7912 ALL Tutorials

Table of Contents
Chapter Lecture Tutorial Title Page
Chapter 1 Finding Dinosaur Fossils 2
Chapter 2 Dating Dinosaurs 4
Chapter 3 Reading Cladograms 6

Cladograms 8
Cladograms and Evolutionary Trees 10
Chapter 4 Discovering Relationships 12

The Classification of Amniotes 14
What Is a Dinosaur? 16
Chapter 5 Eating Habits of Ankylosaurs 18
Chapter 6 Pachycephalosaur Living Environments 20

The Function of Ceratopsian Frills 22
Chapter 7 Social Behavior of Hadrosaurids 24
Chapter 8 Sauropod Nests 26
Chapter 9 Large Theropods 27
Chapter 10 Evolution for Flight 29
Chapter 11 Bird Evolution 31
Chapter 12 Comparing Dinosaur Thermoregulation 33
Chapter 13 Dinosaur Movie Scenarios 35
Chapter 14 none
Chapter 15 Possible Causes of Dinosaur Extinction 36
 KORTZ, 2009 L ECTURE TUTORIALS FOR DINOSAURS: A CONCISE NATURAL

HISTORY
Finding Dinosaur Fossils
Part 1: Basic Criteria

The following three basic criteria maximize the likelihood of finding dinosaur fossils:
1) The rock type must be sedimentary (made out of sediments, such as sand and mud,
deposited on the surface of the Earth).
2) The rocks must be of the right age.
3) The rocks must originally form on land instead of ocean.
1) Explain why sedimentary rocks are better to find dinosaurs than rocks that were once lava
flows (igneous rocks).
2) Explain why sedimentary rocks are better to find dinosaurs than rocks that formed by extreme
pressure and high temperatures deep beneath the surface (metamorphic rocks).
3) During what time frame did dinosaurs live?
4) Why would you want to look at rocks that originally formed on land and not in the ocean?
Part 2: Sponsoring Dinosaur Collecting

You have money and want to support paleontologists who want to collect dinosaurs. Five
paleontologists approach you and describe areas in which they want to search.
Paleontologist A: I would like to look in an area where a volcano erupted 100 million years
ago (Cretaceous age). The rocks are volcanic in the area.
Paleontologist B: I would like to search an area where you find Jurassic aged (180 million
years old) sedimentary rocks with lots of other fossils, such as clams,
coral, and sea urchins.
Paleontologist C: I would like to look for dinosaurs in an area that I think was probably
desert, or it might have been a beach – I’m not too sure. The rocks are
likely somewhere around 150 million years old, plus or minus, which
makes them Jurassic in age.
Paleontologist D: I would like to search in an area that was a river valley that occasionally
flooded. The sedimentary rocks are Cretaceous in age (130 million years
old).
Paleontologist E: I would like to search an area that is full of Paleozoic (540 - 251 million
years old) sedimentary rocks that were originally deposited on a lake
shore.

HISTORY
Finding Dinosaur Fossils
5) Because of limited funds, you can only support one paleontologist. Which paleontologist
would you support and why?
6) Explain to the other paleontologists why you are NOT supporting their search for dinosaurs.
Paleontologist ___ because…
7) Compare your selection with that of another group of students. If the selections are different,
then convince them your selection is more logical.

HISTORY
Dating Dinosaurs
Part 1: Stratigraphy
There are several different ways to tell us how old or young rocks are. These are:
• Chronostratigraphy (ages in years before present)
• Lithostratigraphy (determining the relative ages of rocks)
• Biostratigraphy (ages indicated by fossils)
1) Determine which of the three methods of dating rocks is used in each of the scenarios below.
_______________ Radioactive potassium tells us the rock is 500 million years old.
_______________ Because a rock contains dinosaur fossils, the rock is Mesozoic in age.
_______________ This rock layer is older than that other rock layer.
2) Chronostratigraphy is primarily done only on rock that forms from cooled magma. Why can’t
chronostratigraphy be used to directly date the rocks in which dinosaurs are found?
Part 2: Determining the Age of a Dinosaur

Examine the diagram to the right showing a vertical
sequence of rock layers, with the oldest rocks on the Cooled magma (165 Ma)
bottom and the youngest rocks on top (Ma = million
Sedimentary rock
years old).
3) Which of the three stratigraphy methods was used to Cooled magma (170 Ma)
determine the age of the cooled magma layers?
Dinosaur in sedimentary rock
4) Which of the three stratigraphy methods was used to Sedimentary rock

determine the age of the sedimentary rock with the shell
fossils? Shell fossils (204-200 Ma) in
sedimentary rock
5) What is the age or age range of the dinosaur?
6) How did you determine the age of the dinosaur?
7) Based on the ages given in the diagram, were the sediments that formed the sedimentary
rock layers deposited at a constant rate? Explain your answer.

