Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104679

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Resources, Conservation & Recycling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Review

Recycling waste rubber tyres in construction materials and associated T

environmental considerations: A review
Abbas Mohajerania,*, Lucas Burnetta, John V. Smitha, Stefan Markovskia, Glen Rodwella,
Md Tareq Rahmana, Halenur Kurmusa, Mehdi Mirzababaeib, Arul Arulrajahc,
Suksun Horpibulsukd, Farshid Maghoolc
a
School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
b
School of Engineering and Technology, CQUniversity, Melbourne, Australia
c
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, Swinburne University of Technology, Victoria, Australia
d
School of Civil Engineering and Center of Excellence in Innovation for Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima,
Thailand

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Waste tyres and their accumulation is a global environmental concern; they are not biodegradable, and, globally,
Recycling an estimated 1.5 billion are generated annually. Waste tyres in landfill and stockpiles are renowned for leaching
Waste rubber toxic chemicals into the surrounding environment, acting as breeding grounds for mosquitoes, and fuelling
Rubber tyres inextinguishable fires. The properties of waste tyre rubber and engineering applications have been previously
Construction materials
reported in a range of publications with respect to the environmental, economic, and technical factors. This
Environmental sustainability
Leachate
study compiles and reviews this research with a focus on geotechnical engineering applications, such as
earthworks and infrastructure construction. The applications of waste rubber in construction materials includes
cementitious concrete, asphalt concrete, and granular materials for earth structures. Crumb rubber, when used
as a sand replacement in flowable concrete fill, improved ductility and strength-to-weight ratio. A 40 MPa
concrete mix with 0.6% rubber crumb content exhibited optimal strength and air entrainment capabilities,
displaying minimal damage after 56 freeze/thaw cycles. Rubber, as a partial replacement for aggregate in road
base and sub-base layers, adversely affected the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of the graded aggregate base
course. Rubber-soil mixtures as the interface of foundation and structure yielded a 60–70 % reduction in vertical
and horizontal ground accelerations when subjected to earthquake simulation modelling. There is concern re-
garding the toxicity of waste rubber incorporated products due to leachates of heavy metals and other chemicals
common in tyres. Further comprehensive studies in this area are needed. Leachate studies should be conducted
under different pH and liquid to solid ratios.

1. Introduction and lack of coordinated processing or recycling framework presents a

It is estimated that the annual generation of waste tyres amounts to
1.5 billion whole-tyres worldwide (Mashiri et al., 2015); contributing to
the huge number of tyres already found in landfill and stockpiles. In
Australia, approximately 51 million tyres are disposed of annually
(Mountjoy et al., 2015), and this is likely to increase proportionally
with the present population expansion. Demographic statistics de-
monstrate a population increase of 989.5 million people from 2015 to
2017, a 4.16% increase, suggesting, if tyred-vehicle use per capital
remains unchanged, a similar growth in annual waste tyre production
(AUSSTATS, 2020; ABS 2014). The growing abundance of waste tyres
growing concern for the management of this material.
Due to recent global recognition and strong environmental aware-
ness, many authorities have imposed strict rules and regulations re-
garding this waste product to prevent excessive stockpiles and landfill
operations. With these sanctions in place, researchers have been pre-
sented with an opportunity to explore sustainable measures and alter-
native uses for waste tyres. The potential for use in civil engineering has
been investigated for over 30 years (Oikonomou and Mavridou, 2009),
with some sources even suggesting its usage dating back as early as the
19th century, when automobiles were first invented (Shu and Huang,
2014). Diminishing natural resources that are consumed by the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: abbas.mohajerani@rmit.edu.au (A. Mohajerani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.104679
Received 4 August 2019; Received in revised form 31 December 2019; Accepted 1 January 2020
Available online 07 January 2020
0921-3449/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A. Mohajerani, et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104679

Table 1
Application of waste rubber products in civil/geotechnical works.
Industry Application Properties

Civil Engineering Concrete Freeze/Thaw Protection
Flowable Concrete fill
Replacement Material in Bitumen
and Asphalt
Railway Maintenance
High-Strength Concrete
Playgrounds and Sporting Surfaces
Geotechnical Engineering Soil Stabilisation
Unbound Pavements
Use in Sub-Ballast Layers
Seismic Isolation Systems
Whole-Tyre Embankments
Used to increase the ductility of the resulting concrete samples due to the air entrainment properties of
rubber, which leads to greater durability factors when compared to traditional concrete mixes.
Used to reduce the density of flowable concrete fill, to minimise the overburden pressure of materials that fill
is placed on. Simulates well compacted soils.
Used as replacement for sand in sand-tyre rubber mixtures at 20% for use in highway base course. Limited
permanent deformation after 10,000 cycles indicates viability.
Used as subbase materials underlying light rail construction to dampen vibration due to elastic properties.
High strength concrete mixes utilising 0–12.5 % TDP substitution can achieve up to 60 MPa after cure time of
90 days, thereby facilitating their use in high strength concrete applications and for reducing aggregate
demand.
Rubber chip products may be used as flexible coverage options in playground settings or as a replacement in
sporting field applications utilising conventional granular solutions.
Shredded rubber fibres can be considered a good reinforcement substitute in deep foundations and raft
foundations, achieving higher unconfined compressive strength at optimum replacement ratios (Hambirao
and Rakaraddi, 2014).
TDP may be used as a replacement material in sands used in unbound pavements. The addition of shredded
rubber chips increases the permeability and maintains the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) (Speir and Witczak,
1996).
Replacing conventional granular sub-ballast with recycled crumb rubber bituminous layer, reduces the
demand on finite resources, transportation cost of raw materials, maintenance costs, and improves the bearing
capacities and impermeability.
Rubber soil mixtures are theorised to provide effective seismic isolation, particularly in developing countries.
Finite element modelling has demonstrated that, on average, rubber soil mixtures can decrease horizontal
ground acceleration by 60–70 % and vertical ground acceleration by 80–90 % (Tsang et al., 2007).
Whole tyres may be used in tyre bales to act as a gravity retention system as a replacement for energy
intensive brick and concrete structures. Whole tyres provide effective drainage properties due to the voids in
the tyre bales, and reduce the pore pressure in the final structure. The utilisation of tyres reduces the
embodied energy and costs associated with soil retention.

construction sector have also accelerated research efforts in promoting
the use of recyclable waste products, such as scrap tyres in construction
as an alternative to non-renewable materials (ASTM, 1998).
Waste tyres (whole tyres, tyre shreds, or tyre chips) provide many
unique properties that are significant for engineering applications,
particularly geotechnical engineering applications, including low den-
sity, low earth pressure, good insulating properties, good drainage
capability, good long-term durability, and high compressibility (Mashiri
et al., 2015). Despite these desirable properties, only 11% of recovered
waste rubber is used in civil/geotechnical works in Australia (Mountjoy
et al., 2015). There is concern regarding the toxicity of tyre products in
geotechnical applications due to periodic saturation leading to leachate
of the heavy metals that are common in tyres.
The focus of this paper is to analyse the properties of waste tyre
rubber and navigate research conducted in relation to applications that
specifically target geotechnical works, and to highlight the environ-
mental, economic, and technical factors. This study has reviewed the
use of waste rubber in a wide range of applications (Table 1)
In order to understand the extent of the waste tyre epidemic, a unit
of measurement needs to be defined. The Australian Tyre Recyclers
Association (ATRA, 2015) has identified this as the Equivalent Pas-
senger Unit (EPU), which has been widely accepted as the standardised
unit for measuring end-of-life tyres. This assumes that a single pas-
senger tyre equates to 8 kg in weight. The reasoning behind this re-
porting system is that it allows for compatibility amongst various tyre
categories (passenger vehicle, truck, off-road machinery, etc.), thereby
enabling the data to be transposed from unit measurement to weight
and vice versa. Hence, all the statistics related to waste tyres in this
paper are in terms of the EPU.
1.1. Methods
This research was undertaken by searching papers in several data-
bases and websites to find research conducted on the properties of
waste tyre rubber and its uses in concrete and geotechnical applica-
tions. The paper search was carried out from August 2017 to June 2019.
The research was undertaken by classifying relevant keywords,
including recycling waste rubber tyres, properties of waste rubber tyres,
processing of waste rubber tyres, concrete applications of waste rubber
tyres, geotechnical applications of waste rubber tyres, and the toxicity
of waste rubber tyres. The titles and abstracts comprising the applicable
keywords were reviewed, and 155 papers were found.
This process was followed by a selection and screening procedure,
as described below, which involved selecting papers that fit with the
objective of this study:
I Initially the title was examined, followed by the abstract to de-
termine its relevance to the research
II Reliable content with valuable findings on recycling waste rubber
tyres or properties of waste rubber tyres or the toxicity of waste
rubber tyres were carefully read.
III Major references in the papers selected were studied.
Finally, this research was carried out on 95 selected articles.
2. Processing
Waste rubber tyres collected from passenger vehicles, trucks, and
off-road machinery are required to undergo some form of recovery, as
tyres are prohibited from entering landfill sites in Australia according to
State Environmental Protection Agency Guidelines. In 2015, to protect
against the risk of tyre fires, the Australian EPA introduced regulations
that mandate licences for any site storing 40 tonnes or 5000 EPUs of
waste tyres (Storage of Waste Tyres in Victoria, 2020). Despite the in-
troduced regulation, it is estimated that approximately 1.5 million
passenger car tyres are not disposed of via licenced stockpiles and may
be illegally dumped. Processing is made complex by the need to sepa-
rate rubber from steel wire and fabric used as reinforcing materials.
When legally disposed, tyre product reclamation may be achieved via
two primary processing methods: ambient size reduction and cryogenic
size reduction.

