged version with nodal finite elements
• A*-A-formulation
• T,F-A-formulation
• T,F-A-F-formulation ungauged version with edge finite elements
• A,V-F-formulation
• A,V-A-F-formulation

Coupling of formulations
A,V A
T,F F
A*
T,F-F, A,V-A , A*-A, T,F-A, T,F-A-F, A,V-F, A,V-A-F (gauged and ungauged)
Homework
1.)
Study the formulations in the book

Timetable

Part III
Hysteresis in FEM
Magnetic hysteresis

Measuring scalar hysteresis

Measuring scalar hysteresis

Modelling scalar hysteresis – Preisach model



Modelling scalar hysteresis
Dynamic model
eddy current effect viscosity

static model
in one lamination modelling excess loss

Measuring vector hysteresis





Modelling vector hysteresis





Dynamic model

The fixed point method

The fixed point method

Polarization Formulation (I)
direct model inverse model

Polarization Formulation (II)
inverse model direct model

Losses inside laminations

Lamination model
See code!



Three phase transformer

Homework
1.)
Prepare the equations of the 2nd order approximation
Modify the code
Check the results
2.)
Study the Preisach model
3.)
Run the code applying Preisach model (Matlab)

Another field – out of scope of this course
Part IV
Some radio frequency problem

Measurement and simulation of a dipole

Model

Feeding Models

COMSOL Multiphysics

Finite Element Mesh

Convergence vs. Mesh

Simulation Results
2D 3D

Simulation Results

Simulation Results

Simulation Results

Hat feed – illustrative example

COMSOL Multiphysics – PDE Modes – Classical PDEs – Helmholtz Equation




A closing 3D example
RF Module – Electromagnetic Waves



Part V
Outlook
Parallel computation
A simple test problem
2D electrostatic problem for case study

A simple test problem
Maxwell’s equations of electrostatics
 E  0   ( )  
 D  
~
D E   N   d   N  d
 
Scalar potential
E   K  b
~ I
    D  i 1 Ni  i
The idea of domain decomposition

The idea of domain decomposition
Graph partitioning with METIS
Dual graph of the finite element mesh
http://glaros.dtc.umn.edu/gkhome/views/metis
Decomposition of the FEM Mesh
partdmesh meshfile n
http://glaros.dtc.umn.edu/gkhome/views/metis
Domain Decomposition Method
MPI – Message Passing Interface
1 2  K 11

0 0 0 K 15  1   b1 
   
 0 K 22 0 0 K 25   2  b 2 
5  0 0 K 33 0 K 35   3   b 3 
    
 0 0 0 K 44 K 45   4  b 4 
3 4
K
 51 K 52 K 53 K 54 K 55   5  b 5 
 4  4
K 55 

 K 5i K ii1K i 5  5  b 5 

 K 5i K ii1 b i
i 1 i 1
with LDLT factorization

K ii i  b i  K i5  5
Internal nodes and communication nodes.
Local and global numbering of the nodes.
Sub-solutions

Solution

Comparisons

Environment

Future Works
• More complex problems
• The FETI method (Finite Element Tearing and Interconnecting)
• Parallel (distributed) Supercomputer – Blade Center
• GPU processing

There are many other questions…
• Gaussian elimination
• LU decomposition
• Gauss-Seidel method
• Gradient based methods
• …
• Higher order approximation (p-FEM)
• Integration by Gaussian quadrature
• Vector elements
• Three dimensional problems
• Potenital formulations in details
• Time stepping
• Implementation

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The Finite Element Method

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

• understand Maxwell’s equations from the viewpoint of numerical analysis;

• understand potential formulations in detail used in the CAD-software;

• understand finite element method in detail;

• write your own code if needed;

• modify, improve open-source codes;

• model any kind of electromagnetic field problem;

• understand a kind of nonlinearity and a solver.

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Short CV: Research field:

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Your research field

Are you familiar with FEM?

What software do you know?

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

• Introduction to the Finite Element Method in electromagnetic field computatio

• Hystesis in FEM • Some radio frequency problem

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

numerical electromagnetic field computation

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Effect of eddy currents – heat

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

H = H(r,t) magnetic field intensity, [H] = A/m

B = B(r,t) magnetic flux density, [B] = T

1862, Maxwell’s equations

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

isotropic/anisotropic, frequency dependency, temperature dependency and so on

Direct characteristics Inverse characteristics

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

• Static magnetic field

• Currents in conducting materials

• Eddy current field

Partial differential equations

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

• Static magnetic field

• Eddy current field (parabolic pde)

• Electromagnetic field (hyperbolic pde)

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

Prof. Dr. habil. Miklós Kuczmann, DSc, PhD

means perfect electric wall