HISTORY
Dating Dinosaurs
8) Two students are debating the age of the dinosaur in the diagram.
Student 1: I think the dinosaur is between 200 and 170 Ma (million years old). You don’t know
how long it took for the sedimentary layers to be deposited, so you can’t be more
exact.
Student 2: Because there is an extra layer, I think the age is closer to 170 Ma. So, the age of
the dinosaur is between 185 and 170 Ma.
With which student do you agree? Why?
9) Why is it very difficult to precisely determine the age of a particular fossil in a sedimentary
rock?
10) Why are all three stratigraphy techniques (chronostratigraphy, lithostratigraphy, and
biostratigraphy) necessary for determining the age of dinosaurs?

HISTORY
Reading Cladograms
Part 1: Different Depictions

In paleontology, cladograms are depicted in a variety of ways, all showing the same basic idea
of groups within larger groups.
A B C F G H K L M
1) Which letter on each of the other diagrams shares the same position as A? (circle one letter
per diagram)
F G H K L M
2) For each diagram, which two letters indicate branches that share the most characteristics, so
are most similar to each other? (circle two letters per diagram)
A B C F G H K L M
3) For each diagram, which letter is most distantly related to the other two letters? (circle one
letter per diagram)
A B C F G H K L M
4) For the center diagram, would the same information be conveyed if you switched G and H?
Explain your answer.
5) For the right diagram, would the same information be conveyed if you switched K and L?
6) For the left diagram, would the same information be conveyed if you switched B and C?
7) As shown above, the cladograms indicate groupings that are not about relationships. Now
we’ll put some animals on the cladograms, arranged in a way to show relationship. If, for
example, you were to put earthworms, turtles, and dinosaurs on the diagrams, at which node
would earthworms be located on each of the three diagrams? (circle one letter per diagram)
A B C F G H K L M
8) If you were to put earthworms, turtles, and dinosaurs on the diagrams, which of the letters
below is NOT a place you could put dinosaurs? (circle all that apply)
A B G H K L
9) Check with another group of students that you have the same two letters circled for Question
8.

HISTORY
Reading Cladograms
Part 2: Adding Animals

Examine the cladograms below showing relationships between beetles, cats and humans.
beetle cat human beetle human cat
A B
10) Which cladogram, if any, is more correct? Explain your answer.
11) Two students are debating which cladogram is more correct.

Student 1: I think they’re both equally as correct. They both show that humans and cats are
more closely related to each other than to beetles.
Student 2: I think Cladogram A is more correct because it shows humans at the far end. Cats
are closer to beetles and humans aren’t closely related to beetles, so A is better.
12) Compare your answers to Question 10 and 11 to your answer to Question 6. Change any
answers as necessary.
13) Why does the order on the top of the cladogram not necessarily indicate how closely
organisms are related?
14) Draw two separate cladograms below, both showing the correct relationship between
jellyfish, dinosaurs, and pigs.

HISTORY
Reading Cladograms

HISTORY
Cladograms
Part 1: Cladogram Basics

Below is a simple cladogram. Cladograms are constructed based on diagnostic (“derived”),
shared features of organisms, and, as a result, they show relationships between organisms.
The bars indicate characteristics that describe all organisms on the cladogram connected at the
related node. The open circles at each node are used to give names to the groups of all
organisms united at that node.
Worm Goldfish Lizard Elephant
1) What is a diagnostic character
illustrated by Bar 3?
a. four limbs
C
b. backbone
c. endothermy (warm-bloodedness) 3
2) What diagnostic character B

(labeled by Bar 2) do organisms 2
united at Node B share?
A
a. four limbs 1
b. backbone
c. endothermy (warm-bloodedness)
3) What is a possible name that can be given to the organisms united at Node B?
a. animal
b. vertebrate (animal with a backbone)
c. mammal
4) Two students are debating the name that can be given to organisms united at Node B.
Student 1: I think that the organisms included in Node B should be called animals. Everything
on the cladogram is an animal, so I think that description fits for Node B..
Student 2: Node B should just label only the organisms united at Node B. Since everything
connected at the node has a backbone and worms don’t have a backbone, I think
the organisms included in Node B should be called vertebrates.
5) Which animal do lizards share the most key characteristics with? Goldfish Elephant
6) Which animal are lizards most closely related to? Goldfish Elephant

HISTORY
Cladograms
Part 2: Constructing a Cladogram

7) Draw a cladogram below showing the relationship between: snails, bluebirds, and turtles.
(note: Keep in mind that wings are limbs!)
8) On your cladogram, label 2 shared, diagnostic characteristics using bars similar to the
previous cladogram.
9) On your cladogram, give the organisms united at each node a name, using small circles
similar to the previous cladogram.
10) Two students are debating the relationship between snails, bluebirds, and turtles.
Student 1: I think that bluebirds and turtles are most closely related. They both have
backbones and four limbs. So, they are closely related because they are both
located in the node I called “vertebrates.”
Student 2: I think that snails and turtles are most closely related. They both have shells, so
they are more similar, and I put them on the same node in my cladogram.
11) Why is it important to pick important characteristics (called diagnostic characteristics) when
creating a cladogram?