2
A. Mohajerani, et al.
Fig. 1. Waste tyre products. Top: Stockpile of whole waste tyres (City of Watsonville California, 2015), Below: Tyre derived products (ReRubber, 2017).
2.1. Ambient size reduction
Ambient size reduction involves the mechanical grinding of rubber
tyres, without the intentional control of processing temperature, to
form products, such as tyre cuts, tyre shreds, and tyre chips; as shown in
Fig. 1. Rubber products manufactured via this process may experience
increased exposure to heat resulting from the friction between particles
as they are processed, which can potentially alter the properties of the
material (Owen, 1999). Ambient size reduced rubber is characterised
by an irregular shape and rough exterior surfacing. Due to the nature of
this method, single granulator size reduction capabilities are limited to
producing products greater than 50 mm in size; further size reduction
may be achieved through use of secondary granulators, high speed
rotary mills, extruders, screw presses, or cracker mills (Zafar, 2018).
Ambient size reduction techniques may result in unintended by-
products; the physical interaction between tyre products and mechan-
ical systems incumbent on ambient size reduction methodology may
give rise to micro- or nanoparticulate matter generation, as friction and
heat interactions are seen to occur in road use applications.
Therefore, this method is not recommended, as it is considered to be
an environmental hazard in the long-term. The release of nanoparticles
to the surrounding environment can result in detrimental health effects
to the local fauna and flora. A comprehensive study on this topic is
required.
2.2. Cryogenic size reduction
Cryogenic size reduction involves freezing rubber with a chemical
agent, such as liquid nitrogen, below the glass transition phase. The
rubber is then stressed to the desired size. Cryogenic size reduction
produces rubber materials of uniform geometric shape and smooth
finish that somewhat resemble shattered glass. As a result, small uni-
form products can be produced. Unlike ambient size reduction, this
method does not change the properties of the material (Owen, 1999).
Cryogenic size reduction is capable of producing smoother and smaller
crumbs, but is more expensive compared to the more common ambient
size reduction method (Zafar, 2018).
The primary difference between the two methods (Fig. 2) is that the
ambient size-reduced products contain twice the specific surface area
(assuming the products are of the same size) to that obtained by the
cryogenic method. This was found to have a significant effect on the
bonding between particles in the matrix in which they are added as a
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104679
partial replacement material (Shu and Huang, 2014).
2.3. Products
According to the data provided by the Australian Bureau of
Statistics (ABS, 2014), the average lifespan of a standard passenger tyre
is approximately 4 years (for general use). Tyres are also non-biode-
gradable. Due to their short lifespan and non-biodegradability, large
stockpiles of waste tyres quickly accumulate, with accumulation rates
expected to proportionally trend with car use and population growth.
These stockpiles present numerous issues, including environmental
hazards and resultant toxic tyre fires, which are notoriously difficult to
extinguish and release significant volumes of airborne pollutants (Singh
et al., 2015a, b), as well as visually mar the areas in which they are
stockpiled. There are, however, solutions to stockpiling waste tyres.
These waste tyres can be reused to form valuable materials for a wide
range of applications, such as for use in road base and sub-base, railway
ballast, geotechnical applications, and as a replacement material in
high strength concrete.
2.4. Whole tyres
Not all waste tyres need to be processed in order to be recycled. In
some cases, complete tyres can be reused to construct reinforced soil
retaining walls, piling platforms, drainage culverts, and as barriers for
erosion control (ECOFLEX, 2016). Although whole tyre recycling may
be used for minor jobs in isolated applications, it has limited viability as
a method of tackling growing tyre reserves as applications are limited
due to tyre shape.
2.5. Tyre derived products
Depending upon the intended use, waste tyres can be reduced from
whole tyres to cuts, shreds, chips, crumbs/granules, and even to a fine
powder for use in a diverse range of applications. This review paper
focuses on studying the applications for recycling Tyre Derived
Products (TDPs), which includes all the products mentioned above.
Table 2 demonstrates how TDPs are classified depending upon the size
of the material.
A. Mohajerani, et al.
Fig. 2. Waste tyre rubber processing methods (Recycling Research Institute, 2017).
Table 2
Material Sizes of Tyre Derived Products (TDPs) (CWA, 2002).
Material Size
Cuts > 300 mm
Shred 50−300 mm
Chips 10−50 mm
Granulate (Crumbs) 1−10 mm
Powder < 1 mm
Fine powder < 500μm
Buffings 0−40 mm
Reclaim Dependent on input
Devulcanisate Dependent on powder
Pyrolytic char < 10 mm
Carbon products < 500μm
2.6. Tyre derived fuel
It is important to note that a significant portion of waste tyres is
destined for use as Tyre Derived Fuel (TDF) in the form of whole tyres,
shreds, and chips. TDF products are used as a replacement material
alongside traditional fuels, such as coal. Reports suggest that TDF
constitutes 8% of the Australian waste tyre market that is used for
energy production (Mountjoy et al., 2015).
The production of fuels from waste tyres is achieved through a
multistage pyrolytic treatment. Initial treatment is undertaken to re-
duce whole tyres into usable rubber chips via ambient size reduction in
a shredder. The treatment by-product is fed into a pyrolytic reactor that
outputs solid carbon black particles and vaporous oil and gas which is
then harvested. During combustion in the pyrolytic reactor, hydro-
carbon gas is produced, and, subsequently, captured to drive the
combustion process to reduce energy demands from external system
sources. The harvested oil and gas vapour is processed into heavy and
light oils via condensation, at which point the produced fuels may be
sold, reused in the treatment system, or further refined via catalysis into
gasoline or diesel fuels. This process presents an alternative use of waste
tyres, which actively reduces the quantity of rubber via reduction into
fuels that may be combusted; fuel conversion provides greater longevity
due to the consistent demand for fuels. However, ambient size reduc-
tion treatments and pyrolytic treatment require significant energy input
and output carbon dioxide and carbon black (Bhattacharya, 2018).
3. Material properties and behaviour
Using recycled waste tyres has been gaining popularity among re-
searchers looking to explore sustainable options in the design of sub-
structures and sustainable replacement materials for common con-
struction materials. The increased demand for sustainable alternatives
has led to rapid exploration and numerous studies in this area.
The use of TDPs in soils has recently been the subject of numerous
studies, with a strong emphasis placed on comparing the behavioural
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104679
characteristics of rubber soil with that of standard soils. Ground con-
ditions are a crucial consideration when designing structures, and
careful analysis must be conducted to ensure that the inclusion of waste
tyres in any design does not compromise the behaviour of the structure
it supports.
TDPs exhibit favourable frictional properties (Humphrey and
Sandford, 1993) when mixed with soils, enhancing the internal shear
strength of the soil, providing stability, and minimising the effect of
differential settlement. However, these benefits come at the cost of a
significant reduction in the bearing capacity of rubber soil.
Based on initial investigations (Masad et al., 1996; Wu et al., 1997;
Lee et al., 1999), it was found that the unit weight of waste rubber is
generally around 5 kN/m3 irrespective of the particle size (Edil and
Bosscher, 1994), in comparison to soil, which typically ranges any-
where between 15 and 19 kN/m3. Considering the above findings, it
can be seen that a reduction in weight savings (of up to 66%) may be
possible when adopting waste rubber as a whole replacement or partial
substitute in the design of the substructure. A further benefit to redu-
cing the weight of soil mixes, such as fill material, is that it could result
in a reduction in settlement due to the smaller overburden pressure.
Studies investigating the strength and other properties of soil, in-
cluding TDP, often produce contradictory findings. Some research
suggests that mild increases in strength are possible with the inclusion
of rubber in sand/clay soils up to an optimal level. This, however,
cannot be generalised as each of the experiments that were conducted
measured largely different parameters (soil type, rubber type, rubber
particle size, and percentage rubber content), all of which have a major
influence on the behaviour of the material. The variability of soil
parameters means that generalising the results from these types of study
is very difficult.
During the 1990s, a series of laboratory testing was administered.
These included direct shear and triaxial tests, which were undertaken to
develop an understanding of the shear strength behaviour of waste
rubber (Wu et al., 1997). Since then, Yang et al. (2002) expanded this
knowledge and prepared a new concept for interpreting the compres-
sion and shear strength behaviour.
It should also be noted that throughout the investigations, a lack of
consistency between the research methodologies was present, with
some studies using volume and others opting for mass as a means of
measurement. Misinterpretation of this data is likely to occur when
comparing the results obtained from one study with the results obtained
in another study, which could affect the reliability of the outcomes.
Further research is recommended, but with a consistent methodology.
Materials should be of the same size and structure to ensure that reli-
able results are achieved, and the units should be consistent for ease of
comparison.
3.1. Tyre composition
The composition of tyres affects the key characteristics of the final
A. Mohajerani, et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104679

Table 3 Table 4
Constituent material percentage (Evans and Evans, 2006). Summary of permeability of TDP (Edeskär, 2004).
Constituent material Passenger car Lorry tyre Off road Size (mm) Density, ρ (kg/ Permeability, k (10−2 Reference
tyres (%) (%) tyre (%) m3) m/s)

Rubber/elastomers 47 45 47 25 - 64 469 5.3 - 23.5 Bressette (1994)

Carbon black 21.5 22 22 25 - 64 608 2.9 - 10.9 - || -
Metals 16.5 25 12 5 - 51 470 4.9 - 59.3 - || -
Textiles 5.5 – 10 5 - 51 610 3.8 - 22 - || -
Vulcanising Zinc Oxide 1 2 2 5 - 51 644 7.7 Humphrey et al.
agents Sulphur 1 1 1 (1992)
Additives 7.5 5 6 5 - 51 833 2.1 - || -
Total carbon-based materials 74 67 76 20 - 76 601 15.4 - || -
20 - 76 803 4.8 - || -
10 - 38 622 6.9 - || -
10 - 38 808 1.5 - || -
product, with the variations observed in the material quantities used
10 - 38 – 0.58 Ahmed (1993)
dependent on the application. According to industry bodies 38 – 1.4 - 2.6 Humphrey (1996)
(Continental, 2013), the simplified composition of tyres includes 19 – 0.8 - 2.6 - || -
varying levels of core ingredients; generally: 25 – 0.54 - 0.65 Ahmed and Lovell
(1993)
38 – 2.07 - || -
- Natural and synthetic rubbers 19 – 1.93 - || -
- Fillers (carbon black, silica, chalk, or carbon) 0.8 - 10 562 - 598 0.033 - 0.034 Cecich et al. (1996)
- Reinforcing materials (metals and textiles)
- Plasticisers (oils and resins)
- Vulcanising agents (sulphur and zinc oxide) 3.3. Water absorption capacity
- Additives
The preliminary study produced by Humphrey and Manion (1992)
Recycling tyres poses many problems due to the chemical compo- analysed the water absorption capacity of tyre shreds. The water ab-
sition and constituent material toxicity; leachate of heavy metals, par- sorption capacity, also known as water retention or water content, is
ticularly zinc, is a primary concern when considering TDP for reuse. In defined as ‘the amount of water absorbed onto the surface of the ma-
this context, the composition of rubber tyres used in recycling must be terial,’ and is generally expressed in terms of the percentage of water to
assessed to determine the potential toxicity; the generalised rate that the dry weight of the particles (Edeskär, 2004). It was found that the
constituent materials appear in passenger car tyres, heavy lorry tyres, water absorption capacity of the rubber shred samples averaged ap-
and off-road tyres are demonstrated in Table 3 below. It should be proximately 2.7%. This result was later verified by Pierce and Blackwell
noted that the materials illustrated below are not an exhaustive list as a (2003) who obtained water adsorption values of 2.4% during their tests
wide range of rubbers, additives, and vulcanising agents are common in on rubber crumb samples. This is relatively high when compared to
the industry. natural sand particles, which typically only retain about 0.5% water by
surface adsorption.
Synthetic materials are generally classified as impervious, where
3.2. Hydraulic conductivity water retention is marginal at best. Conversely, organic materials, such
as soils, are believed to tolerate greater water capacity (absorption and
Hydraulic conductivity is a fundamental material property that retention abilities). When TDPs are mixed with soils, the behaviour of
must be considered when determining the suitability of a material for the material changes, as seen in the study conducted by Prasad et al.
use in drainage systems. Therefore, studies have been conducted with (2014). The results from this study highlight a decrease in the optimum
the aim of determining the hydraulic conductivity of TDPs. In order to moisture content with a decrease in the quantity of rubber crumb
be a successful component in drainage systems, TDPs must allow (425−600 micron), which has shown a negligible effect on the water
moisture to dissipate at a desirable rate. Although TDP inclusion in absorption capabilities.
drainage systems may provide tangible improvements over traditional The studies by Aliabdo et al. (2015), and Rashad (2015) discovered
aggregates, consideration must be given to the potential leachate re- that water absorption appears to increase with an increase in the rubber
sultant from continual concrete saturation. As ambient size reduced content in cementitious mixes. However, contrary to this finding,
particles possess approximately twice the surface area to cryogenically Oikonomou and Mavridou (2009) suggested that incorporating tyre
reduced particles and as leaching effects are proportional to surface rubber into cement composites reduces the water absorption of the
area, potential toxic leachate may be present in runoff downstream of cement composites. This is theorised to be the result of the natural
the TDP permeated concrete drainage systems. As such, the cumulative hydrophobic properties of rubber.
effect of repeated leaching must be considered in the context of ag- The size of the rubber placed in the mixture can explain the dis-
gregate replacement. parities in water absorption. Rubber particles are nonpolar; therefore,
The study conducted by Reddy and Marella (2001) assessed the they can easily trap air bubbles on the surface of the particles, parti-
effect of permeability with the inclusion of tyre shreds, relative to size. cularly when they are larger in in size. Therefore, the space between the
The findings of this study support the initial research carried out by aggregate and the cement will become more porous and highly ab-
Bressette (1984); Ahmed (1993); Cecich et al. (1996), and Humphrey sorptive. In contrast, if the rubber size is smaller, the rubber particles
and Manion (1992), as summarised in Table 4, which observed that will act as fillers to capture the pores in the concrete, resulting in
changes in the hydraulic conductivity were attributed to the differences smaller open pores and less absorption capacity.
in the size, configuration, density, and pressure. Based on these char- Based on the above, it can be determined that, to an extent, syn-
acteristics, waste rubber chips of larger sizes, with larger pore sizing thetic waste rubber is pervious compared to natural sand and that
facilitating permeability, yield greater hydraulic conductivity than further research is required to clarify the effect that TDPs have on the
conventional gravels or sands and can serve as an effective alternative water capacity in composite materials.
for traditional drainage materials, such as sand and gravel.

