PASSI CITY COLLEGE

City of Passi. Iloilo

SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE

ADGE
Logic: Deduction and Inductive Reasoning
FIRST SEMESTER, A.Y. 2021-2022

Logic:
Deduction
And
Inductive
Reasoning JOE DEVIN P CALIBAR
POLICE CORPORAL
INSTRUCTOR

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Module No.1 ADGE: Logic: Deduction and Inductive Reasoning
Overview
Logic is fundamental to the way humans communicate. Our public debates and private reasoning are
shaped by logical principles, even though most of us would struggle to spell them out. Introduction to Logic
will teach you the basics of formal logic, which provides symbolic methods for representing and assessing the
logical form of arguments. You will develop an understanding of symbolic language and logic, as well as
familiarity with precise models of deductive reasoning. However, no previous experience with symbolic
methods or mathematics is assumed. There are no prerequisites, but many students find that Argument and
Critical Thinking is a useful preliminary.

Module Outcomes
At the end of the module, the students must be able to:
1. defines Logic;
2. determines the importance of logic; and
3. knows the uses of language.

Module Content:

Activity Description Time

Overview
1 Interactive Discussion through Google Meet/Classroom 60 minutes

LOGIC: ITS PHILOSOPHIC BACKGROUND

Logic is a philosophy subject; thus, it is appropriate to discuss first, no matter how briefly, what philosophy is.
What is Philosophy? We shall take up its etymological and real definitions.

Etymological: Philosophy comes from two Greek words, Philo and sophia which mean love of wisdom.

Real: Philosophy is a search for meaning.

Search: Ordinarily this word means "to look for something". However, philosophically, it means something
more, because the philosophical search is more of a quest. It has the following components:

(1) it is that which is of value to the subject;

(2) it is that which consumes the whole person – his attention, concentration, interest; and
(3) it is that which is continued without let-up until the answer is found, or the conviction is reached that, for
the moment at least, this is the best possible, though still imperfect, answer.

The following examples may help clarify the above:

(1) The wedding rings of my parents may mean more to me than any other piece of jewelry I own. The search
for life's relevance or man and his relationships to God, to other men, and to the world may be of more value
than wealth and fame.

(2) The loss of an ordinary ball pen, though irritating as every loss is, may be pursued to some extent, as
looking into one's bag or table drawer, or asking people around, but can be dropped by this pragmatic
decision: I'll just buy another ballpen. The pursuit is not worth the hassle.

The loss of one's grandfather in crowded Cubao, on the other hand, cannot easily be given up. Neither can
loss of my parents' wedding rings. One cannot say "I'll buy another Lolo." He is irreplaceable. So are my
parents' wedding rings.
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Module No.1 ADGE: Logic: Deduction and Inductive Reasoning
(3) I shall stop when I find what I am looking for. However, in life, one does not always find what he is
looking for. My Lolo and the wedding rings may never be found.

I have a friend whose husband, a doctor, was with the Coast Guard. His job was to meet incoming ships
beyond Manila Bay's breakwater to give these ships a clean bill of health before they could be allowed to
anchor at the piers. One early morning, when the waves were unusually strong, the doctor slipped and fell into
the turbulent waves. The frogmen were called, but the doctor's body was never seen again. I suppose that in
all of the following years, my friend and her family would rush to any beach where there was any news of any
body washed ashore hoping it was his body.

Philosophy is engaged in the search for the meaning of life. Meaning in the sense of importance, significance,
value and relevance. All rational men should be so engaged, or life is just a frittering away, a senseless waste
of energy, a voice that is once heard and then fades in the wind. In this sense, each intelligent man is a
philosopher, or has the capacity to be one.

Philosophy asks a lot of questions. The most fundamental of these have to do with the nature of reality itself.
What is real and what is unreal? Which is to be accepted? The idealist's or the pragmatist's concept of it? What
about the physical universe? Where did it come from? How has it come to its present state? How will it end?
What is man? What is his nature, his origin, his destiny? As a being-in-the-world, how are his relations to God-
man-world defined in terms of moral and aesthetic values? What is life? What is death? Is there life after
death? Is there a God?

Even as we ask ourselves these questions, we become aware of our ability to think and to try to find answers
to these. We realize we can know things and order our thoughts into a coherent pattern. Conscious, too, of
the fact that we are not supermen or the divine being after all who can know all things.

A survey of the more popular subjects offered in our universities should convince anyone that philosophy
indeed is an adequate coverage of a man's whole life and interests.