HISTORY
Cladograms and Evolutionary Trees
Part 1: Cladograms
Cladograms show relationships between organisms. Use the cladogram below to answer the
questions.
Swordfish Frog Alligator T. rex
1) Based on the cladogram, what
are alligators most closely
related to?
Swordfish Frog C
T. rex Not specified
B
2) On the cladogram, what is the
ancestor of the T. rex?
Swordfish Frog A
Alligator Not specified
Part 2: Evolutionary Trees

Evolutionary trees show ancestors and descendents. The evolutionary tree below shows the
evolutionary relationships inferred from the cladogram.
3) If we find a fossil, how likely

is it to be the actual T. rex
‘Ancestor to alligators and T.
rex’ at Node C? Alligator
Ancestor to
alligators and
T. rex Frog
Swordfish
4) Will we ever know definitely if a
fossil that is found is the ‘Ancestor Ancestor to frogs,
to alligators and T. rex’ at Node C? alligators, and
T. rex
Ancestor to
swordfish, frogs,
alligators, and
T. rex

HISTORY
Cladograms and Evolutionary Trees
5) Can you determine what organism is the ancestor of another organism on a cladogram?
6) Three students are debating the answer to whether or not it is possible to determine the
ancestor or organisms on cladograms.
Student 1: Yes, animals that branch off are ancestors to later animals. For example, lizards are
ancestors to crocodiles and dinosaurs.
Student 2: No, the branches don’t show ancestors. But, if we find a fossil that we know is an
ancestor, we can put it at a node on the cladogram. This will show that it is an
ancestor and we can see the descendents.
Student 3: I agree that the branches don’t show ancestors. But we will never know if one fossil
is a direct ancestor to another fossil, so we cannot show ancestors on a cladogram.
We can only show features that an ancestor likely had.
7) Look at your answer to Question 2 and revise your answer if necessary. Explain below why
the correct answer is “Not specified.”
8) Explain how cladograms show different information than typical evolutionary trees.

HISTORY
Discovering Relationships
Part 1: Lungfish, Lion, and Goldfish

The table below lists some characteristics of lungfish, lions, and goldfish.
Goldfish Lungfish Lions
Shoulder girdle No Yes Yes
Bony skeleton Yes Yes Yes
Humerus, ulna and No Yes Yes
radius bones
Lungs No Yes Yes
Hair No No Yes
1) Below are cladograms that show the two possible relationships between the three animals.
Draw lines indicating where each of the five characters in the table appear in each
cladogram. Some characters may need to be drawn more than once, or you may need to
indicate the disappearance of a character. The character of shoulder girdle has been drawn
in for you.
goldfish lungfish lion lion lungfish goldfish
Shoulder girdle
Shoulder girdle
A B
2) Based on your labels, which cladogram is the most parsimonious (requires the fewest
number of changes)?
A B
3) Therefore, to which animal is the lungfish most closely related?

goldfish lion
4) If the goldfish and lungfish are both formally classified as fish, why must the lion also be
called a fish? Use the cladogram to support your answer.
5) Why does the term “fish” not show evolutionary relationships?

HISTORY
Part 2: Bird, Crocodile, Lizard

6) Based on what you know about birds, crocodiles, and lizards, make a prediction about which
two are most closely related. Justify your predication.
The table below lists some characteristics of birds, crocodiles, and lizards.
Bird Crocodile Lizard
Amniote egg Yes Yes Yes
Two temporal openings in the skull roof Yes Yes Yes
Antorbital fenestra (opening in skull) Yes Yes No
7) Below are cladograms that show the two possible relationships between the three animals.
Draw lines indicating where each of the four characters in the table appear in the cladogram.
Some characters may need to be drawn more than once, or you may need to indicate the
disappearance of a character.
bird crocodile lizard lizard crocodile bird
A B
8) Based on your labels, which cladogram is the most parsimonious (requires the fewest
number of changes)?
A B
9) Therefore, to which animal is the crocodile most closely related?

bird lizard
10) If the lizard and crocodile are both classified as reptiles, why must the bird also be called a
reptile? Use the cladogram to support your answer.
11) Explain why traditional classification does not necessarily show the evolutionary
relationships between animals.

HISTORY

HISTORY
The Classification of Amniotes
Part 1: Constructing a Cladogram

1) Fill in the chart below comparing characteristics of a salamander, a turtle, an elephant, an
alligator, Stegosaurus, and a chicken. Use a + if the animal displays the trait or a O if it does
not. Some boxes have been filled in for you.
salamander turtle elephant Alligator Stegosaurus chicken
(“amphibian”) (“reptile”) (“mammal”) (“reptile”) (“reptile”) (“bird”)
vertebrae
tetrapod
anmiotic egg
O
synapsid
condition O O + O O O
diapsid
condition O
antorbital
opening O
pubis points
backwards O O O O + O
2) Using the information in the above chart, create a cladogram showing the relationships
between the six animals. Use the characters given in the table to label the changes that
occur between the nodes of the cladogram.

HISTORY
The Classification of Amniotes
Part 2: Analyzing Relationships

3) Circle the “reptile” group.
4) What two animals are included in “reptiles” that are normally not called reptiles?
5) Two students are debating the grouping of birds.