5
A. Mohajerani, et al.
3.4. Compaction properties
The mechanical properties of granular materials can typically be
improved by compaction. By applying a uniform load to the surface of
the material, internal pressure is induced, reducing pore volume, and
resulting in greater material density and higher shear/bearing strength.
Dynamic compaction may also be utilised in traditional granular ma-
terial as an effective compaction methodology. Furthermore, the com-
paction of soil results in a reduction in settlement due to overburden
and external loading. In order to determine the maximum dry density of
a granular material, the Proctor compaction test has been established.
This method requires the presence of the optimum moisture content to
provide lubrication between particles; however, unlike typical granular
materials, the water content of TDPs appears to show an insignificant
influence on the compaction result (Edeskär, 2004).
Many researchers have applied this method to waste rubber tyres
(ranging in size from granules to shreds) and agree that minimal
compaction is required to attain the required maximum compacted
density (Ahmed, 1993; Manion and Humphrey, 1992). In addition to
this, the final dry density is not sensitive to the particle size of the TDPs.
According to the above studies, the maximum dry density for TDPs
ranges from 594−684 kg/m3. It should also be noted that the dry
density achieved during the laboratory proctor test is very difficult to
generalise to field densities, as waste rubber also exhibits large elastic
deformation under stress, which decreases the volume and results in an
increased density (i.e., under constant static load, the rubber in the soil
will compress further).
After investigating the response of soils containing TDPs to com-
paction, Edil and Bosscher (1992) determined that the compaction of
tyre shreds is best achieved by applying pressure (static compaction) as
opposed to applying vibration, as the energy from compaction does not
improve the compaction result.
Tyre shreds have lower specific gravity, and, therefore, can easily be
compacted into a dense state, while larger chips possess some quantity
of steel, and, hence, have greater specific gravity and are difficult to
compact. This explains why lower density will be achieved through
vibration compaction with increasing chip size, as it will be difficult for
the rubber particles to rearrange under vibration. Therefore, compac-
tion through vibration is appropriate for rubber sands and non-vibra-
tion methods are suitable for fine grained soil mixed with rubber chips.
3.5. Compressive behaviour
An important consideration when designing structures is the com-
pressibility of the soil upon which they are built. Compressibility,
otherwise known as the stress-strain relationship, provides an indica-
tion of the predicted settlement in relation to the overburden pressure.
Soils that have undergone adequate compaction illustrate a linear
progression of the stress-strain relationship; however, this is not the
case with rubber shreds that display a non-linear stress-strain re-
lationship. It was found that under triaxial compression, shear stress
continues to increase with increasing strain with no indication of peak
strength
When matched against gravels and other soils, waste tyre shreds are
significantly more compressible, with both elastic and plastic de-
formation occurring upon loading and a stiffer response exhibited upon
reloading. Repetitive load testing was undertaken to assess the effects of
repeated loadings on the permanent deformation curves pertinent to
highway use applications. The methodology entailed cyclic loading of
225 kPa for 10,000 cycles, with a control clean sand sample and three
sand samples comprising 20% rubber chips of varying characteristics.
There was a notable difference in the permanent deformation curves
between the control sample and the three rubber chip mixtures; the
control sample demonstrated an increase in the permanent deformation
of 0.45% at 1000 cycles, at which the value remains near constant (Rao
et al., 2006). The tyre rubber mixture samples demonstrate increasing
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104679
permanent deformation of 2.04% at 1000 cycles, increasing to 2.24% at
2000 cycles, at which the value remains near constant. Despite the
variance in result, the tyre rubber mixture deformation values are not
significant enough to eliminate 20% sand-rubber mixtures from
highway applications. The results obtained from the three varieties of
rubber chips used all yield curves of no significant difference in the
compressive behaviour (Rao et al., 2006).
The proposal outlined by Edil and Bosscher (1994) described two
primary mechanisms that determine the compressibility of tyre shreds
under the application of vertical loading. The first mechanism specifies
that shreds bend and rearrange to form a dense position. The second
mechanism recognises the stress induced by compressing individual
shreds.
Similarly, Ahmed (1993) expanded on these mechanisms, identi-
fying primary compression as shreds permanently realign during ori-
ginal loading. This is followed by secondary compression as a result of
temporary flattening, and, lastly, the elastic deformation of in-
dependent shreds.
3.6. Elastic properties
Young’s modulus of elasticity is an ‘elastic material parameter and a
measure of material stiffness. It is defined as the ratio of the stress along
an axis over the strain along that axis in the range of elastic material
behaviour’ (GEOTECHDATA.INFO, 2013).
The Young’s modulus of soil can vary significantly throughout its
profile dependent on the constituent materials present. This is a result
of the inhomogeneous nature of the material, which may be ex-
acerbated by the inclusion of rubber chips. For simplicity, the common
practice is to assume that it behaves as a constant between defined
intervals.
Humphrey and Sandford (1993) carried out a series of tests ex-
posing tyre chips (ranging in size from 38−76 mm) to a surcharge of
110 kPa. Reports indicated that the Young’s modulus varies between
0.77 and 1.25 MPa. It is interesting to note that increasing the tyre
shred size also increases the Young’s modulus and reduces the Poisson’s
ratio from 0.32-0.28.
These results resemble typical Young’s modulus values comparable
to clay (Obrzud and Truty, 2012).
3.7. Resilient Modulus
The resilient modulus (Mr) has become a significant parameter to
characterise the resilient performance of a material under repeated
loading, and is commonly used in mechanistic pavement systems. A
reoccurring series of axial loads is momentarily applied and then re-
moved in quick succession. The material experiences elastic and plastic
deformation. The resilient modulus is defined as the ratio between the
deviator stress and the recoverable elastic strain during a repeated load
triaxial test (Eq. 1).
σ
Mr =
εr (1)
Where σd = σ1 − σ3 = Derivative stress (kPa), εr = ε2 − ε1 =
Recoverable strain (μm) and Mr = Resilient modulus (MPa) (Thach
Nguyen and Mohajerani, 2016)
Ahmed (1993) conducted resilient modulus tests on rubber-sand,
with chip sizes of 0.5 inch and 0.75 inch, and chip mix ratios of 38%.
The results almost overlapped, meaning that the chip size does not have
an effect on the resilient modulus values. In contrast, in a test that was
conducted on sand with chips and no chips, the results indicated that
the addition of chips drastically decreased the resilient modulus values.
Therefore, the use of rubber chips in highway pavements is not re-
commended and should be avoided as it may result in large deflections
in pavements. Saberian et al. (2019) developed correlations between
the resilient modulus of crushed recycled pavement materials
A. Mohajerani, et al.
containing crumb rubber with the Clegg impact value (VIV). They
found that a strong correlation exists between the Mr, confining stress,
deviator stress and the CIV. Further research is recommended on the
resilient behaviour of granular materials incorporated with waste
rubber aggregates.
3.8. Shear strength
Shear strength can be defined as the maximum internal resistance to
the applied shearing force. The main parameters used in formulating
the analysis of the shear strength of a soil are the angle of internal
friction (friction angle) and the cohesion. Many researchers have in-
vestigated the shear strength of tyre shreds mixed with soil using
triaxial tests and direct shear tests. The test conditions vary according to
the type of soil, particle size, and rubber content percentage.
The results from the direct shear test on tyre chips alone exhibit
friction angles ranging from 20-35° and cohesion values from 3 to 11.5
kPa (Humphrey and Sandford, 1993). A triaxial test conducted by Wu
et al. (1997) under similar conditions produced higher friction angles
greater than 40°. The majority of the studies this paper reviewed ana-
lysed shear strength and found that the inclusion of rubber chips in sand
resulted in an increase in shear strength (Ahmed and Lovell, 1993, Edil
and Bosscher, 1994, Foose et al., 1996; Rao and Dutta, 2006).
Masad et al. (1996) extended these findings and identified that re-
ducing the particle size from rubber chips to granulated rubber ad-
versely affected the shear strength capacity. Akbulut et al. (2007) no-
ticed that the addition of rubber tyre chips to clay increased the shear
modulus and cohesion intercept of the matrix material. In contrast,
Tatlisoz et al. (1997) suggested that the shear strength remains the
same or reduces with increasing rubber content, thereby implying that
the bond between clayey soils and waste rubber is weak. This could
suggest varying effects on properties, depending upon the cohesion of
the clay within which the TDP is being recycled.
Tyre shreds demonstrate a non-linear stress-strain relationship, as
increases in stress result in greater material stiffness. Consequently, tyre
shreds require a minimum surface loading to be applied to minimise
strains. Structures constructed below this minimum surface loading are
likely to inherit undesirable strain when placed upon ground containing
waste rubber. In isolation, TDPs are highly compressible and suffer
from poor deformation resistance under loading. However, when
combined with sand, the positive elastic features of rubber have been
shown to translate into the incoming matrix, often improving some of
the characteristics of the soil. Further research is recommended to de-
termine the shear strength of tyre chips with no additions.
4. Concrete applications
Several researchers have investigated whether waste rubber is a
suitable partial replacement material for use in concrete. These studies
investigated concrete longevity with rubber inclusions, in addition to
what effects this would have on the compressive and material proper-
ties. These studies are discussed in detail in this section.
4.1. Concrete Freeze/Thaw protection
Concrete subjected to freezing and thawing experiences periodic
expansion and contraction. This movement induces stress within the
concrete mixture, ultimately leading to internal pressures that exceed
the tensile strength of the mix; rupture occurs in the form of cracking or
crumbling of the concrete. Approximately 5 billion tonnes of concrete
are produced annually. Research into concrete durability is expected to
reduce the maintenance and life-cycle costs, conserve natural resources
such as aggregates, and reduce the overall environmental impact and
carbon emissions (Richardson et al., 2012).
In recent years, the application of waste rubber crumbs as an air
entrainment agent in concrete has been investigated, with previous
7
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104679
testing highlighting that a significant reduction in concrete compressive
strength will result with increasing rubber content. The incorporation
of rubber crumbs within concrete mixtures forms air pockets, and,
hence, excess pore volume. This allows for expansion and contraction to
occur, which provides protection from internal pressurised damage.
Further studies, such as those conducted by Richardson et al. (2012),
investigated the optimal rubber/cement mixture ratio to maximise
freeze/thaw protection and minimise the loss of compressive strength.
This investigation focused on rubber crumbs as an air entrainment
agent and not as a replacement for sand due to the proportional de-
creases in the concrete strength and elastic modulus. Testing was con-
ducted with four 40 MPa concrete mixture samples consisting of wa-
shed rubber content, unwashed rubber content, and two control groups.
These samples were then subjected to 56 freeze/thaw cycles, relevant to
the current UK and US standards, with the results demonstrating that
the highest compressive strength for the mixtures of different percen-
tage contents occurred when the concrete contained 0.6% rubber
crumb content (Richardson et al., 2012).
Following just 28 freeze/thaw cycles, the plain concrete specimens
experienced a reduction in the ultrasonic pulse velocity of 60%, with all
12 sample blocks (100 mm) failing before the completion of the 56
cycles. In contrast, all the rubberised samples displayed minimal in-
ternal and surface damage. Durability factors of 96.4%, 96.9%, and
18.85%, respectively, were calculated for the washed and unwashed
rubberised samples, and the plain concrete indicating a significant
difference in the durability of the concrete mixtures. The results high-
lighted that a 40 MPa concrete mixture containing 0.6% rubber crumb
content obtained the optimal compressive strength and air entrainment
capabilities (Richardson et al., 2012).
Also, studies were conducted by Richardson et al. (2016) to find the
optimum particle size of crumb rubber to sustain the greatest freeze-
thaw protection in concrete. It was found that a crumb rubber particle
size of less than 0.5 mm in concrete achieved greater compressive
strength in post freeze-thaw cycles compared to that of plain concrete.
Further investigation into this finding may lead to increased global
concrete durability, and, hence, reduced life-cycle costs, as well as
address natural resource conservation and the environmental manage-
ment of waste tyre products without the requirement for burning, such
as in terms of the Tyre Derived Fuel (TDF) process that releases toxic
carbon emissions.
4.2. High-strength concrete design
The utilisation of high strength concrete is required in many
structures, including high-rise buildings, hydraulic structures, and
bridges. There has been increasing interest in investigating how to
enhance the durability and reduce the life-cycle costs of such concrete
components.
A previous study by Onuaguluchi & Panesar (2014) indicated a clear
correlation in the minimisation of concrete strength loss and resistance
to chloride penetration when silica fume was used as a bonding agent in
conjunction with rubber crumb content. Such concrete mixtures would
be highly suitable for marine environment structures, which are more
susceptible to accelerated deterioration due to corrosion-causing
chlorides. Furthermore, Kang et al. (2012) observed an increase in the
abrasion resistance and compressive strength of rubberised concrete
with the addition of silica fume.
A recent study by Thomas and Gupta (2016) investigated the partial
substitution of fine aggregates with three sizes of rubber crumb in a 60
MPa concrete mix. Experimentation monitored the respective com-
pressive, flexural tensile, and pull-off strengths, resistance to abrasion
and water penetration, and the resistance of mixtures containing 0–20
% rubber content as fine aggregate replacement; 6% silica fume by
weight of cement was added to enhance the interfacial bonding of the
rubber and cement particles.
The specimen containing 20% rubber crumb substitution observed a
A. Mohajerani, et al.
50%+ reduction in compressive concrete strength versus the plain
concrete control mix. This expected correspondence relates to the de-
crease in the concrete density and inefficient bonding of the rubber
particles and cement mortar, which, according to Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM), leads to interfacial cracking, and, hence, uneven
stress distribution patterns within the concrete matrix. However, at 90
days, all the specimens containing 0–12.5 % rubber crumb achieved a
compressive strength of 60 MPa, thereby indicating successful usage
within high strength concrete mixtures. These findings are further
supported by research undertaken by A. Sofi (2017), with 60 MPa
compressive strengths achieved at 90 days for samples containing
0–12.5 % crumb rubber. Crumb rubber application in high strength
concrete may be limited by the effects of increased substitution, with 7-
and 28-day compressive strengths more severely affected. At 12.5%
inclusion, the 7- and 28- day strengths were reduced to 44.5 MPa and
54.8 MPa, respectively, representing 67.94% and 77.18% of compres-
sive strengths achieved at 0% substitution.
Further experimentation observed the brittle failure of the control
mixtures and non-brittle failure of rubberised samples, highlighting an
increase in the ductile nature when rubber crumb is partly substituted
for fine aggregate. However, similar to the compressive strength, the
flexural tensile strength was also seen to decrease as the rubber content
increased. The effect of crumb rubber substitution is less severe on the
flexural tensile results, with 12.5% crumb rubber samples at 7 and 28
days yielding 5.2 MPa and 6.6 MPa, respectively; 83.87% and 84.72%
of flexural tensile strength comparative to 0% substitution samples
(Sofi, 2017).
An increase in abrasion resistance was demonstrated, providing
further support for the findings by Kang et al. (2012). The maximum
depths of abrasion were < 2 mm for all the rubberised specimens,
which, by many standards, is suitable for use in general purpose and
heavy-duty tiles and applications in pavements, hydraulic structures,
and highways (Thomas and Gupta, 2016) (Kang et al., 2012).
Water penetration was observed to increase with the rubber crumb
content; however, all the specimens exhibited low permeability as all
water penetration depths were below 3 cm (Ganjian et al., 2009).
However, the water absorption was seen to decrease by 0–7.5 % in
rubberised specimens, which is believed to occur due to the varying
rubber particle sizes that present increased pore-filling capabilities
(Thomas and Gupta, 2016).
In conclusion, various studies have demonstrated that rubberised
concrete of up to 12.5% rubber content by weight in addition to 9%
silica fume by weight as a bonding agent exhibited minimal losses in
compressive, flexural tensile, and pull-off strengths, as well as an in-
crease in abrasion resistance and water penetration, and a decrease in
water absorption of the rubberised samples up to 7.5% when compared
with plain concrete control mixtures. This study supports the future
Fig. 3. Left: Mass loss of concrete samples after 90 immersion cycles in HCl 5% solution. (Medine et al., 2017), right: Mass loss of concrete samples after 90
immersion cycles in NaSO4 5% solution. (Medine et al., 2017).
8
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104679
utilisation of rubber crumb in high strength concrete components, as
evidence indicates an increase in durability and minimal strength
losses; furthermore, providing waste tyre recycling solutions and pre-
servation of natural aggregates (Thomas and Gupta, 2016). When uti-
lisation of crumb rubber in high strength concretes is considered, at-
tention must be made to contribution of early strength to
constructability to assess viability of use.
4.3. Chloride resistant concrete mix (Acid resistant)
Resistance to corrosion is a key characteristic of concrete as both the
concrete matrix and reinforcing steel may be susceptible to corrosion
over the design life. Corrosion is particularly prevalent in coastal re-
gions as it is exacerbated by periodic wetting and exposure to chlorides.
Furthermore, coastal regions are prone to Acid Sulphate Soils, which
are produced when potential Acid Sulphate Soils are exposed to air and
react to produce acids (Ward et al., 2004). Resistance to these factors is
critical to ensure the longevity of a structure, as chloride ion ingress can
degrade surficial concrete and sulphate attacks can result in the ex-
pansive generation of ettringite and gypsum.
Noor et al. (2016), studied the permeability resistance of rubberised
concrete samples to chloride ions in steady state conditions to simulate
marine concrete applications and to determine the adequacy of rub-
berised concrete materials in marine environments. The samples for
testing were prepared with 10, 15, and 20% replacement of fine ag-
gregates with crumb rubber with some samples being further treated
with silica fume. Analysis of the effective chloride ion diffusion coef-
ficients as gathered in this study indicate that coefficients can be re-
duced by as much as 65% (Noor et al., 2016) comparative to the control
sample of standard composition concrete. These results were achieved
at 20% crumb rubber replacement and 10% silica fume binder, de-
monstrating far superior chloride ion permeability resistance when
compared with ordinary compositions. Similarly, Zhu et al. (2018)
studied the effect of chlorine ion erosion on crumb rubber concrete at
various temperatures. It was found that fine pore pressure has an effect
on the level of corrosion on concrete, and that incorporating rubber
aggregate can alter the fine pore pressure of the concrete. In doing so,
the degree of corrosion of the inner steel of the concrete can be reduced.
Further studies into acid resistance were undertaken by Medine
et al. (2017), who assessed the effects of sodium sulphate (NaSO4) and
hydrochloric acid (HCl) immersion on concrete samples comprising
rubber aggregate and crumb rubber. Samples were immersed in HCl
and NaSO4 solutions at 5% concentrations, then dried at 60° for 20 and
18 h, respectively; after drying, mass recordings were taken to de-
termine the mass loss. It can be observed in the value of mass loss
comparative to the control group that the resistance to HCl is more
significant in rubberised concrete samples, with greater than 50%
A. Mohajerani, et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104679