These subjects are:

(1) Logic - the science and art of correct thinking

(2) Ethics- that which delves into the morality of human acts, or as the contemporary moralists see it, the
reflection on creative responsibility.
(3) Epistemology- the theory of knowledge, the goal of which is truth.
(4) Ontology- the philosophy of being. It is a branch of Metaphysics which is about ultimate reality, and hence
the foundation subject of all philosophy.
(5) Cosmology- the study of inanimate beings such as the universe, from the philosophical viewpoint, of
course.
(6) Aesthetics - the study of the beautiful.
(7) Rational or Philosophical Psychology - the study of the life principle of living things specifically that of man.
(8) Theodicy- the philosophical study of God.
(9) Social Philosophy- the study of relationships between man and the family, Church, and the State.
(10) Philosophy of Man- the inquiry into man as person and as existent being in the world.

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Module No.1 ADGE: Logic: Deduction and Inductive Reasoning
LOGIC: WHAT IT IS

The ordinary college student usually associates the word "logic" with the ability to "reason" out. He is
right. He usually is irritated with "illogical" behavior. On the other hand, he usually approaches the subject of
logic itself with a certain trepidation, probably hampered by a mistaken belief that it is nothing but a study of
cumbersome terminologies and intricate mental operations which do not immediately help him reason
correctly nor lead eventually to well-paying jobs.

To some people, logical knowledge may be acquired even without formal instruction or guidance. They
point at the vast number of successful men of the world who have never sat in a logic class. True, but these
have arrived at correct decisions only after the long, arduous process of experience. Given two men of equal
IQ and social background, one of whom has taken logic and the other has not, who do you think would be
better at reasoning?

Logic is not to be identified with the innate capacity of everyone to reason out. Persons who think that
the bright ideas and quick reasoning of a seven-year-old child is logic in its real sense, are being deceived. For
a logician possesses the art by which he effectively arrives at the truth. He expresses his ideas with clarity,
with a judicious choice of terms, propositions, and arguments. He distinguishes between correct and incorrect
reasoning with more confidence but only after a painstaking study of logical methods and principles.

The example of Pablo Casals is inspirational. It is said that "he spent hours on a single phrase, days
and weeks on a single movement, whole years on the Bach Suites for Unaccompanied Violincello. Note that he
was the first cellist ever to perform said compositions in their entirety, "People say I play as easily as a bird
sings. If they only knew how much effort this bird has put into his song."" Pablo Casals lived to be 96,
performing, before the high and mighty, the greatest cellist for the past eight decades.

Logic as a philosophical science, has its own rewards, namely:

1. It guides man in his search for truth.

2. It develops and perfects his reasoning power.

3. It assures better relationships among men.

4. It is very helpful in the study of other philosophy

subjects.

Definition of Logic 
The term "logic" is derived from the word logos which means study, reason, or discourse. It is actually the
science and art of correct thinking.

Logic as a Science

A popular pre-college word, science has come to stand for a systematized body of truths acquired through
observation and experimentation. It is not a topsy-turvy conglomeration of mere opinions or of hypothetical
knowledge. Logic is a science because it is a systematized body of logical truths and principles governing
correct thinking. It has been so since the time of Aristotle.

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Module No.1 ADGE: Logic: Deduction and Inductive Reasoning
Logic as an Art

"Art" usually means the making of a work of beauty, which is anything that awakens the feeling of delight.

The fine arts are: painting, sculpture, music, dance, and poetic drama. As art, each has only one purpose: the
expression of the beautiful. To accomplish this, the artist cannot wallow in inaction. He must, day in and day
out, practice his art: most of the time in painful, restless pursuit, the only way for a painter and sculptor to
portray their dreams, for a violinist, a pianist, and any other musician to put their heart on wings of song, for a
ballet dancer to do his/her arabesque and pas de deux, like birds in the air, for Shakespearean actors like
Richard Burton to do their thing on stage.

Logic is somewhat a different matter. The objective is still the expression of the beautiful, but in a limited
sense only that in which reasoning is done "beautifully": with ease, with correctness, with validity.

As an art, logic is a "techne," and teaches its students how to make a good argument. Logic is often called the
art of arts because it develops and perfects the intellect which all artists need in their work.

Logic and Correct Thinking

Normally, we use the word "correct" for anything that conforms to a pattern or to rules. In logic this is also the
case-plus something more. When the premises have sufficient grounds for the conclusion, we call the
argument "correct". Otherwise it is "incorrect". This weighing of whether reasoning is correct or incorrect is
the core of the problem confronting logic.

Thinking is a mental process. So are memorizing, simple recall, imagining, daydreaming, etc. These last
mental processes, however, do not involve thinking the way we conceive it as part of the logical operation.
Intelligent memorizing naturally needs some thinking or one is parrot like. Simple recall of, say, to what
nationality C.S. Pierce belongs needs thinking in the sense that one comes up with the answer American, not
Chinese. Or when one is asked the sum of 5 + 5, one answers 10, not 20. But these are minimal exercises of
the thinking process. Imagining and daydreaming of a non-existent situation are not thinking in our sense
again, but may be the preliminary steps in the creation of a novel or a poem, which inevitably involves
thinking.