Student 1: According to this cladogram, birds and mammals are reptiles.
Student 2: I disagree. Birds and reptiles and mammals are different, so how can they be in the
same natural grouping?
6) Why are the terms “reptiles,” “birds,” and “mammals” not useful when you look at the world
using cladistics?
7) With which animal is Stegosaurus most closely related? Alligator Chicken

Why?
8) Two students are debating the relationship between dinosaurs, birds, and alligators.
Student 1: Well, dinosaurs and birds must be more closely related to each other than either is
to an alligator because they both have an antorbital opening.
Student 2: I don’t think so. The cladogram shows that first alligators come off and then
dinosaurs come off. Birds come off last. So alligators and dinosaurs must be most
closely related. Besides, they’re more primitive than birds.

HISTORY
What Is a Dinosaur?
Part 1: Dinosaur Cladogram

Dinosaurs are animals that all descended from a common ancestor that was itself a dinosaur
(the first one!), and they are all encompassed within the dinosaur clade on a cladogram.
Crocodylia Pterosauria Ornithischia Saurischia
Dinosauria
1) What are the two groups within Dinosauria? ___________________ ___________________
2) What is the closest relative to dinosaurs on the cladogram? ___________________
3) According to the cladogram, can an animal be a dinosaur and not be part of Ornithischia or
Saurischia? Explain your answer.
4) Circle the dinosaurs in the following pictures:

HISTORY
What Is a Dinosaur?
Part 2: Ornithischia and Saurischia

An easy way to tell apart Ornithischia and Saurischia is the shape of their pelvis. Ornithischians
have a pelvis where at least part of the pubis runs towards the back of the dinosaur along the
lower part of the ischium. Saurischians have a pelvis in which the pubis is directed towards the
front of the dinosaur and slightly downward.
The figure to the right shows the three

bones in the pelvis of a saurischian Ilium
dinosaur. The tail is to the right.
Ischium
Pubis
5) Label the bones in the pelvis for the ornithschian and saurischian dinosaurs shown below.
tail
tail
Ornithischian Saurischian
(Maiasaura) (Deinonychus)
6) To what group of dinosaurs (Ornithischia or Saurischia) do the two skeletons below belong?
tail
tail
Apatosaurus Hypsilophodon

HISTORY
What Is a Dinosaur?

HISTORY
Eating Habits of Ankylosaurs
Part 1: Mouths
Ankylosaur mouths can be used to help determine the eating habits of ankylosaurs. Some
characters indicate that they chewed well; others suggest that chewing was not an important
part of their behavior.
1) For each line of evidence, determine which eating habit the evidence supports.
a) small triangular teeth chewed didn’t chew
b) wear on teeth indicates grinding chewed didn’t chew
c) teeth not tightly packed together chewed didn’t chew
d) long, flexible tongue chewed didn’t chew
e) well developed cheeks chewed didn’t chew
f) relatively large and strong jaw bones chewed didn’t chew
g) extremely broad girth chewed didn’t chew
2) Based on the evidence in the mouth, explain whether you think the ankylosaurs chewed their
food, did not chew their food, or partially chewed their food. Explain your answer.
Part 2: Comparisons to Living Animals

Features of ankylosaurs can be compared to features of living animals to help determine the
ankylosaurs’ eating habits.
3) Fill in the chart below with evidence you would find in the fossil record based on the eating
habits of some modern animals.
Animal Eating Habit Evidence That Would Be Left in the Fossil
Record
Cows Chew their food; bacteria in the
stomachs in their large abdomen
decompose tough plant material
Birds Swallow food whole; stones

within the muscular part of their
stomach grind food
Dogs Tear flesh with sharp teeth

HISTORY
Eating Habits of Ankylosaurs
4) Compared to other animals, ankylosaurs have an enormous abdomen indicating large guts.
Based on this evidence, with which animal did ankylosaurs most likely share eating habits?
Cows Birds Dogs
Part 3: Conclusion
5) Based on the overall evidence, explain the eating habits of ankylosaurs.

HISTORY
Pachycephalosaur Living Environments
Part 1: Condition of Bones

The condition in which fossils are found indicate if the animal died in that location or if its bones
were transported to that location. Each scenario results in different interpretations as to where
the animal lived.
1) For each line of evidence, indicate whether the animal likely died and was fossilized in or
near that location or if the animal (or its bones) was transported after it died.
a) articulated skeleton fossilized in place transported
(all bones found together in place)
b) few scattered bones fossilized in place transported
c) bones show signs of water-wear on their surface fossilized in place transported
d) delicate features on bones preserved fossilized in place transported
e) small bones found with large ones fossilized in place transported
f) only strong, robust bones found fossilized in place transported
Part 2: Pachycephalosaur Fossils

In Asia, pachycephalosaurs are found in rocks that indicate the area was once a large desert.
The skeletons are often complete and the bones are beautifully preserved with little evidence of
abrasion.
2) Did pachycephalosaurs in Asia fossilize near where they died, or were their skeletons
transported? Explain your reasoning.
In North America, pachycephalosaurs are found in rocks that indicate a broad coastal plain built
from sediment eroding from the Rocky Mountains and washed onto the coastal plain by large
rivers. Thick, skull caps, often with a water-worn appearance, are often found alone. No
articulated skeletons are found.
3) Did pachycephalosaurs in North America fossilize near where they died, or were their
skeletons transported? Explain your reasoning.
4) Based on the evidence of the bones, did pachycephalosaurs in Asia and North America live
in similar environments? What were the environments in which each of them lived?