Table 5 over traditional coarse aggregate mixes.

Rubberised concrete compositions. (Medine et al., 2017). An increase in shredded rubber will demonstrably increase the
Concrete Cement Rubber Crumb Sand Gravel porosity and water absorption properties of a concrete mix, with peak
sample (kg/m3) aggregates rubber (kg/ (kg/m3) (kg/m3) values at the highest replacement rates. Furthermore, in a study con-
(kg/m3) m3) ducted by Gesoğlu and Güneyisi (2011), similar results were obtained
for porosity. During the study, it was observed that chloride ion ingress
Cref 380 0 0 858 927
CRg5 380 46.4 0 858 884
increased with an increase in rubber content, thereby suggesting an
CRg7.5 380 69.5 0 858 851 interconnected pore network and favourable fluid permeable char-
CRg10 380 93 0 858 839 acteristics in a drainage context. As such, TDP products may be deemed
CRm5 380 46.4 42.9 815 839 suitable for coarse aggregate replacement in concrete drainage systems,
CRm7.5 380 69.5 64.35 793.65 851
thus reducing the demand for traditional coarse aggregates.
CRm10 380 93 85.8 772.2 884

4.5. Sound Barriers/Dampeners

reduction in mass loss after 90 cycles (Fig. 3). Similar results were
observed in the results for NaSO4 immersion, with mass loss values of An increase in road infrastructure, particularly through urbanised
approximately 2.62% for the control sample and a maximum mass loss areas, requires significant volumes of sound panelling to ensure that the
of 1.97% for the worst performing rubberised concrete mix. From the noise pollution incumbent upon road infrastructure construction is re-
results of both immersion results, it is evident that the resistance to acid duced. Historically, sound barriers have employed plastic panelling to
corrosion is dependent on the composition, as demonstrated for the address emissions, contributing to the 17 million tonnes of plastic waste
variety of compositions enumerated in Table 5. disposed of in the European Union in 2012 (Ghizdăveț et al., 2016). In
It is concluded, in accord with those studies that considered rub- part, due to the progression of TDP options and the push for sustainable
berised concrete acid resistance, that the inclusion of rubber aggregates infrastructure, waste rubber concrete mixes have been considered for
improves the chemical resistance in aggressive environments (Medine use in sound panelling to reduce the costs associated with raw material
et al., 2017). Due to the improved chemical resistance of rubberised procurement (Ghizdăveț et al., 2016). Concrete sound barriers pre-
concretes (Assas, 2016), rubberised concrete products are a viable and viously lacked viability as an appropriate material as the physical
beneficial product for use in marine environments where conditions characteristics prevented the absorption of sound waves; standard
promote acid sulphate soil and chloride ion attack. However appro- composition concretes possess sound absorption coefficients sig-
priate leachate studies should be conducted based on Methods 1314 nificantly lower than the requisite value of 0.5, representing the lower
(USEPA(E)), 2013) and 1315 (USEPA(F)), 2013) to assess the leachate bounds of definition as a sound absorbing material (Ghizdăveț et al.,
of various metals under different pH, liquid to solid ratios, and mono- 2016). Research has been undertaken to determine opportunities for
lithic sample conditions (Table 6). rubberised concretes in sound barrier panels, with experimentation
providing promising results.
In a study conducted by Ghizdăveț et al. (2016), cylindrical concrete
4.4. Concrete drainage systems samples were prepared, replacing fine aggregate with styrene-buta-
diene rubber (SBR) chips at 5 and 7.5% by weight. The SBR chips used
Rubberised concrete mixes have potential for use in drainage sys- varied from 0.5 to 4.0 mm in maximum diameter, and following
tems due to the complementary effects on permeability resulting from treatment with sodium hydroxide, had an irregular surface that inter-
an increase in shredded rubber inclusion. This is due to the enhanced faced effectively with the concrete matrix. Furthermore, samples were
porosity of the rubberised concrete matrix caused by pockets of air prepared with a water cement ratio of 0.45, 0.50, and 0.55%. The ab-
entrained in the concrete mix. Further to the beneficial effects on per- sorption coefficient values were determined using an acoustic inter-
meability when considered for use in drainage applications, TDP re- ferometer, assessing frequencies ranging from 200−3000 Hz, which is
placement in concrete mixes reduces the density and overburden representative of road traffic noise pollution.
pressure, making it ideal for use in geotechnical applications where low Base line control readings were taken of standard composition
strength soils are present. This is demonstrated in a study conducted by concrete, yielding absorption coefficients ranging from 0.22-0.37,
Ahmad et al. (2015) where up to 20% TDP was added by weight, re- which is below the 0.5 threshold of sound absorbing materials.
ducing the density by 7.55%. In the table below, the relationship be- Comparatively, SBR treated concrete samples yield results ranging from
tween rubber replacement, density, and porosity is further enumerated, 0.52-0.93, which is significantly more effective. The peak results were
exemplifying the beneficence of rubber inclusion in drainage systems achieved by samples B2 and B3 (Ghizdăveț et al., 2016), with a com-
position of 0.5 water/cement ratio, and 5% and 7.5% SBR replacement,
Table 6 respectively, and coefficients of 0.93 and 0.82. These results are in line
Summary of physical characteristics comparative to shredded rubber replace- with the analysis undertaken by Gandoman and Kokabi (2015), de-
ment. (Ahmad et al., 2015).
monstrating similar increases in the absorption coefficients for waste
Batch No. Shredded Compressive Density Porosity (%) Water rubber replaced concretes. The acoustic attributes of rubberised con-
Rubber strength (N/ (kg/m3) absorption crete make it ideal for use in roadside noise attenuating panels, or for
Replacement mm2) (%)
use in buildings where acoustic isolation is desirable, as in the case of
by weight
(%) auditoriums. When considering rubberised concrete samples for use in
structural applications, the effect on the compressive strength at all
1 0 37.67 2216 5.8 6 ages must be considered, with approximately 15 MPa compressive
2 1 37.87 2212.5 12.7 7.3
strength lost for all SBR replacement values (Ghizdăveț et al., 2016).
3 3 36.40 2206.6 14.5 7.7
4 5 34.07 2174.7 17 8.7
5 7 32.50 2149.1 19.3 9.6 5. Geotechnical applications
6 10 29.20 2146.5 21 11.7
7 13 24.60 2145 24.3 12.3 Lightweight materials, such as waste rubber, feature many desirable
8 15 21.30 2138.8 24.2 12.6
properties and characteristics. The following section explores a range of
9 17 20.60 2125.4 24.9 15.9
10 20 17.90 2048.7 27.6 17.6 applications that have utilised waste rubber and assesses its perfor-
mance against the conventional materials.

