Systematization of common cracking patterns in buildings

Case studies

Sara Freitas Novais Ferreira de Almeida

Extended Abstract

Supervisors: Professora Doutora Inês dos Santos Flores Barbosa Colen

Professora Doutora Maria Cristina de Oliveira Matos Silva

May 2015
Abstract
The cracking phenomenon has been, over the years, one of the most common pathologies in buildings, concerning not only
the external façades but also the interior elements. This phenomenon occurs due to imperfect design or execution, or simply
due to accidental actions over which it’s almost impossible to predict their consequences.
This work intends to study the most common cracking patterns in buildings, through an inspection that will be conducted over
6 case studies. The analysis of these cases intends to give a practical application to what was referred in the literature review,
regarding cracking characteristics, cracking patterns and diagnosis of the main causes.
To conduct the inspection, it’s developed a methodology focused on the cracking phenomenon, which includes the elaboration
of an inspection sheet to gather data concerning the building and its pathologies.
The data analysis will allow to create a cracking patterns catalogue that intends to represent the patterns observed and its
main characteristics.
Keywords: Cracking patterns; Façades; Inspection; Diagnosis

1.Introduction strength of the material (BONSHOR, et al., 1996) and

The cracking phenomenon has been, over the years, one
of the most common pathologies in buildings, concerning
not only the external façades but also the interior
elements. This phenomenon occurs due to imperfect
design or execution, or simply due to accidental actions
over which it’s almost impossible to predict their
consequences.
Characterizing cracks based on its width, orientation,
location or their extension on the façade can help to
diagnose the causes of their appearance. To understand
the cracking phenomenon completely, it’s important to
look for mechanisms (physical, chemical, among others)
that explain it. These mechanisms may need to be
continuously questioned or validated, until we come up
with a cause-effect relationship that justifies why the
cracks were formed. The quest for this relationship poses
the biggest obstacle when it comes to study this
phenomenon.
(PAIVA, et al., 2006).
When it comes to buildings, cracking can take a double
role, as cause and effect, because it can be a secondary
effect of another pathology or can be the one leading to
other consequences (worst case scenario, it can lead to
the buildings collapse). Apart from the structural safety of
buildings, cracks should be limited for other reasons, per
example, the aesthetics or to maintain the durability of
constructions (BONSHOR, et al., 1996), (BONE, 1989)
and (VEIGA, 1998).
2.2. Elementary cracking mechanisms
As stated by (BONSHOR, et al., 1996), the stresses that
appear on the materials and lead to its cracking are normal
and shear stresses. These stresses are the result of axial
forces (traction or compression) and shear forces that are
applied, which create uniform stress distribution. To
calculate it, we can use Equation 1 and Equation 2:

2.Cracking in buildings 𝑃 Equation 1

𝜎=
2.1. Definition and general cracking conditions 𝐴

Crack can be defined as a physical discontinuity on an

𝐹
element or material. Structures have loads applied that 𝜏= Equation 2
𝐴
lead to displacements and volume variations, causing Where:
stress that can affect all the building or its components 𝜎 – normal stress (MPa); 𝜏 – shear stress (MPa); P – axial force (kN); F

individually. Cracks appear when stress is bigger than the – shear force (kN); A – area (m2)

1
The relative displacement of parallel sections causes
strain that can be extension or distortion according to the
axis in which the displacement occurs. In case of uniform
axial strain, stress can be calculated with the Equation 3:
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 Equation 3
Where:
𝜎 – normal stress (kPa); E – modulus of elasticity (MPa); 𝜀 – strain (m/m)
The volume range of the materials is the result of its free
expansion or shrinkage. In case this range is restricted,
there will appear stress on the material. In the special case
of temperature difference, this stress can be obtain using
the Equation 4:
𝜎 = 𝐸 𝛼𝑡 ∆𝑇 Equation 4
Where:
𝜎 – normal stress (kPa); E – modulus of elasticity (MPa); 𝛼𝑡 – coefficient
of linear thermal extension (m/m ºC); ∆𝑇 – temperature difference (ºC)
2.4. Causes and cracking patterns
According to (CEB, 1992), the occurrence of cracking can
be related with two different periods on the life of the
structure – before and after concrete hardening. Listed
below are the main causes associated with each of these
periods.
Before concrete hardening:
- Plastic cracks: Plastic shrinkage in concrete (i); Plastic
settlement of concrete (ii).
- Cracks that occur due to displacements during
construction: Incorrect reinforcement setting (iii);
Premature removal of formwork (iv).
After concrete hardening:
- Physical cracks: Concrete shrinkage (v); Plaster
shrinkage (vi).
- Structural cracks: Creep of concrete (vii); Differential
settlements (viii); Accidental overload (ix); Excessive

2.3. Types of cracking deformation of the structural elements (x); Excessive

2.3.1. According to its width compressive loads on masonry walls (xi); Seismic action

Cracks can be classified according to their width. (xii).