There are two criteria for mental processes to be considered thinking:

(1) when the objective is the truth, and
(2) when the truth we already have is the nucleus of further knowledge.

Therefore analysis, definition, classification, literary or scientific creativity are examples of the first criterion;
and criticism (as of books, movies, people), comparison and contrast (as between Jose Rizal, with whom we
are familiar, and another country's hero) are examples of the second.

Logic's first concern is validity; i.e., if the premises necessarily and inevitably lead into the conclusion. If we
say, for instance,

All orchids are flowers;

but the waling-waling is an orchid;
therefore I shall give you a waling-waling corsage on your birthday.

there is something wrong with our thinking, for the conclusion does not flow logically from our premises;
"therefore the waling-waling is a flower" is the valid conclusion.

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Module No.1 ADGE: Logic: Deduction and Inductive Reasoning
Logic leads man, in his search for truth, from the known towards the unknown, from the easiest towards the
most difficult. Specifically, logic guides and directs man to form correct ideas or concepts, to unite concepts to
form propositions, and to correlate propositions into correct premises to form valid conclusions.

Formal and Material Logic

There are some logicians like McCall who make a distinction between Formal and Material Logic. This is the
distinction: 

Formal Logic is concerned with the aspect of form which has to do with correctness or sequence or the
following of rules. So, if we say:

All men are mortal;

but Pedro is a man;
therefore Pedro is mortal.

we have a categorical syllogism (a term to be explained later) which follows its rules and, hence, has
sequence.

But if we say:

All men are mortal;

but Pedro is a man;
therefore Pablo is mortal.

this is a categorical syllogism which does not follow its own rules and, hence, has no sequence.

Material Logic is concerned with the aspect of subject matter or content or truth.

In the first example above, all the statements are true (unless Pedro for you is the name of a dog or a horse),
and is what Material Logic is all about: that the content is true.

Deductive and Inductive Logic

These two deal with the process of thinking and that entails premises and conclusion. Deductive Logic is that
kind in which the premises flow logically into the conclusion. That is why it is also called Formal Deductive
Logic. It is from universal to the particular, or as McCall says from "the more to the less universal by way of a
middle term." Again our first example:

All men are mortal;

but Pedro is a man;
therefore Pedro is mortal.

Inductive Logic arrives at a conclusion, but with less certainty than Deductive Logic. In "Glenn was absent
probably because he was sick", there is an implication that he could be absent due to some other reasons. "I
wonder what my mother is doing right now" implies she may be reading a book, or cooking lunch, or watching
TV. "Prepare for a Math quiz tomorrow" implies a probability because that Math professor has been giving a
quiz every Monday morning for almost a month now.

In other words, Inductive Logic implies a sense of probability. As Copi says, it "may provide some evidence of
the truth."
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Module No.1 ADGE: Logic: Deduction and Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is closely allied to the scientific method, being from the particular to the universal.

WHAT COMES AFTER

Since the argument is the heart of logic, the whole text will be built around it. Arguments are made up of
propositions which are called premises and conclusions, and these, in turn are made up of terms. There will be
a discussion of the uses of language, of supposition and definition of terms. Arguments are either deductive or
inductive, and the rest of the book will be about these, with the author's hope that logical methods and
principles so presented will enable students to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning.

The Importance of Logic

The importance of logic in our daily life.

Logic is important because it influences every decision we make in our lives. Logical thinking allows us to learn
and make decisions that will affect our lifestyle. If no one thought logically, we would all be running around
like chickens with our heads cut off, and nothing would make any sense.

The importance of logic.

Why is logic so important? The answer is that logic helps us better understand good arguments—it helps us
differentiate between good and bad reasons to believe something. We should want to have well-justified
beliefs. We want to know what we should believe.

Why is it important to use logic and reason?

Why are logical thinking skills important? Logical thinking skills are important because they can help you
reason through important decisions, solve problems, generate creative ideas and set goals—all of which are
necessary for developing your career.

The importance of logic in philosophy

Philosophy is based on reasoning, and logic is the study of what makes a sound argument, and also of the
kind of mistakes we can make in reasoning. So study logic and you will become a better philosopher and a
clearer thinker generally.”

The impact of logic in society?

The role of logic in society is to set the rules that we must follow to achieve rational communication. Laws of
logic are the rules that we must obey so that we can have rational communication. They are like the rules in a
game of chess.

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Module No.1 ADGE: Logic: Deduction and Inductive Reasoning
The Uses of Language

Music may be the language of the soul, but the stuff with which we live out our daily existence is words. Our
response to others our loves and hates, indifferences, frustrations, joys and delights - is mainly verbal. Much
of contemporary history is witness to the efficacy of dialogue and the conference table in solving problems of
modern man.