9
A. Mohajerani, et al.
5.1. Soil stabilisation
Ground improvement through the stabilisation of soils is an emer-
ging trend in geotechnical engineering with many researchers exploring
alternative materials and methods to assist in its implementation.
Yilmaz and Degirmenci (2009) defined this process as ‘altering the
chemical properties of soft soils by providing stabilisers or binders, in
either dry or wet conditions to improve [the] strength and stiffness of
the originally weak soils.’
Typically, soil reinforcement (according to stiffness) can be cate-
gorised as:
1) Ideally inextensible containing a high modulus, metal strips, and
bars.
2) Ideally extensible containing a relatively low modulus, natural and
synthetic fibres, polymers, and plants.
A study conducted by Hambirao and Rakaraddi (2014) explored the
potential for soil stabilisation using recycled waste rubber shreds. The
aim of the study was to analyse the effect on the strength behaviour of
soils mixed with a percentage of waste rubber shreds.
Samples were subjected to California Bearing Ratio (CBR) testing as
well as Unconfined Compressive tests (UCS). Using cement as a bonding
agent, the results indicate a significant improvement in the bearing
capacity and shear strength of the soil. This improvement may be the
result of the cement used as a binding agent rather than the rubber
inclusions. The reason for this is that, in general, when cement is mixed
with soil a reduction in the liquid limit and plastic limit is experienced
resulting in a potential change in volume that affects the strength of the
soil (Bell, 1988).
Hambirao and Rakaraddi (2014) concluded that rubber stabilised
soils might provide an alternative to deep foundations and raft foun-
dations positioned on soils with low bearing capacity. They also pre-
scribed a noticeable increase in CBR values, which, when applied to
pavement design, can reduce the thickness of the pavement sub-layer,
and, ultimately, return favourable project savings.
Rahgozar and Saberian (2016) studied the effect of adding various
percentages of shredded tyre chips and sand to peat soil to determine
the highest unconfined compressive strength. Sand is added to reduce
the void ratio of the soil and to increase the structural strength of the
soil, therefore reducing compressibility. The addition of 10% shredded
tyre chips achieved an unconfined compressive strength of 405 kPa and
a modulus of elasticity of 3.5 MPa. Therefore, stabilising peat soil with
tyre chips and sand can improve the foundation characteristics of soil to
a standard capable of withstanding major construction projects.
Further studies on using waste rubber in soil stabilisation applica-
tions should be conducted, comparing parameters, such as soil type,
particle size, moisture content, and rubber content. Also, appropriate
leachate tests and environmental impact assessment is recommended;
as discussed in section 6.2.
5.2. Pavement materials
Several research works have been carried out to utilize ground tyre
rubber in asphalt pavement (Aoudia et al., 2017). Rheological and other
properties of the rubberized modified binders under different condi-
tions have been studied comprehensively by Poovaneshvaran et al.
(2020). They used crumb rubber and natural rubber at different per-
centages for the production of modified bitumen. Their results showed
that the addition of both crumb rubber and natural rubber latex posi-
tively impacted the performance of the asphalt binder, and the rubber-
modified asphalt binder had better resistance to rutting. They found
that, overall, both rubberized modified binders performed better than
the unmodified control sample. Also, Behnood and Olek (2017) found
that the addition of ground tyre rubber in asphalt binder enhances the
high-temperature proprieties.
10
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104679
Moreover, physical and mechanical properties of asphalt mixtures
incorporated with waste rubber have been studied in several studies
with promising results. Abdul Hassan et al. (2015) investigated the
microstructural characteristics of hot rolled asphalt modified with dif-
ferent percentages and sizes of crumb rubber and found that the rubber
particle size and rubber content affect the rubber distribution, air voids
characteristics and mechanical properties of the compacted asphalt
mixture. Farouk et al., 2017 studied the effects of rubber–bitumen in-
teraction at different rubber sizes, bitumen contents, and curing periods
and also the resilient modulus and dynamic creep of rubberized asphalt
mixtures. Their results showed that higher rubber–bitumen interaction
can be obtained with the use of fine rubber size and high bitumen
content, and the addition of crumb rubber reduced the resilient mod-
ulus of asphalt mixtures. A study in Taiwan found that when waste
rubber was used in the production of stone mastic asphalt (SMA), no
fibre was needed to stop drain-down. The results showed that at 60℃
the rutting resistance of the samples was better than that of a conven-
tional SMA Mix (Chiu and Lu, 2007). Furthermore, researchers have
modified bitumen with waste cooking oil, crumb rubber, and palm oil
fuel ash and compared the binder with neat bitumen (Rahman et al.,
2017). The results showed an increase in the viscosity of the modified
binder and improved penetration and rheological properties.
According to researchers in Europe, crumb rubber modified bitumen
in gap graded asphalt mix has proved to be a solution to environmental
noise generated from the rolling of the wheel. In this research, asphalt
mix was prepared with 20% crumb rubber by weight of bitumen and
reduction of noise was found by absorption with a frequency band of 2
Hz (Vázquez et al., 2016). A recent research work in Italy elaborated
the effect of tyre rubber and recycling asphalt pavement with a com-
prehensive study, both in the laboratory and in the field. Results ex-
hibited reduced thermal activity and excellent skid resistance proper-
ties (Eskandarsefat et al., 2018).
Speir and Witczak (1996) investigated the properties of base and
subbase rubber aggregate blends. Varying amounts of shredded rubber
(0%, 7.5%, 15%) replaced the sand or graded aggregate base (GAB)
material and were laboratory tested for strength, permeability, and
resilience. It was found that both the sand and the GAB experienced a
reduction in the dry density with an increase in the rubber content. The
CBR test values obtained from this study suggest that the influence of
increasing rubber content adversely affects the CBR of GAB. A triaxial
compression test, which was conducted on sand containing rubber to
complement the CBR results, detected a positive trend, relating to the
increased rubber content with a greater friction angle.
5.3. Flowable fill
The fill material used in construction serves two main purposes, to
fill the void space of the vacant material and to improve the ground
conditions of the existing weak soil. Conventional fill material is often
mined from commercial sand and gravel quarries and specified ac-
cording to grade. The limitation of this material in its granular state is
that a certain amount of compaction is required to satisfy safe ground
conditions. In some circumstances, the use of conventional fill material
may not be possible due to site restrictions, such as plant clearance or
the characteristics of adjacent structures.
To help alleviate these issues, flowable fill has been developed.
Traditional granular fill material is combined with cement, sand, water,
and fly ash, resulting in a self-levelling fluid state that may permeate
voids that are inaccessible to conventional fill materials. Having per-
meated the target voids, the material develops strength due to the hy-
drated cement pastes present in the mix. This process produces the
material commonly known as flowable fill.
Replacing the sand component of this mix with fine rubber crumb
has been investigated (Pierce and Blackwell, 2003). The main differ-
ence between the crumb rubber and the concrete sand it is replacing is
the bulk specific gravity. In general, concrete sand has a specific gravity
A. Mohajerani, et al.
of approximately 2.6 whereas crumb rubber averages around 0.56, al-
most five times less than that of sand. Once hardened, the fill material
resembles a specific gravity comparable to well-compacted soil, re-
plicating its strength and contributing to time savings, and, hence, a
possible alternative to the mechanical compaction of fill. Such mixtures
are ideal where mechanical compaction may not be viable, as seen in
cases where compaction adjacent to existing structures is requisite;
compactive efforts apply dynamic loading not generally considered in
structural design, potentially leading to premature failure of the
structure.
The issue with lightweight aggregates in cementitious materials is
that segregation between the particles may occur; however, this is
rectified by including admixtures that assist in suspending the particles
in the cement matrix. Careful attention to the water content of the mix,
such as a high water/cement ratio, will cause excessive bleeding in the
surface layer of the material, and decrease the durability and strength.
Pierce and Blackwell (2003) announced that, as a general rule,
flowable fill needs to satisfy the following criteria in relation to the
mechanical and physical properties: compressive strength, volume
stability, flowability, and setting time.
Under the provision that the prescribed conditions are met, the
benefits associated with incorporating crumb rubber in flowable fill are
related to its low-density properties, resulting in numerous benefits to
flowable fills; as enumerated below:
- Compressible soils are more capable of withstanding the stress im-
posed by fill material on the underlying soil beneath, thereby re-
sulting in reduced settlement.
- Due to the considerable reduction in density, a greater strength-to-
weight ratio is observed, which enables larger fills to be constructed.
- In the case that settlement is experienced, the increased ductile
behaviour (resulting from the stress-strain behaviour of rubber) al-
lows the material to sustain strain more effectively.
5.4. Railway sub-ballast layers
Typically constructed from coarse aggregate, track ballast forms the
bedding for railway sleepers. The primary function of the track-ballast
layer is to bear loading, facilitate water drainage, and prevent under-
lying vegetation from surfacing. Below this layer, lies the sub-ballast
where smaller aggregates are positioned. This provides support to the
ballast above and aids in filtering the seepage exerted from the un-
derlying ground. A study by Hidalgo Signes et al. (2015) explored the
possibility of introducing waste rubber into the sub-ballast layer. The
motive behind the research was to assess the characteristics of the
coarse aggregate mixed with crumb rubber to determine its suitability
for use in sub-ballast layers based on density, bearing strength, de-
gradation, and resilient modulus.
The modified proctor test was conducted to investigate the com-
paction behaviour of the experimental materials. This showed that by
including rubber in the sub-ballast layer, less compaction is needed to
achieve the required density.
In general, it is important to identify the governing factor that must
be satisfied in the design of the sub-ballast, which is that the minimum
CBR strength value of 20 is attained.
The CBR test results indicated that the sub-ballast material without
rubber produced a high CBR value beyond 100, which is well above the
requirement for sub-ballast. Introducing 2.5% rubber into the mix il-