(GASPAR, et al., 2006) considers 5 levels: - Hygrothermal cracks: Thermal actions (xiii); Fire action

- Level 0 (<0,1 mm): Hair strand; (xiv); Freeze thaw (xv); Moisture-induced size changes

- Level 1 (0,1-0,25 mm): Visibility threshold; (xvi).

- Level 2 (0,25-1 mm): Visible; - Chemical cracks: Reinforcement corrosion (xvii); Alkali

- Level 3 (1-2 mm): Well defined; silica reaction (xviii); Salt crystallization (xix).

- Level 4 (>2 mm): Structural effects.

These causes induce different cracking patterns. In Table

2.3.2. According to its evolution 3.1 are listed the most common cracking patterns related

According to (LAPA, 2008) and (SILVA, 1998), cracks can to the causes referred.

be passive (also called dead or stabilized) or active (also

called alive or not stabilized). What distinguishes these 3.Fieldwork

two types of cracks it’s their movement, i.e., in case there’s 3.1. Applied methodology

no movement or this can be considered negligible, then The applied methodology on the case studies inspection

the crack is passive. is represented on Figure 3.1. This methodology can be

When it comes to active cracks, it’s important to divided in 3 phases:

distinguish them according to their evolution. These type i. Data gathering

of cracks can suffer aggravation of its causes over time or ii. Data organization

just suffer from cyclical or random variations (LUCAS, a. General analysis of cracking

1987). b. Analysis per façade

iii. Critical analysis of results

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 Table 3.1 – Cracking patterns, elements affected and possible
causes

Cracking pattern Elements Causes

On walls MW xvi
On walls next to the
MW v, xiii
upper slab
Horizontal On walls next to the
MW x
bottom slab
On columns CS ix
On walls MW xi, xvi
On walls next to the
MW x
bottom slab
On the center of Figure 3.1 – Systematization of the applied methodology
Vertical beams and making
CS ix
a 45 degree angle
next to the supports
Data gathering – Using inspection sheets, where the case
On columns CS ix
Making a 45 degree
study and cracks are characterized (using schemes,
CS, MW viii, x, xi
angle on walls photos and measurements) and the possible causes are
On walls next to the MW xiii diagnosed. Data is collected using different instruments,
upper slab
On walls next to the MW x namely: hygrometer, crack ruler, tape measure, level,
bottom slab
compass and thermographic camera.
On the concrete
Diagonal CS i, v, xiii
surface
Making a 45 degree
angle on both CS ix
Data organization – Using photos, schemes and
directions on beams descriptions. Data organization includes the following
On beams next to
the supports
CS ix steps:
General analysis of cracking – General analysis
On walls next to
viii, x, xi,
Diagonal on windows or other MW, C
xvi of all cracks observed on the case study, granting a global
openings
windows
perspective on cracking location. This analysis is done

On walls CS, C vi, xviii

over the building’s plan view and for each observed
Mapped
façade, presenting the following information:

MW - Area’s percentage of the façade affected by

On horizontal joints xiii
Interface
cracking;
between
different - Maximum width;
On vertical joints MW xiii, xvi
materials - Cracking patterns.
Along with the ii, iii, xiv,
CS
reinforcement xvii
Analysis per façade – Detailed analysis of each
On the limits of the
CS iv
formwork façade selected to fill an inspection sheet. All of cracks and
Parallel to the
Variable direction of the force
CS vii, ix pathologies are listed and fully characterized.
Perpendicular to the
CS ix
direction of the force
Irregular CS, MW xii
Critical analysis of results – Diagnosis of the most likely
Parallel to the causes to each pattern, trying to find a connection
CS xv, xix
surface
Elements: CS – concrete structure; MW – masonry wall; C – coating
between the cracks mentioned on chapter 2 and cracks
observed on case studies. Finally, it’s created a cracking
pattern catalogue that intends to be easy to use and