HISTORY
Pachycephalosaur Living Environments
5) Two students are debating the where pachycephalosaurs lived in North America.
Student 1: They must have lived in the mountains or near their base, since the evidence
suggests their bones were washed down with the sediments out of the mountains.
Student 2: I think they lived in the broad, coastal plain, since that’s where they were found, and
it seems like a much more practical environment for a dinosaur to live.
6) Based on the environment in which they lived, what living animal might North American
pachycephalosaurs resemble?
bighorn sheep bison rhinoceros
7) Based on the environment in which they lived, what may have been a survival strategy for
Asian and North American pachycephalosaurs?
Live where other animals do not live, so there is little competition
Defend themselves and avoid dangerous injuries with their “helmet” head
Camouflage well, so predators are avoided
8) Pachycephalosaurs are relatively rare dinosaurs in North America. Does this fact make
sense in light of where they likely lived?

HISTORY
The Function of Ceratopsian Frills
Part 1: Hypothesis
frill
Two hypotheses of the function of ceratopsian frills are:
a) protection and defense
b) intraspecies competition and to a lesser extent,
display (display to other ceratopsians of the same
species, often related to mating behavior)
Arrhinoceratops
1) Which hypothesis do you think is most likely to be correct?
2) Since it is impossible to observe the behavior of live ceratopsians, describe two ways that we
learn about the function of ceratopsian frills.
Part 2: Evidence
Different lines of evidence of the function of ceratopsian frills are given below. For each line of
evidence, determine which hypothesis (or hypotheses) the evidence supports and give a short
explanation why.
3) In most horned mammals today, the larger males with the larger horns or antlers breed more
often than smaller males. They successfully fend off competitors and impress females.
4) In Protoceratops, the frill does not grow large until the individual approaches adult body size.
5) In many cases, ceratopsian frills have large openings and in some cases, such as
Protoceratops and Chasmosaurus, are made very delicately.
6) Bone beds show the animals lives in large herds in highly social circumstances.
7) Elaborate scallops and spikes are located along the frill margin of many species.
8) Ceratopsian frills are decorated with a variety of hornlets and come in many different shapes,
sizes, and appearances.
9) Frills of Protoceratops show two populations, interpreted to be differences between males

and females.

HISTORY
The Function of Ceratopsian Frills
Part 3: Conclusion
10) Examine your answers in Part 2. Which hypothesis is best supported by the data? Explain
your answer.

HISTORY
Social Behavior of Hadrosaurids
Part 1: Living in Herds

1) Bonebeds that contain thousands of hadrosaurids have been found. What does this tell us
about whether hadrosaurids lived in groups or were solitary?
Part 2: Crests
Since hadrosaurids lived in groups, we would expect them to have some sort of social behavior.
Animals that live in groups tend to communicate with other animals of the same species, and
they also often have some sort of sexual selection, where one sex of the species competes for
the other sex’s attention.
2) The crest of hadrosaurids is thought to have been used to make loud, deep trumpet sounds,
and each species would make a different noise. How does this function tie into social
behavior?
3) The crest of hadrosaurids is visually obvious, and different for each species. How does this
appearance tie into social behavior?
4) The crest of hadrosaurids is sexually dimorphic, meaning that the different sexes of each
species have crests that appear different from each other. How does this difference in
appearance tie into social behavior?
5) Overall, what do hadrosaurid crests suggest about the social behavior of hadrosaurids?
6) There are extensive differences in the skulls in ceratopsian dinosaurs. Is it reasonable to

assume they they, like hadrosaurids, may have been involved in sexual selection as well?

HISTORY
Social Behavior of Hadrosaurids
Part 3: Raising Young

Hadrosaurid nests have been found, and the nests also give information about the social
behavior of hadrosaurids.
7) Hatchlings are found in nests with crushed eggshell fragments, indicating an extended stay in
the nest. What does this indicate about the parental care of hadrosaurids?
8) Hatchlings have poorly developed joints and limbs, so they would not have been able to
forage for their own food. What does this indicate about the parental care of hadrosaurids?
9) Nests are separate by a distance of one parent-length. What does this indicate about the
parental care of hadrosaurids?
10) Overall, what do hadrosaurid nests suggest about the social behavior of hadrosaurids?
Part 4: Summary
11) Based on the previous information in Parts 1-3, describe the social behavior of
hadrosaurids.
12) Ornithopods (hadrosaurids are a type of ornithopod) have been called the deer, bison, and
sheep of the Mesozoic. Explain why this description is fitting.