lustrated a sudden reduction in the CBR value of 56, which continued to
decline as more rubber was added. At 10% rubber content, the CBR
value was reduced to 17, which is not adequate for design purposes.
Based on this, it is clear that including rubber has a negative effect on
the bearing capacity of the material.
In summary, the effect of waste rubber on the sub-ballast denotes
that whilst the elastic response and resistance to degradation are im-
proved, the bearing capacity is significantly reduced.
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104679
5.5. Seismic isolation systems
Seismic activity has long been an issue for nations with close
proximity to the edges of tectonic plates. Earthquakes cause cata-
strophic destruction to both lives and infrastructure. Unfortunately,
there is no way of predicting the occurrence of these events, other than
relying on the geographical data and imminent warning systems.
Designing building components capable of withstanding earthquake
loadings is an area that has garnered the interest of many researchers
and structural engineers. These structural components, which are well-
established and typically consist of shear walls and cross-bracing
members, are prescribed in the respective building codes and standards.
Complementing these components, research has extended to the sub-
structure, whereby a system known as seismic isolation has been in-
troduced.
Seismic isolation systems, also known as base isolation, introduce a
flexible or sliding interface situated between the structure and sub-
structure (Tsang et al., 2007). This collection of elements assists in
stabilising the horizontal movement experienced in the ground (from
seismic activity) and reduces its effect on the structure.
A wide selection of systems is currently available that mainly consist
of complex mechanical components that are used to support the
structure and dampen the horizontal impact. These systems are very
expensive to implement and often beyond the financial capacity of most
companies. Hence, investigations into alternative, cost-efficient
methods for earthquake resisting structures have been undertaken.
Edil and Bosscher (1994) proposed that waste rubber contained
excellent dampening and seismic isolation capabilities. Tsang et al.
(2007) proceeded to verify this statement by studying the effect of using
waste rubber mixed with soil as the interface between the foundation
and the structure to resist earthquake loadings. Earthquake simulation
modelling was used and supported the earlier findings, which, based on
predetermined input values, found that rubber-soil mixtures yielded a
60–70 % reduction in horizontal and vertical ground acceleration when
compared to the reference soil.
The limitations in utilizing this method have been addressed.
Although highly compressible materials are beneficial in absorbing
seismic energy, the addition of rubber significantly reduces the bearing
capacity of the foundation supporting the structure above.
Furthermore, Youssf et al. (2015) investigated the seismic behaviour
of reinforced concrete columns made from crumb rubber concrete
(CRC). In total, three columns were constructed, one from CRC and the
other two from ordinary concrete, with diverse axial loads. To assess
the damping properties before the cyclic testing of each column, a snap
back test was conducted. No significant effect on deformability and
ultimate lateral strength was found with the addition of crumb rubber.
In addition, lower section curvature was experienced by the CRC
column compared to the ordinary columns. This study concluded that
crumb rubber can potentially reduce or delay the damage of the con-
crete columns under seismic loading. Further confirmation research is
recommended for this application.
5.6. Railway maintenance
Railway track sleepers rest upon ballast granular layers, which,
traditionally, comprise small, hard stones. Cyclic train movements de-
form these layers, and regular maintenance is required to correct the
resultant differential settlements of various track components.
Traditionally, maintenance methods include stoneblowing and the use
of USPs (Under Sleeper Pads), which protect the ballast layers against
vibration and improve the overall track stability (Getzner, 2017).
Small stones (14−20 mm) inserted between the sleeper and ballast
layer during the stoneblowing process lack elastic properties, and,
hence, the incorporation of rubber particles will increase the durability
of the ballast layer, as the rubber particles act as a flexible, load dam-
pening aggregate (Sol-Sánchez et al., 2017).
A. Mohajerani, et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104679

Recent experimentation conducted by Sol-Sánchez et al. (2017) exhibit lower strength capabilities, increased deformation, and brittle
showed a successful reduction in the ballast layer settlement due to failure (Li et al., 2016).
cyclic movement when rubber particles were used in conjunction with However, further investigation into real-life soil embankments is
stones during the stoneblowing process. Experimentation included the required as there is significant variation in the experimental parameters
predominant usage of rubber particles sized between 12 mm and 16 including the soil saturation and type, environment, and loading sce-
mm, with minimum and maximum sizes of 8 mm and 25 mm, respec- narios. Further studies will improve our understanding of whole-waste
tively. The test results reflected a clear correlation between an increase tyre behaviour within soil retaining embankments.
in the rubber particle content (< 50%) in the stoneblowing mixture and
a decrease in the differential settlement. However, mixtures con-
6. Environmental considerations
taining > 50% rubber particles are perceived to decrease the vertical
ballast layer stiffness excessively, thereby increasing the deflection and
Rubber tyres are considered to be a very durable material; however,
energy consumption from passing trains (Sol-Sánchez et al., 2017).
once these materials have expired from their intended use (e.g., bald
Furthermore, the process of “Stone-Rubber Blowing” was compared
vehicles tyres) they are collected and stored in large uncontrolled
to traditional stoneblowing in conjunction with soft USPs usage; the
stockpiles often located outdoors in industrial areas or abandoned sites.
results implied similar ballast layer behaviour when the rubber particle
Unlike most organic matter, rubber waste tyres contain synthetic fibres
content exceeded 50% (Sol-Sánchez et al., 2017).
that are not bio-degradable. The four major environmental concerns
Conclusively, the use of waste rubber tyre particles to improve the
related to the accumulation of waste tyres are tyre fires, leachates,
environmental conditions as well as railway track maintenance is a
breeding grounds for pest species, and land use.
promising alternative to stockpiling, as plastic deformation of the bal-
last layer occurs at a slower rate when compared with traditional
methods. Additionally, rubber particles as a flexible aggregate will re- 6.1. Tyre fires
duce the need for costly USPs and their installation. However, further
investigation into waste tyres and this geotechnical application is re- Tyres contain extremely flammable ingredients, which, once ig-
quired as testing occurred in a laboratory and real-life applications have nited, can radiate very high temperatures for prolonged periods of time.
not yet been widely studied (Sol-Sánchez et al., 2017). As a result, these fires are incredibly difficult to extinguish and can
cause immense damage to the immediate vicinity. In addition to this,
5.7. Whole-tyre embankments the heavily toxic smoke released from tyre fires can cause poor air
quality, result in the pollution of incredibly toxic gases, and reduce
In comparison to other applications, the incorporation of whole visibility in the surrounding area; as demonstrated in Fig. 4.
tyres as embankments, rather than rubber tyre shreds or crumb elim- Recent studies by Downard et al. (2015), and Singh et al. (2015a), b
inates the requirement of the “breaking-down” process. This presents an investigated the levels of toxic gases and particles from the 2012 Iowa
economic and environmentally viable solution regarding waste man- City (USA) tyre-fire, where 1.3 million waste tyres were burned over
agement and its geotechnical applications, especially in countries the course of 18 days. Unlike many large-scale tyre fires, ignition oc-
where labour is cheap, and the breakdown processes are costly. An curred within the shredded tyre drainage lining of the landfill, high-
abundance of previous studies supports waste-tyre implementation due lighting severe environmental concerns when rubber has been broken
to the increase in the mechanical and seismic performance of founda- down and reused for geotechnical applications.
tions, abutments, and retaining walls. Air monitoring reported substantial emissions of SO2 (sulphur di-
A recent study by Li et al. (2016) investigated the behaviour of oxide), PM2.5 (microparticle matter in air) and 19 different PAHs
granular embankments containing “medium-size quartzitic sand” (Li (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons); detecting one PAH containing a
et al., 2016), where whole-tyres (diameter 25.4 cm) were tied together compound unique to coal-burning emissions. Several other toxic, mu-
with metal wire to form discrete layers of reinforcement. Eight re- tagenic or carcinogenic pollutants were detected in substantial amounts
inforced models with differing initial densities, centre-to-centre re- (Downard et al., 2015) (Singh et al., 2015a, b). The toxic emissions
inforcement, layer spacing, and depth to first reinforced layer from the released from tyre burning have been identified as more mutagenic
embankment’s load surface were compared with two unreinforced compared to utility boilers and the open-burning of fossil fuels or
models. plastics (DeMarini et al., 1994). Furthermore, emissions including black
The experiment was conducted to observe the mechanical perfor- carbon, formaldehyde, CO, and acrolein pose additional serious health
mance of reinforced model embankments when subjected to plate risks (Singh et al., 2015a, b).
loading/pressurisation via a hydraulic jack through resultant stress and
strain relationships; it compared the vertical settlement, horizontal
deformation, and failure mode. It was observed using face markers and
pressure cells that the waste-tyre reinforced model embankments ex-
hibited approximately half the vertical displacement and resisted in-
ternal stresses roughly two-times greater when compared with the non-
reinforced models. From further analysis of the results, it was con-
cluded that denser models with closer spaced reinforcement layers and
a top reinforcing layer closer to the loading surface demonstrated less
vertical settlement and horizontal deformation, and possessed higher
strength capabilities (Li et al., 2016).
Conclusively, the reinforcing layers affect the stress transmission
throughout the embankment; confining stresses within the top layers
and reducing stress transfers to the lower layers. Unlike the obvious
plastic flow detection within unreinforced embankments, the plastic
zone was not obvious within reinforced embankments. The use of
whole-tyres as a reinforcing component enhances the embankment
strength and durability whilst reducing the vertical settlement and Fig. 4. Environmental impact of burning waste tyres on the environment and
horizontal deformation compared with unreinforced embankments that land use (Schwink, 2013).