3
allowing to determinate the most probable cause to each
type of crack.
3.2. Suggested inspection sheet
Inspection sheets used in this work intend to fully
characterize the inspected buildings, analysing each
façade separately. In case of interior cracking, inspection
sheets are filled for each interior room observed.
In each façade is characterized the widest or biggest crack
of each type.
The organization of the inspection sheets is the following:
building ID; used instruments and available documents;
main characterization of the façades; cracking
characterization.
3.3. Characterization of the case studies
Table 3.2 shows the total number of buildings, façades
and interior rooms visited on each case study, as well as
the number of inspection sheets filled on each of them.
Table 3.2 – Total of building, façades and interior rooms on
each case study
Case study B – Neighbourhood with 11 building blocks,
each one with 4 floors and no basements. The buildings
have a reinforced concrete structure with fungiform slabs.
The foundation consists in shallow foundation connected
by beams.
Case study C – 14 buildings, with residential floors on the
top floors and shops on the ground floor, making a total of
276 flats and 6612 m2 of commercial area. Each building
has 8 floors on the west façade and 11 floors on the east
façade. It also has an underground park made for 170
vehicles. The buildings have a reinforced concrete
structure.
Case study D – Rehabilitated high school, consisting on
the erection of three new buildings. Two of these buildings
are an extension of existing ones – the main and gym
buildings.
Case study E – Historical convent from the XVII century,
located on Bairro Alto. It was rehabilitated, being now used
as a complex of luxury apartments. The convent has a

Number of exterior Number of interior stone masonry and wood structure. It has 4 floors and no
façades rooms
basements.
CS NB
Observed IS Observed IS
Case study F – Hotel next to Avenida da Liberdade, with
A 9 9 4 0 0
3 floors and 4 basements. The main façade was kept from
B 12 14 3 0 0
the original building and the rest of the hotel was built
C 2 0 0 14 6
posteriorly. This façade is made of stone, and the rest of
D 4 11 6 0 0
the building has a reinforced concrete structure.
E 1 2 4 0 0

F 1 2 2 0 0 4.Analysis and discussion of the results

29 38 19 14 6 4.1. Patterns and causes observed on each case
CS – case study; NB – number of observed buildings; IS – 4.1.1. Case study A
inspection sheet The main causes of cracking are differential settlements
that occurred all over the condo. These ground
Case study A – 2 condos with 41 houses, gardens and a movements lead to diagonal (Figure 4.1 (a)) and vertical
common pool. Each house has two floors and no cracks, affecting both coating and masonry walls.
basements. The buildings have a reinforced concrete Mapped cracks (Figure 4.1 (b)) appear due to plaster
structure and its foundation consists in shallow foundation shrinkage. However, these kind of cracks became wider
connected by beams. due to foundation movements, mostly the cracks with a
most diagonal orientation.

4
 Figure 4.1 – Diagonal (a) and map (b) cracking
4.1.2. Case study B
The main causes of cracking are differential movements
of the structure. Because the concrete structure and the
masonry walls have a different structural behaviour, the
values of displacement of the structural elements are not
compatible with the ones of the masonry walls, inducing
cracking. Most common cracks are the ones next to
windows (Figure 4.2 (a)) and horizontal cracks on corners
(Figure 4.2 (b)).
Figure 4.2 – Cracks next to windows (a) and horizontal cracks
on corners (b)
4.1.3. Case study C
The main causes of cracking are structural movements.
This conclusion goes along with a study made by the
company, on which, using a finite elements program, they
concluded that the structure was having excessive
deformations on some parts of the slabs. These excessive
deformations may be due to errors during the design
phase where these values might not have been calculated
to be under acceptable limits.
Most observed cracks were vertical (Figure 4.3 (a)) and
diagonal (Figure 4.3 (b)) ones.
5
Figure 4.3 – Vertical (a) and diagonal (b) cracking
4.1.4. Case study D
The main causes of cracking are differential movements
of the structure and the most common cracks are the ones
on the interface between different materials (Figure 4.4
(a)).
Diagonal cracks (Figure 4.4 (b)) that occurred both on the
existing buildings and on the recent ones are caused by
foundation movements.
The main building were quite cracked, especially on the
cantilever and on the east façade. These cracks can be
caused by the use of one floor as a library whose loads
might not have been considered during the design phase.
Figure 4.4 – Cracks on the interface between different materials
(a) and diagonal cracking (b)
4.1.5. Case study E
Most cracks appear on the external wall (Figure 4.5). After
visiting the interior of the convent, it was possible to see
that there were interior gardens next to the external wall.
Cracks appear due to the excessive earth pressure that
led to the walls failure by bending. This pressure was due
to the excessive water in the back of the wall, since the
ground was not drained correctly.
Another cause of cracking might have been foundation
movements as suggested by diagonal cracks on the wall.
 Figure 4.5 – Horizontal (a) and vertical (b) cracking