HISTORY
Sauropod Nests
The discovery of sauropod nests has given us a significant amount of information about the
behavior of sauropods.
1) Thousands of sauropod eggs were found nests that covered an area larger than a square
kilometer (roughly 200 football fields in area). What does this discovery tell us about the
group or solitary behavior of sauropods?
2) No adults were found at the nesting site. What does this likely tell us about the parenting
habits of sauropods?
3) If you were a paleontologist, what other kinds of information would you look for that could
give you insights into the parenting habits of sauropods?
Animals generally display one of two strategies when raising their young. One strategy is to
have a large number of offspring without providing parental care, and, due to their sheer
numbers, some of them survive to reproducing age (called r-strategy). The other strategy is to
have few offspring that are cared for by the parents (called k-strategy).
4) What does the discovery of sauropod nests suggest the reproducing strategy of sauropods
was? Explain your answer.
5) How does the sauropod strategy compare to the strategy of other dinosaurs, such as
hadrosaurs?
6) How does the sauropod strategy compare to the strategy of birds and other living reptiles?

HISTORY
Large Theropods
Part 1: Convergent Evolution

Distantly related animals that live in similar environments often evolve to be more similar. For
example, dolphins are mammals and swordfish are fish, so they are distantly related. However,
they have the similar characteristics of a streamlined body and powerful tail because they are
adapted to live in a similar environment. This phenomena of distantly related animals evolving
similar characteristics is called convergent evolution.
1) Determine if the following pairs are examples of convergent evolution, and explain your
answer.
bats and birds yes no because…
cows and whales yes no because…
humans and chimpanzees yes no because…
ankylosaurs and armadillos yes no because…
2) Two students are debating examples of convergent evolution.

Student 1: I think that everything except the cows and whales are examples of convergent
evolution. They all look similar to each other (except the cow and whale), and they
are not all that closely related.
Student 2: I think the birds and bats and the ankylosaurs and armadillos are both examples of
convergent evolution. The human and chimpanzee are closely related, so they are
not examples.

HISTORY
Large Theropods
Part 2: Large Theropods

Large theropods share similar characteristics, such as proportionally large head and short arms.
Two possible explanations for these similarities are
1) they are all closely related, or
2) they are distantly related, but have undergone convergent evolution.
To test these explanations, we will examine a cladogram showing select theropods.
Ceratosaurus Carnotaurus Coelophysis Allosaurus Compsognathus Tyrannosaurus Oviraptor
Neoceratosauria
Ceratosauria Coelursauria
Tetanurae
Theropoda
The large theropods in the cladogram are the Tyrannosaurus, Allosaurus, Carnotaurus, and
Ceratosaurus (all in bold). The other theropods are small in size.
3) Circle the large theropods on the cladogram.
4) Are the large theropods more closely related to each other than they are to the small
theropods? Explain your answer.
5) Therefore, what is the best explanation for the similarities between large theropods?

HISTORY
Evolution for Flight
Part 1: Predictions
Birds are well-adapted to flying, since many of their characteristics allow them to successfully
fly. Examples of these characteristics include feathers, hollow bones, and long arms.
1) What evidence would you look for in the fossil record to determine if birds’ special
characteristics evolved specifically for flight?
2) What evidence would you look for in the fossil record to determine if birds’ special
characteristics evolved for other purposes and then were much later used for flight?
Part 2: Evidence
Below is a chart showing characteristics of some theropod dinosaurs. Archaeopteryx and
moderns birds both achieved flight.
Hollow Bones Feathers Long Arms
Carnotaurus yes no no
Tyrannosaurus yes yes no
Velociraptor yes yes yes
Archaeopteryx yes yes yes
Modern Bird yes yes yes
3) On the cladogram below, label the location of the appearance of each of the 3 characteristics
given in the chart above.
Carnotaurus Tyrannosaurus Velociraptor Archaeopteryx Modern Bird
4) Did hollow bones evolve before or after flight? before after
5) Did feathers evolve before or after flight? before after
6) Did long arms evolve before or after flight? before after

HISTORY
Evolution for Flight
Part 3: Conclusions
7) Based on the evidence, determine if birds’ special characteristics evolved specifically for the
purpose of flight. Explain your answer.
8) Two students are debating why feathers evolved.

Student 1: Feathers evolved before flight did, so they evolved for another purpose. They just
happened to be useful for flying later on.
Student 2: But what good are feathers if the animal can’t fly? I think that dinosaurs evolved
feathers with the eventual goal of flying.
9) Besides flight, what is another use of feathers?
10) Does evolution happen with a goal in mind? In other words, is there a specific direction
evolution takes to reach a pre-determined end result? Explain your answer.
11) Given what you now know about convergent evolution and flight evolution, how many times
did flight evolve in Archosauria (including dinosaurs, crocodiles, and pterosaurs)? How about
in Tetrapoda (animals with four limbs)? Give examples explaining your answers.

HISTORY
Bird Evolution
Part 1: “Missing Links”

The Archaeopteryx is often called a “missing link” or transitional fossil, in that its appearance is
transitional between dinosaurs and modern birds.
1) What are 2 characteristics of Archaeopteryx that are similar to non-avian dinosaurs?
2) What are 2 characteristics of Archaeopteryx that are similar to modern birds?
3) Why is the Archaeopteryx considered to be a “missing link” fossil?
The discovery of one “missing link” fossil creates two additional gaps – in this case, one
between dinosaurs and Archaeopteryx and the other between Archaeopteryx and modern birds.
We will examine the second gap, between Archaeopteryx and modern birds, and birds that fill
that gap. The chart below shows characteristics of some of these birds.
Archaeopteryx Confuciusornis Enantiornis Ichthyornis Modern
Birds
Feathers yes yes yes yes yes
Fused tail bones no yes yes yes yes
(pygostyle)
Fused wrist and hand no no yes yes yes
bones
(carpometacarpus)
Fully folding wing no no yes yes yes
Fewer vertebrae for a no no intermediate yes yes
more rigid body
Fused pelvis for a no no no yes yes
more rigid body
Loss of teeth no no no no yes
4) Did all modern bird features appear together or are there transitional fossils with a mixture of
Archaeopteryx and modern bird features? Give two examples supporting your answer.
5) Why could Confuciusornis, Enantiornis, and Ichthyornis be considered transitional fossils?