12
A. Mohajerani, et al.
In summary, tyre fires are notoriously difficult to extinguish, with
some major tyre-fires lasting over a month. Catastrophic amounts of
toxic cancer-causing emissions are released and directly affect those
within close proximity – nearby residents and firefighters. The gener-
ated smoke, such as emitted from the Iowa City landfill tyre-fire, can
affect surrounding metropolitan areas of up to some 130,000 people,
contributing to huge local population health concerns (Singh et al.,
2015a, b; Downard et al., 2015) (Lemieux and Ryan, 1993).
6.2. Leachates
Waste rubber tyres have been known to leach harmful and toxic
chemicals, such as manganese and iron, into the surrounding eco-
system. Laboratory test results (Downs et al., 1996) indicate that metals
are leached at low pH, whereas organic material is leached at high pH.
Therefore, it is recommended that waste tyres containing steel belts
should only be used in environments where soil and groundwater are
neutral pH to minimise leachates. The test results for the Toxicity
Characteristics Leaching Procedure (TCLP) show that tyre shreds are
not a hazard to human health (Downs et al., 1996). It is also important
to note that TCLP testing was originally developed for testing leachates
from waste materials placed in landfill (Ukwatta and Mohajerani,
2017). As a result, the actual leachates from the waste tyres could be
much higher than this study suggests. This paper suggests that further
leachate testing for waste tyres should be undertaken utilising more
appropriate methods, such as those stipulated by the U.S. EPA (USEPA,
2013a, b).
Zinc is used in tyres as a vulcanisation activator by manufacturers,
and zinc leachate is believed to contribute predominantly to the lea-
chate toxicity within the surrounding environment (Nelson and
Mueller, 1994) (Gualtieri et al., 2005). Turner and Rice (2010) in-
vestigated the leaching of tyre-wear particles and their toxicity re-
garding marine macroalga. Testing consisted of monitoring the zinc
leachate over a 120 -h incubation period, with the results indicating
higher salt concentration corresponding with lower levels of zinc lea-
chate. The leaching from tyre-wear particles is assumed to occur more
rapidly due to the increased surface area when compared to whole
tyres; however, toxic leaching occurs from an equivalent source and
poses an increasing threat to the environment, particularly those sur-
rounding landfills and other waste sites harbouring an abundance of
waste tyres (Turner and Rice, 2010).
Zinc leachate is widely considered to be toxic to organisms, with
demonstrable evidence of this trend shown in Gualtieri et al. (2005).
However, the extent of leachate that may result from TDP use in civil
engineering applications is not fully quantified. The control sample
preparation, as employed in the research methodology used by
Gualtieri et al. (2005), was representative of a realistic TDP use case in
subbase materials or as a substitution material in highly permeable
concrete. The procedure involved running pure water over tiers of tyre
particles less than 0.5 mm in size, interspersed with glass beads used to
inhibit aggregation. When assessing the toxicity of the control sample
gathered from a procedure reflective of civil engineering applications,
limited acute toxicity was evidenced when compared to alternate Zn
leachate samples. Of the embryos tested in the control sample, a 5.3%
mortality rate and 1.7% malformation rate were observed, compared to
80.2% mortality rate and 97.7% malformation rate observed in em-
bryos tested in 100% concentration of sample prepared with 50 g/l tyre
products shaken for 24 h at 50RPM in a solution with a pH of 3. The
primary sample preparation methodology is designed to reflect the
environmental conditions present in the atmosphere due to general use
degradation of tyres. The test concentrations are similar to maximum
tyre products found in rain water in France, with reported values
reaching a maximum of 34 mg/L. It should be noted that an increase in
tyre particles used in the sample does not directly correlate with the
leaching of Zn, as particle aggregation can occur, thereby limiting the
surface area of the exposed particulate material.
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104679
The study concluded that freshwater environments are subjected to
increased contamination from zinc leachate specifically, with further
contributions of toxicity from tyre-tread chemicals, such as phthalates
(Wik and Dave, 2009), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Voparil
et al., 2004), benzothiazoles (Evans et al., 2000), and para-phenylene
diamines (Wik and Dave, 2006).
Whilst the utilisation of TDP presents higher Zn contamination risks
as a result of tyre leachate, it is important to consider the severity of this
contribution against other contamination mechanisms associated with
tyre manufacture and use. As demonstrated in Gualtieri et al. (2005),
the contribution of Zn leaching from environmental tyre wear particles
caused by automotive transport is far more acutely toxic to the or-
ganisms considered. These results were also reflective of a rare case of
extreme acid rain, with an increased pH yielding far less Zn per litre; for
samples prepared with 50 g/l shaken for 24 h, a pH of 3 yielded 44.7
mg/L and a pH of 7 yielded 1.2 mg/L in the solutions collected. Further,
it is noted that over the design life, the percentage of Zn in the TDP will
reduce, resulting in diminishing toxic leachate. This is evidenced in the
dramatic reduction in Zn yield for samples prepared at pH 3 and 50 g/l
tyre particles; samples shaken for 24, 48, 72, and 96 h resulted in a Zn
concentration increase of 44.73 mg/L, 14.47 mg/L, 13.30 mg/L, and
8.49 mg/L, respectively.
Azizian et al. (2003) studied the leaching behaviour of crumb
rubber asphalt concrete (CR-AC) in highway environments based on the
EPA standard protocol for the preparation of batch leachate. The ex-
perimental procedure was conducted for two conditions; short-term (24
h) and long-term (7 days) batch leaching. In total, 20 metals were de-
termined through the inductively coupled plasma atomic-emission
spectrometry (ICP-AES), however 7 (Ca, Hg, Mg, K, Al, Sr and P) were
above the detection limits and 13 (Fe, Cu, V, As, Ni, Zn, Ba, Cr, Sb, Co,
Se and Cd) were below the detection limits of the ICP-AES. Mercury
(Hg) and Aluminium (Al) were higher in leachate concentrations than
expected in the CR-AC, and were detected in the leachate at con-
centrations of 0.116 mg/l and 1.81 mg/l after 7 days, respectively. Both
metals exceeded the toxic concentrations for the aquatic toxicity tests,
and, therefore, can potentially be harmful. In addition, the organic
compounds of CR-AC leachate were determined through gas chroma-
tography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The benzothiazole leachate
concentrations were determined to be 0.45 mg/l for short term and
0.54 mg/l for long term, respectively. Benzothiazole is a highly toxic
compound and is used in the manufacturing of tyre rubber, which is
why a high concentration of the organic compound was found in the
leachate.
6.3. Vermin control
Following torrential rain, the interior sidewalls of the tyres collect
water, presenting ideal breeding conditions for pests and vermin.
Mosquitoes carrying disease can easily be transported from collection
sites and even exported without detection to neighbouring countries as
tyres are processed. This possesses a great threat to human health and
wellbeing.
A study by Rubio et al. (2011) investigated the immature levels of
Aedes aegypti, the yellow fever mosquito, and Culex pipiens, the
common mosquito, with respect to waste tyre breeding grounds in
temperate Argentina. Both blood-feeding mosquitos are acknowledged
to transport many viruses and diseases including yellow fever viruses,
dengue fever, and meningitis, which are detrimental and life-threa-
tening to the human species.
New-born, immature of the species comprised 96% of 9722 mos-
quitoes collected. This indicated the breeding occurrence from 65.2% of
the infested sites harbouring 33% of water-filled tyres that contained
mosquitoes. The investigation concluded that the propagation of mos-
quitoes was vastly higher in low-urbanisation regions and dependent on
other factors including seasonality and sunlight exposure.
A. Mohajerani, et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104679

- increased competition for collection fees, restricting the income

available to offset tyre recyclers’ high processing costs, and
- high transportation costs often required to access recovery options.