THREE FUNDAMENTAL USES OF LANGUAGE

Irving M. Copi lists three basic functions of language. These are: informative, expressive, and directive.

a. Informative: This is the most common function, attested to by textbooks and all other books on history,
literature, philosophy, science, etc. Frederick Copleston's series on A History of Philosophy are excellent
examples. So are En cyclopedia Britannica and Webster's Dictionary. In Logic we see this function at work in
propositions and arguments, where something is either affirmed or denied, and this, in turn, is either true or
false, correct or incorrect. When we say: "The word dasein is Heidegger's term for being there," and "Lea
Salonga is the 1992 first runner-up in the Miss Universe contest," we are giving two pieces of information, but
the first is true and the second is false.

b. Expressive: This function is best illustrated in poetry where emotions and attitudes are expressed
beautifully. Elizabeth Barrett Browning's outspoken love lines, as "I love thee to the level of each day's most
quiet need, by sun and candlelight," or T.S. Eliot's superbly contained interpretation of Christmas in "Journey
of the Magi" have one common: expression of thoughts and feelings. thing in

But it is not only in poetry that this function is seen. Common exclamations like "Oh, no!", "Right!", "Look out!
"Boy!", and "Ah, hal!" are expressions of different moods and they are far from poetic. Whether poetry or
everyday talk, however, we can hardly ask if it is true or false.

According to Copi, ". . . expressive discourse either to express the speaker's feelings or to evoke certain
feelings on the part of the author. Of course it may do both,"1 An Edna St. Vincent Millay and a Percy Bysshe
Shelly may pour their hearts out in unforgettable lines for themselves and for their readers; but there are also
the pep talks, political and oratorical speeches, Sunday sermons, homilies, and cheering of basketball fans that
may be cited as examples of the evocative component of expressive language. . is used

c. Directive: This function of language is most easily seen in commands and requests. It is that which prods
or prevents an action to be done. Examples are:

(1) Write me a line when you reach California.

(2) Emy, please sing Nasaan ka Irog?

(3) Don't use the car unnecessarily.

One cannot speak of each of these as either true or false. Whether the command or request is obeyed or not
is irrelevant to its truth value, which is non-existent in the first place.

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Module No.1 ADGE: Logic: Deduction and Inductive Reasoning
Multiplicity of the Uses of Language

It is more often the case rather than the exception that any ordinary discourse would contain all three uses of
language. Newspapers, for instance, may be biased, as when conceived for propaganda or protection of
business interests. 

A poem, such as the chorus of the Greek tragedy Antigone, is expressive of a mood, but it is at the same time
informative of the setting and the plot, and directive of human values. A homily, as for the dead, may be
illuminating as to the dead person's life and character, expressive as to the speaker's own personal feelings,
and directive in its exhortation to the bereaved concerning the promise of everlasting life.

References:
Introduction to Logic by Corazon L. Cruz
https://www.mvorganizing.org/what-is-the-importance-of-logic-in-our-daily-life/

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Module No.1 ADGE: Logic: Deduction and Inductive Reasoning
 Activity 1.1

1. What is curiosity?

Activity 1.2

What language functions are seen in the following passages?

1. Lourdes R. Montinola, chairman of FEU's Board of Trustees,

won the Na tional Book Award for Art for her book entitled Piña. ________________________

2. Why falls so rich a spray

of fragrance from the bowers
of the balmy flowers
upon this festive day?

The reason, dear mother, is

they celebrate your birthday:
the rose with its bouquet, the bird with its harmonies.

"My First Inspiration" by Jose Rizal

Trans. Nick Joaquin _____________________________

3. Write a review of Orosman at Zafira ni

Balagtas by B.S. Medina, Jr. _____________________________

4. "Make me the liquid by your vase

contained.
Make me the clay that you would shape
and mold".

- Sonnet I, Heart of Clay by Nina Estrada _____________________________

5. America is in the Heart and The

Laughter of My Father are two of the
books of Carlos Bulosan. _____________________________

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Module No.1 ADGE: Logic: Deduction and Inductive Reasoning
 SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE
MODULE APPROVAL SHEET

Course No. ADGE Descriptive Title : Logic: Deduction and Inductive Reasoning

Module No. : 1 Course Year & Section BS CRIM3- G

Prepared and Submitted by:

PCpl JOE DEVIN P CALIBAR

Instructor

Checked by:

MR. HERIBERTO G. ULGASAN, MSC

Program Head, School of Criminal Justice

Recommending Approval:

HEIDE A. PAMA, M. ED.

Dean of Instruction

Approved:

JANICE JENNIFER P. PALMARES, MPA

Acting College President/ SAO/ Registrar Designate

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Module No.1 ADGE: Logic: Deduction and Inductive Reasoning