HISTORY
Bird Evolution
Part 2: Driving Forces of Bird Evolution
6) A rigid body is strong and lightweight. How is this adaptation potentially useful for birds?
7) How could fused tail bones be preferable to a long bony tail for birds?
8) Based on the information on the chart on the previous page, how did the wing and bones in
the wing change over time? How might these changes have been useful for birds?
9) The foot of the Enantiornis was equipped with a first digit directly opposite the other three
digits. What can we infer about where they spent their time?
10) From Question 9 above, what does this tell us about whether or not flight was an integral
part of their lifestyle?
11) Based on the changes observed in fossils, what appears to have been a key driving force in
the evolution of birds? Explain your answer.

HISTORY
Comparing Dinosaur Thermoregulation
Part 1: Dinosaur and Living Animal Comparisons

Thermoregulation is regulation of temperature. The table below compares living animals with
dinosaurs in terms of evidence for endothermy (the ability of animals to regulate their own
temperature) or ectothermy (the use of external heat sources to regulate temperature). Birds
today are endothermic and crocodiles are ectothermic.
Modern Birds Crocodiles Small Ankylosaurs Hadrosaurs
Theropods
Sprawled stance which reduces air in lungs when running
No Yes No No No
Anatomy indicates extremely active lifestyle
Yes No Yes ? ?
Secondary palate which allows breathing and eating at the same time
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Four-chambered heart to supply brain with a constant supply of oxygen-rich blood
Yes Yes Probably Probably Probably
Large brains, possibly to control higher levels of activity
Yes No Yes No Intermediate
Rapid growth rate of juveniles
Yes No Likely ? Likely
Growth lines in bones possibly indicating annual cycles instead of constant growth
No Yes Yes ? ?
Found in polar regions
Yes No Yes ? Yes
Insulating covering of hair or feathers
Yes No Yes No No
Similar temperature between core and extremities as measured by 18O:16O
Yes No Yes Intermediate Intermediate
1) Why does the table compare dinosaurs to birds and crocodiles as opposed to other animals
living today?
2) Are all three dinosaurs the same as each other, or are there differences between the groups?
Give 2 examples in your answer.
3) Do the dinosaurs match exactly with either birds or crocodiles, or are there differences? Give
2 examples in your answer.

HISTORY
4) Based on the comparisons, do you think small theropods were endothermic like birds today,
ectothermic like crocodiles, or had a metabolism that was somewhere in between? Explain
your answer.
5) Based on the comparisons, do you think ankylosaurs were endothermic like birds today,
your answer.
6) Based on the comparisons, do you think hadrosaurs were endothermic like birds today,
your answer.
7) Based upon the comparisons, do you think that all non-avian dinosaurs had similar
metabolisms? In what ways might they have differed?
Part 2: Dinosaur Activity

Thermoregulation can be tied to levels of activity in animals today. Because endothermic
animals produce more energy, they are able to sustain high levels of activity for extended
periods of time, while ectothermic animals cannot exert maximum energy for long periods of
time.
8) Some depictions of dinosaurs show them as slow-moving, “cold-blooded” animals, similar to

crocodiles. Evaluate this view.
9) Some depictions of dinosaurs show them as active, constantly-moving animals, similar to

birds today. Evaluate this view.

HISTORY

HISTORY
Dinosaur Movie Scenarios
You are the science advisor to a movie being made about dinosaurs. Four scenarios are
described to you as possible scenes in the movie.
Scenario A: Allosaurus attacks the sauropod Brachiosaurus. Brachiosaurus defends itself in

a dramatic battle.
Scenario B: A Triceratops uses its three horns to successfully charge and kill the
hadrosaurid Lambeosaurus, which it then starts to eat.
Scenario C: A sabertooth cat pounces on a Stegosaurus, but is unable to pierce its skin
with its long, sharp teeth and eventually gives up.
Scenario D: A Velociraptor attacks the ceratopsian Protoceratops. The Protoceratops fights

back.
1) Based of your knowledge of when different dinosaurs lived, which scenario(s) is/are not
possible? Explain your answer.
2) Based on your knowledge of what different dinosaurs ate, which scenario is not possible?
3) Based on your knowledge of what other animals lived with dinosaurs, which scenario is not
possible? Explain your answer.
4) Therefore, as science advisor, which scenario do you recommend be included in the movie
because it is most scientifically accurate? Explain your advice to the movie producer.