8. Discussion

This paper analyses many solutions in regard to waste tyre recovery

by addressing the abundance of rubber waste generated and the risks
and implications associated with stockpiling. The relationship between
waste tyre generation and waste tyre recovery is through the method of
processing and manufacture. This process results in a wide selection of
Tyre Derived Products (TDP) that enable continued benefit beyond
disposal. Significant contributions have been made by researchers,
which have identified the material properties of recycled waste tyres in
isolation and applied these attributes to a variety of geotechnical and
sustainable material applications.
The suitability of using recycled materials in geotechnical applica-
tions and common construction materials must satisfy the following
Fig. 5. Tyre bales to be recycled (China, 2016). requirements: technically favourable, economically feasible, and en-
vironmentally friendly.
6.4. Land use
8.1. Technical
The physical size and arrangement of waste tyres consume a very
Throughout this review, several applications were analysed to de-
large area in landfill and stockpiles. Access to vacant land is becoming
termine whether using waste rubber tyres is an appropriate alternative
more difficult as waste generation increases. Although bailing, shown in
to traditional materials. In most cases, a general consensus amongst
Fig. 5, or mechanically compressing tyres is a temporary solution used
researchers has found that waste rubber is not an ideal substitute for
to clear space, the issue is likely to continue until large volumes of
applications that rely on bearing strength alone, due to the high com-
waste tyres are recycled.
pressibility and deformation properties. Surprisingly, however, soil
stabilisation with the addition of cement and waste rubber was seen to
7. Current practice
increase the bearing strength and shear capacity of previously in-
competent soils. Similarly, flowable fill also experienced the same be-
There are three major uses for waste tyres. Shredding, energy re-
haviour when replacing sand with rubber crumb, partly due to the
covery, and oil recovery. Shredding is the process of reducing end-of-
cementitious elements of the mix.
life tyres into reusable products for a wide selection of applications,
Replacing graded aggregate with varying amounts of shredded
some of which have been outlined in this paper.
rubber in unbound flexible pavements received a reduction in bearing
Energy recovery is mainly utilized by cement producers where
capacity relative to the increase in rubber content. However, the sys-
shredded or whole tyres are added to the slurry as it goes into the ce-
tems benefitted from higher permeability and drainage properties.
ment kiln. Tyres burn at a high temperature and add heat to the system
Combining rubber crumb with coarse aggregate for use in sub-bal-
allowing the manufacturer to reduce the main kiln heat source, typi-
last rail applications also yielded a significant decrease in bearing ca-
cally gas or oil. Oil recovery through waste tyres is known as Tyre
pacity, which was amplified with increasing rubber content; although
Pyrolysis, which involves heating the tyre or shred in the absence of
still capable of supporting the above ballast. Abrasion testing illustrated
oxygen, thereby causing it to break down into long hydrocarbon chains.
an improvement in the durability of rubber sub-ballast; however, the
A catalyst then removes the sulphur from the carbon-sulphur bonds,
resistance to repetitive loading decreased as a function of density.
allowing the resulting hydrocarbons to be cracked out in the same way
Seismic isolation relies on absorbing energy, impact, and vibration.
that crude oil is refined.
Unlike the previous applications mentioned, field testing was not con-
Due to the high cost involved in producing refined tyre derived
ducted; instead, a series of computer simulations replicating earthquake
products, 90% of the recovered waste tyres are shredded or baled in
conditions was used to test the effect of rubber-soils in resisting seismic
shipping containers and sent overseas for further processing, where
activity. Contributed by the high compressibility, the findings indicated
labour is cheap and environmental regulations are more relaxed.
that rubber-soil achieved a 60–70 % reduction in horizontal ground
Bailing is seen as the most viable method of disposing of waste tyres in
acceleration when compared with soil that did not contain rubber.
terms of capital cost and processing, followed by shredding (50−300
These results are based on predetermined input values.
mm) and then crumbing (less than 1 mm).
Railway maintenance “rubber-stone blowing” procedures enhanced
Notice that the cost involved in refining rubber shreds to rubber
track durability, and load-dampening capabilities; ultimately reducing
crumb is substantial. Based on this, it is often more efficient to import
the resultant differential settlement caused by train-cyclic movement.
crumb than it is to produce it locally. The main consumers of recycled
A C40 (40 MPa) concrete mixture containing 0.6% washed and
tyre crumb are softfall installers and adhesive makers. There is also a
unwashed rubber crumb displayed optimal durability factors of 96.4%
large market for rubber crumb in bitumen for roads.
and 96.9%, respectively, when compared with a plain concrete spe-
Mountjoy et al. (2015) identified six key barriers that prevent the
cimen, which obtained just 18.85%. Rubber crumb models exhibited
widespread adoption of processing waste tyres in Australia:
minimal internal and surface damage throughout 56 freeze/thaw cy-
cles; contrasting with plain concrete models that demonstrated failure
- local landfill prices and regulatory controls,
following just 28 cycles. Thus, the rubber crumb concrete mixture
- constrained local markets and limited demand for tyre derived
displayed optimal compressive strength and air entrainment cap-
products/tyre derived fuel,
abilities versus plain concrete.
- global commodity prices and demand,
High-strength concrete mixtures with rubber crumb as a partial fine
- highly volatile international energy markets,
aggregate substitute (up to 12.5% by weight) and silica fume as a

14
A. Mohajerani, et al.
bonding agent achieved 60 MPa + in compressive strength after 90
days. The flexural tensile and pull-off strength losses were minimised,
and the abrasion resistance and overall ductility of the concrete were
increased.
The incorporation of waste whole-tyres as reinforcing layers in
granular, small-scale embankments exhibited approximately half the
vertical settlement and double the strength capabilities when compared
with unreinforced embankments; furthermore, they experienced less
horizontal deformation and ductile, non-brittle failure.
Most studies conducted on waste rubber were tested in accordance
with the standard soil testing methods. It is important to note that waste
tyre material behaves differently to traditional soils, and, therefore,
requires slight modifications to the test procedures. These changes are
likely to yield considerable deviations from the existing results.
Understanding waste rubber behaviour will increase confidence in the
material, and, in effect, encourage its use in geotechnical and sustain-
able material applications.
8.2. Economics
The economics involved in waste tyre recovery are complex. As it
stands, the demand for waste tyre products occupies a small space.
Waste tyre products are generally used to complement traditional ma-
terials rather than replace them. This is due to a number of factors that
primarily relate to cost. Processing and refining waste tyres are ex-
pensive. From the initial capital cost right through to on-going main-
tenance, the risks involved in upkeep are extremely high. It is not un-
common for established tyre recyclers to fall victim to insolvency. In
order to facilitate operations, pricing for rubber products are often in-
flated in comparison to traditionally sourced materials. This reason
alone is enough to deter contractors from using this material in con-
struction projects.
Fluctuations in commodity price have also hindered demand, as
Tyre Derived Products (TDP) compete against traditional materials.
Competition within the tyre recycling sector also has an influence on
the demand for the material, with most operators either unable or
unwilling to disclose information to guard their prices. Greater trans-
parency and consistency in pricing need to be addressed if waste tyre
products are to be considered for use in future geotechnical applica-
tions.
8.3. Environmental
Concerns have been raised concerning the environmental implica-
tions of waste rubber mixed with soil, with some reports suggesting that
oxidisation can cause combustion when used in large fills containing
rubber (Edeskär, 2006); this can be avoided by restricting the height of
the fill to three metres (Oikonomou and Mavridou, 2009).
Tyres are known to leach organic and metallic contaminants. It has
been recommended that waste rubber be used above the groundwater
table to safeguard against possible contamination. Azizian et al. (2003)
recognised that pollutants from leachate tend to degrade as it transits
through neighbouring soils. Interestingly, waste tyre material may also
be used in areas of high contamination behaving as a sorbent medium,
removing the volatile organic chemicals found in the water (Park et al.,
1996).
Another major concern of the use of waste rubber in construction
materials is the environmental impact associated with all stages of the
newly derived product. For example, to assess the environmental im-
plications of road pavement materials containing crumb rubber from
end-of-life tyres, a life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted to con-
sider various scenarios corresponding to the construction and main-
tenance of pavements containing crumb rubber (Farina et al., 2014,
2017). Evaluations were performed based on a case study of an urban
road, whereby wet and dry process production was considered for the
inclusion of crumb rubber in bituminous mixtures. In the wet process,
15
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 155 (2020) 104679
crumb rubber was added in the base bitumen as a modifying agent, and,
in the dry technology, crumb rubber was added in hot mix plates as an
additional aggregate fraction. The results obtained from the LCA ana-
lysis, concluded that the wet technology resulted in some benefits in
terms of human health and environmental impact. However, it is im-
portant to highlight that the study was based on some estimates and
should be considered as preliminary. Therefore, a comprehensive LCA
analysis is highly recommended for recycling waste rubber in pavement
materials and also in other major applications.
9. Conclusion
Waste tyre recovery has come a long way since the initial concep-
tion, with a global shift in mindset towards environmental awareness
and sustainability continuing to gain momentum. In order to sustain
future prospects for the use of recycled tyres, it is important to re-
cognise that three main objectives exist in the recovery of waste tyres:
reducing excessive stockpiles, providing beneficial use, and preserving
natural resources. The aim of this study was to analyse the properties of
waste tyre rubber and conduct a comprehensive review of the appli-
cations of waste tyre rubber in pavement and construction materials, as
well as highlight the environmental, economic, and technical factors.
Based on these objectives, this review paper explored the recycling
of waste rubber tyres in concrete and road construction materials.
Depending on the situation, waste tyres are capable of being recycled in
many applications. In summary, the following conclusions have been
derived from this investigation:
• Rubberised concrete mixtures demonstrated improvement in freeze/
thaw durability when tested in 40 MPa concrete mixes and at 0.6%
rubber crumb replacement. Air entrainment of the concrete matrix
was improved, reducing the modulus of elasticity, and improving
resiliency to periodic expansion and contraction at minimal loss to
the compressive strength.
• 60 MPa high-strength concrete was achieved containing up to 12.5%
varying-sized rubber crumb as a fine aggregate substitute and 9%
silica fume as a bonding agent. Minimal losses in flexural tensile and
pull-off strengths were observed with increasing abrasion resistance
and water penetration. Furthermore, water penetration in rub-
berised samples decreased in specimens containing up to 7.5%
rubber content when compared with plain concrete.
• Crumb rubber and rubber aggregate inclusion in standard compo-
sition concretes improved the chemical resistance of concrete ma-
terial when assessing samples against the effects of hydrochloric
acid, sodium sulphate, and chloride ion exposure. Rubberised con-
cretes are ideal for use in marine climates due to their ability to
resist a corrosive environment comparative to standard concretes.
• Soil stabilised with rubber and cement inclusions, received an im-
provement in the bearing capacity and shear strength.
• In unbound pavement applications, increasing the rubber content
adversely affected the bearing capacity; however, the permeability
was shown to increase.
• Flowable fill containing rubber crumb showed a considerable re-
duction in density and greater strength-to-weight ratio, allowing for
larger fills to be constructed.
• Rubber sub-ballast experienced a significant decrease in bearing
capacity and resilience, which was amplified by an increase in the
rubber content, but improved resistance to degradation.
• Seismic Isolation (resistance to earthquake forces) achieved a 60–70
% reduction in horizontal ground acceleration with rubber-soil;
however, the bearing capacity was severely reduced, limiting the
method to low-medium rise structures.
• Railway “rubber-stone blowing” maintenance procedures observed
decreases in vertical settlement and increases in the load-dampening
effects and track durability.
• Whole-tyre reinforcement of granular embankments significantly
A. Mohajerani, et al.
reduced vertical settlement to approximately half that of non-re-
inforced granular embankments and demonstrated more than twice
the strength capabilities. Horizontal deformation reduction was also
observed, and no obvious plastic zone was detected when compared
with the control models.
• The leachate of heavy metals is a primary concern when considering
tyre derived products (TDP) for reuse, due to the chemical compo-
sition and the toxicity of the constituent materials, particularly zinc,
manganese, and iron.
•
Mercury (Hg) and Aluminium (Al) were detected in the crumb
rubber asphalt concrete (CR-AC) leachate at concentrations of 0.116
mg/l and 1.81 mg/l after 7 days, respectively. Both metals exceeded
the toxic concentrations for aquatic toxicity tests, and, therefore,
can potentially be harmful to the surrounding environment.
• Benzothiazole leachate concentrations were detected at 0.45 mg/l
for short term and 0.54 mg/l for long term, respectively. The com-
pound is considered as highly toxic and is used in the manufacture
of tyre rubber. The leachate of benzothiazole can be detrimental to
the health of the local fauna and flora.
• Further comprehensive studies on the leachate analysis of concrete,
asphalt concrete and other construction and road materials in-
corporating waste rubber for heavy metals and PAHs, for products
with exposure to air, are recommended.
The recent methodologies and framework published by the US
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) should be enforced within
the Australian regulations regarding the leachates from waste rubber
products and construction materials with recycled waste rubber tyres,
as, specifically, Methods 1314 (USEPA(E)), 2013) and 1315
(USEPA(F)), 2013) are performed for assessing the leachate of various
metals under different pH, liquid to solid ratios, and monolithic sample
conditions. Further research for the development of improved leachate
testing methods and standards, and for the development of maximum
acceptable limits of heavy metals for different applications and pro-
ducts manufactured with or incorporating waste rubber (and other si-
milar waste materials) are recommended.
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