Figure 4.7 – Cracking patterns on the case studies

4.1.6. Case study F
The cracks observed are quite similar along the building,
On Figure 4.8, we can see that most part of the cracks
and are mostly caused by differential movements of the
appear on the walls (34%). Next, the most common part
structure. Main cracks appear on the interface between
affected by cracking are corners (16%) and interfaces
different materials (Figure 4.6 (a)) and next to windows
between different materials (15%). The least common
(Figure 4.6 (b)).
parts affected by cracking are the platbands (3%) and next
The presence of a vertical crack along the transition
to the roof slab (1%).
between two blocks of the building suggests that there
might have been a relative movement between them,
maybe caused by differential settlements of the structure.

Figure 4.8 – Parts of the building affected by cracking

Figure 4.6 – Cracks along the interface between different
materials (a) and cracks next to windows 4.3.2. Correlation between cracking pattern and
cracks characteristics
4.2. Comparison with theoretical literature
Most causes mentioned on theoretical literature are not
easily diagnosed. For that reason, it’s important to know
the story of the building (next to engineers, architects,
blueprints, and others) as well as performing an in situ
analysis in order to get a more accurate diagnosis.

4.3. Statistical analysis

4.3.1. General analysis on cracking phenomenon
Analysing Figure 4.7, it’s possible to conclude that the
most common cracks are vertical cracks on walls (24%),
followed by cracks on the interface between different
materials (17%), mapped cracks and cracks next to
MP – “fissuras mapeadas” (mapped cracks); JA – “fissuras junto a
janelas/aberturas” (cracks next to windows); TM – “fissuras na transição de
materiais” (cracks on the interface between different materials); HE – “fissuras
horizontais em esquinas” (horizontal cracks on corners); DG – “fissuras diagonais”
(diagonal cracks); HZ – “fissuras horizontais” (horizontal cracks); VT – “fissuras
verticais” (vertical cracks); VC – “fissuras horizontais em varandas/consolas”
(cracks on balconies or cantilevered elements)

windows or other openings (both with 14%). Figure 4.9 – Correlation between cracking pattern and possible
causes

6
Analysing Figure 4.9, we can see that causes like
excessive deformation of the support elements, moisture-
induced size changes and differential settlements are
related with the most part of the cracking patterns, i.e.,
these causes can lead to different cracking patterns. The
other causes are related with fewer cracking patterns, as
it happens with plaster shrinkage that only lead to mapped
cracks.
MP – “fissuras mapeadas” (mapped cracks); JA – “fissuras junto a
janelas/aberturas” (cracks next to windows); TM – “fissuras na transição de
materiais” (cracks on the interface between different materials); HE – “fissuras
horizontais em esquinas” (horizontal cracks on corners); DG – “fissuras diagonais”
(diagonal cracks); HZ – “fissuras horizontais” (horizontal cracks); VT – “fissuras
verticais” (vertical cracks); VC – “fissuras horizontais em varandas/consolas”
(cracks on balconies or cantilevered elements)

Figure 4.11 – Correlation between cracking pattern and affected

elements

MP – “fissuras mapeadas” (mapped cracks); JA – “fissuras junto a

janelas/aberturas” (cracks next to windows); TM – “fissuras na transição de
materiais” (cracks on the interface between different materials); HE – “fissuras
horizontais em esquinas” (horizontal cracks on corners); DG – “fissuras diagonais”
(diagonal cracks); HZ – “fissuras horizontais” (horizontal cracks); VT – “fissuras
verticais” (vertical cracks); VC – “fissuras horizontais em varandas/consolas”
(cracks on balconies or cantilevered elements)