HISTORY
Possible Causes of Dinosaur Extinction
Part 1: Proposed Extinction Causes

The list below contains just a few proposed causes for the extinction of the dinosaurs.
A. Biting insects carrying diseases that killed dinosaurs over millions of years.
B. Changes in the DNA of dinosaurs causes scrambled genes.
C. Competition with mammals, who outcompeted dinosaurs for niches and/or ate their eggs.
D. The evolution in plants of substances poisonous to dinosaurs.
E. Falling sea level produced loss of habitats.
F. Impact of an asteroid.
1) What evidence in the fossil or rock record (if any) would each of the proposed causes leave
behind?
A:
B:
C:
D:
E:
F:
Part 2: Testing the Extinction Causes

The proposed causes must explain all the events associated with the extinction.
2) Based on the evidence you determined in Question 1, how would you test (if possible) the
proposed causes of the extinction? For example, what animals would be affected and what
patterns would be observed?
A:
B:
C:
D:
E:
F:

HISTORY
Possible Causes of Dinosaur Extinction
3) Summarizing your answer to Question 2, what proposed causes are testable by looking at
the fossil and rock record?
A B C D E F
4) The extinction was geologically abrupt and not gradual. Based on this information, what
proposed causes would be eliminated? (Put an X through what can be eliminated)
A B C D E F
5) Animals (both on land and in the ocean) other than dinosaurs went extinct. Based on this
information, what proposed causes would be eliminated? (Put an X through what can be
eliminated)
A B C D E F
6) Overall, which of the proposed causes can be tested and is best supported by the evidence?
A B C D E F

HISTORY

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Table of Contents

Chapter Lecture Tutorial Title Page

Chapter 1 Finding Dinosaur Fossils 2

Chapter 2 Dating Dinosaurs 4

Chapter 3 Reading Cladograms 6

Chapter 4 Discovering Relationships 12

Chapter 5 Eating Habits of Ankylosaurs 18

Chapter 6 Pachycephalosaur Living Environments 20

Chapter 7 Social Behavior of Hadrosaurids 24

Chapter 8 Sauropod Nests 26

Chapter 9 Large Theropods 27

Chapter 10 Evolution for Flight 29

Chapter 11 Bird Evolution 31

Chapter 12 Comparing Dinosaur Thermoregulation 33

Chapter 13 Dinosaur Movie Scenarios 35

Chapter 15 Possible Causes of Dinosaur Extinction 36

 KORTZ, 2009 L ECTURE TUTORIALS FOR DINOSAURS: A CONCISE NATURAL

Part 1: Basic Criteria

3) During what time frame did dinosaurs live?

Part 2: Sponsoring Dinosaur Collecting

 KORTZ, 2009 L ECTURE TUTORIALS FOR DINOSAURS: A CONCISE NATURAL

Paleontologist ___ because…

Paleontologist ___ because…

Paleontologist ___ because…

Paleontologist ___ because…

 KORTZ, 2009 L ECTURE TUTORIALS FOR DINOSAURS: A CONCISE NATURAL

Part 2: Determining the Age of a Dinosaur

4) Which of the three stratigraphy methods was used to Sedimentary rock

5) What is the age or age range of the dinosaur?

6) How did you determine the age of the dinosaur?

 KORTZ, 2009 L ECTURE TUTORIALS FOR DINOSAURS: A CONCISE NATURAL

 KORTZ, 2009 L ECTURE TUTORIALS FOR DINOSAURS: A CONCISE NATURAL

Part 1: Different Depictions

 KORTZ, 2009 L ECTURE TUTORIALS FOR DINOSAURS: A CONCISE NATURAL

Part 2: Adding Animals

beetle cat human beetle human cat

10) Which cladogram, if any, is more correct? Explain your answer.

11) Two students are debating which cladogram is more correct.

 KORTZ, 2009 L ECTURE TUTORIALS FOR DINOSAURS: A CONCISE NATURAL

 KORTZ, 2009 L ECTURE TUTORIALS FOR DINOSAURS: A CONCISE NATURAL

Part 1: Cladogram Basics

2) What diagnostic character B

 KORTZ, 2009 L ECTURE TUTORIALS FOR DINOSAURS: A CONCISE NATURAL

Part 2: Constructing a Cladogram

 KORTZ, 2009 L ECTURE TUTORIALS FOR DINOSAURS: A CONCISE NATURAL

Part 2: Evolutionary Trees

3) If we find a fossil, how likely

 KORTZ, 2009 L ECTURE TUTORIALS FOR DINOSAURS: A CONCISE NATURAL

 KORTZ, 2009 L ECTURE TUTORIALS FOR DINOSAURS: A CONCISE NATURAL

Part 1: Lungfish, Lion, and Goldfish

goldfish lungfish lion lion lungfish goldfish

3) Therefore, to which animal is the lungfish most closely related?

5) Why does the term “fish” not show evolutionary relationships?

 KORTZ, 2009 L ECTURE TUTORIALS FOR DINOSAURS: A CONCISE NATURAL

Part 2: Bird, Crocodile, Lizard

bird crocodile lizard lizard crocodile bird

9) Therefore, to which animal is the crocodile most closely related?

1) What are the two groups within Dinosauria? _ _