Figure 4.10 – Correlation between cracking pattern and

average crack width

MP – “fissuras mapeadas” (mapped cracks); JA – “fissuras junto a

On Figure 4.10, it’s possible to see that, apart from cracks
janelas/aberturas” (cracks next to windows); TM – “fissuras na transição de
on balconies or cantilevered elements, most cracks have materiais” (cracks on the interface between different materials); HE – “fissuras

small to moderate widths. Cracks with big or very big horizontais em esquinas” (horizontal cracks on corners); DG – “fissuras diagonais”
(diagonal cracks); HZ – “fissuras horizontais” (horizontal cracks); VT – “fissuras
widths are only a small percentage of the cracks observed. verticais” (vertical cracks); VC – “fissuras horizontais em varandas/consolas”
However, these widths are observed on every type of (cracks on balconies or cantilevered elements)

crack, with the exception of mapped and horizontal cracks Figure 4.12 – Correlation between cracking pattern and other

on corners that only have small and moderate widths. pathologies

Analysing Figure 4.11, we can see that the most affected

element with cracking is the coating, with more than half
of the cracks observed. Vertical cracks are the only kind of
cracks that we can find on stonework and ceramic coating.
On Figure 4.12, it’s possible to see that all kinds of cracks
appear associated with moisture, and this pathology is
possible to observe in every case study. Detachments also
appear associated with many kinds of cracks, with the
exception of horizontal cracks on corners and diagonal
cracks.
4.4. Cracking patterns catalogue
All the information collected is compiled under the form of
a catalogue, where every pattern cracking is entirely
characterized. To make it easier to consult, this catalogue
is divided in two parts: a catalogue for cracks that appear
on exterior walls (Table 4.1) and cracks that appear on
interior walls (Table 4.2).
This catalogue intends to serve as a guide to the
observation and diagnosis of cracks in situ, making it

7
possible to determinate the main causes of the observed Table 4.1 – Cracking patterns catalogue – Exterior walls (cont.)
cracks, as well as an indicate of characteristics that can be

description

Expected

elements
Cracking

Possible
expected for each cracking pattern.

Affected
Element

causes

width
Table 4.1 – Cracking patterns catalogue – Exterior walls Horizontal cracks
on balconies,
AO Large (1-2
formed MW, C
DM mm)
description

perpendicularly to

Expected

elements
Cracking

Possible

Affected
Element

causes

width
the façade.

Balconies
Diagonal cracks
with similar
spacing between
Irregular mesh Small (0,1-0,25 AO Large (1-2
PS them, next to the MW, C
covering most mm) to DM mm)
TA C upper part of a
part of the medium (0,25- cantilevered
MC
façade. 1 mm) element.
Horizontal and

different materials
continuous DS Variable MW, C Linear cracks

Interface between
cracks. along the
DM
Vertical cracks interface between Small (0,1-0,25
TA SE/MW
Walls

with variable the masonry wall mm)

MW, C, MC
width and similar AO Variable and the concrete
OE
spacing between structure.
them.
Vertical and
Ornamental
elements Vertical cracks
horizontal cracks Large (1-2
AO Very large (>2 along stonework AO OE
with very large SE, C mm)
MC mm) joints.
widths on
retaining walls.
Causes: PS – plaster shrinkage; DS – differential settlements; AO –
other openings
Windows or

Cracks formed accidental overloads; ED – excessive deformation of the structural

DS
from the corners Medium (0,25-
DM MW, C elements; DM – differential movements of the structure; TA – thermal
of windows or 1 mm)
MC
other openings. actions; MC – moisture-induced size changes
Elements: SE – structural element; MW – masonry wall; SE/MW –
Linear cracks
next to the roof interface between structural elements and masonry wall; C – coating; OE
Next to the roof

slab, usually on – ornamental elements

the interface TA Small (0,1-0,25
slab

C
between the MC mm)
masonry wall and
the concrete
structure.
5.Conclusions
Platbands

Linear cracks TA Small (0,1-0,25

C
The objectives of this dissertation were fulfilled. In order to
next to platbands. MC mm)
relate what was mentioned on theoretical literature and the
Horizontal cracks
Medium (0,25- reality of Portuguese buildings, there were analysed six
next to the DS MW, C
1 mm)
case studies. The case study buildings provide a
Next to the ground

ground.
Diagonal cracks
forming a 45 diversified base to study cracking patterns, as well as the
degree angle,
with similar DS Variable
SE, elements affected and the main causes that originates
MW, C
spacing between
them, next to the
them.
ground. It was applied a methodology that allowed a full
Horizontal cracks
with similar Small (0,1-0,25 characterization of the buildings and their pathologies.
spacing between mm) to
DM MW, C
them, on the medium (0,25- This methodology consisted on the creation of an
Corners

corner of 1 mm)
buildings. inspection sheet that intends to be quick and easy to fill
Vertical cracks
with variable and that provides all the information needed to diagnose
DS Variable MW, C
width formed
from corners.
the pathologies observed.

8
 Table 4.2 – Cracking patterns catalogue – Interior walls - the most common cracks were the vertical ones, with
24% of the totality of cracks observed. This type of cracks

description

Expected

elements
Cracking

Possible
were observed on walls, corners and ornamental

Affected
Element

causes

width
elements, as stonework;
- the part of the building that was most affected by cracking
Diagonal cracks
Small (0,1-0,25
forming a 45 ED C were the walls, where 34% of the cracks appeared;
mm)
degree angle.
Walls

Vertical cracks
Medium (0,25- - the most recent buildings, with year of construction after
along the full ED MW, C
1 mm)
height of the wall. 2010, showed the lower area’s percentage of the façade
affected by cracking, never exceeding 50% of the area;
other openings
Windows or

Cracks formed
from the corners
ED
Medium (0,25-
MW, C - the main causes of cracking were structural, namely,
of windows or 1 mm)
other openings. differential settlements and differential movements of the
structure. These two kinds of movements led to cracks
Vertical cracks
next to corners
ED
Medium (0,25-
MW, C with different orientations, widths and patterns, showing,
and along the full 1 mm)
height of the wall. once again, the difficulty behind searching for a cause-
Corners

Diagonal cracks
that cross two effect relationship;
Medium (0,25-
adjacent masonry ED MW, C
1 mm) - the most affected elements were the coating and the
walls, along the
masonry joints.
masonry walls, consisting in 49% and 26% of the affected
different materials
Interface between

elements, respectively. It was possible to see that, most of

Horizontal cracks
Small (0,1-0,25
next to the ED
mm)
C the times, structural cracks affected both coating and
window frames.
masonry walls;
- cracks with width superior to 2 mm were normally
Vertical cracks on
stonework
Small (0,1-0,25 associated with structural phenomena and, on a long-
elements, ED OE
Ornamental

mm)
elements

crossing them term, can be responsible to the instability of walls.

completely.
Vertical cracks on Small (0,1-0,25
MW,
ceramic coatings, ED mm) to medium
OE
along their joints. (0,25-1 mm)
Causes: PS – plaster shrinkage; DS – differential settlements; AO – References
accidental overloads; ED – excessive deformation of the structural
BONE, S. 1989. Defects in Buildings. Department of
elements; DM – differential movements of the structure; TA – thermal
actions; MC – moisture-induced size changes Environment : London, 1989.
Elements: SE – structural element; MW – masonry wall; SE/MW – BONSHOR, R. B. and BONSHOR, L. L. 1996. Cracking
interface between structural elements and masonry wall; C – coating; OE in Buildings. BRE : Garston, 1996.
– ornamental elements
CEB. 1992. Durable Concrete Structures. Design Guide.
Comité euro-international du béton : s.n., 1992.
GASPAR, Pedro Lima, FLORES-COLEN, Inês and
The diversity of results obtained made it possible to
BRITO, Jorge de. 2006. Técnicas de diagnóstico e
elaborate a cracking patterns catalogue, with all types of
classificação de fissuração em fachadas rebocadas. s.l. :
cracks observed on the case studies. The statistical
IST, Lisboa, 2006.
analysis served as base for this catalogue, with a total of
LAPA, José Silva. 2008. Patologia, recuperação e reparo
59 cracks analysed.
das estruturas de concreto. Monografia para obtenção de
Thanks to the inspections conducted, it was possible to
título de especialização em Construção Civil :
conclude that:
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, 2008.

9
LUCAS, J. A. Carvalho. 1987. Revestimentos para
paramentos interiores de alvenaria de blocos de betão
celular autoclavado - VOL. II: Betão celular autoclavado -
Fissuração de paredes de alvenaria em geral; Fissuração
de paredes de alvenaria de betão celular autoclavado no
nosso País. Relatório 109/87-NCCt : LNEC, Lisboa, 1987.
PAIVA, J., AGUIAR, J. and PINHO, A. 2006. Guia
Técnico de Reabilitação Habitacional. s.l. : LNEC, Lisboa,
2006.
SILVA, José António Raimundo Mendes. 1998.
Fissuração das alvenarias - Estudo do comportamento
das alvenarias sob acções térmicas. Dissertação de
Doutoramento em Engenharia CIvi, especialidade de
Construções : Coimbra, 1998.
VEIGA, R. 1998. Comportamento de argamassas de
revestimento de paredes. Contribuição para o estudo da
sua resistência à fendilhação. Teses e Programas de
Investigação : LNEC, Lisboa, 1998.

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