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 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

Global Warming
and Climate Change
 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

Global Warming
and Climate Change
S. George Philander
GENERAL EDITOR

VOLUMES 1 - 3
Copyright © 2008 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechani-
cal, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publisher.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Encyclopedia of global warming and climate change / S. George Philander.

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4129-5878-3 (cloth)
1. Global warming–Encyclopedias. 2. Climatic changes–Encyclopedias.
I. Philander, S. George.
QC981.8.G56E47 2008
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This book is printed on acid-free and recycled paper.

08 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

GOLSON BOOKS, LTD. SAGE REFERENCE

President and Editor J. Geoffrey Golson
Creative Director Mary Jo Scibetta
Managing Editor Susan Moskowitz
Copyeditor Mary Le Rouge
Layout Editors Kenneth W. Heller
Stephanie Larson
Oona Hyla Patrick
Proofreaders Deborah Green
Summer G. Ventis
Barbara Paris
Indexer J S Editorial
Vice President and Publisher Rolf A. Janke
Project Editor Tracy Buyan
Cover Production Janet Foulger
Marketing Manager Amberlyn Erzinger
Editorial Assistant Michele Thompson
Reference Systems Manager Leticia Gutierrez
Photo credits are on page I-79.
 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

Global Warming
and Climate Change
CONTENTS
About the General Editor vi
Preface vii
Reader’s Guide ix
Introduction xvii
List of Articles xxxiii
List of Contributors xliii
Chronology xlvii
Articles A to Z 1–1120
Resource Guide 1121
Glossary 1127
Appendix A-1
Index I-1
Encyclopedia of
Global Warming
and Climate Change
About the General Editor

S. George Philander, Ph.D.

Knox Taylor Professor of Geosciences, Princeton University
Research Director, ACCESS

S. George Philander, Knox Taylor Professor

of Geosciences at Princeton University, and
Research Director of ACCESS (African Cen-
tre for Climate and Earth System Science) in
Cape Town, South Africa, has a Bachelor of
Science degree from the University of Cape
Town, and a Ph.D. (Applied Mathematics)
from Harvard University.
He is a member of the National Academy
of Sciences, and a fellow of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Ameri-
can Geophysical Union, and the American
Meteorological Society. Philander’s research interests include the oceanic cir-
culation, interactions between the ocean and atmosphere that result in phe-
nomena such as El Niño and La Niña, paleoclimates (including the recurrent
Ice Ages of the past three million years), and future global climate changes.
His two books for laypersons, Is the Temperature Rising? The Uncertain Sci-
ence of Global Warming, and Our Affair With El Niño: How We Transformed
an Enchanting Peruvian Current Into a Global Climate Hazard reflect his keen
interest in improving communications between scientists and laymen.
The goal of the African climate center, which Philander is currently directing,
is to give Africa its own voice on environmental issues such as global warming.
 List of
Articles

A An Inconvenient Truth
Abrupt Climate Changes Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Adaptation Antarctic Ice Sheets
Aerosols Antarctic Meteorology Research Center
Afforestation Anthropogenic Forcing
Afghanistan Anticyclones
Agriculture Antigua and Barbuda
Agulhas Current Applied Energy Services, Inc.
Air Force, U.S. Arakawa, Akio
Alabama Arctic Ocean
Alaska Argentina
Alaska Climate Research Center Arizona
Albania Arkansas
Albedo Armenia
Algeria Arrhenius, Svante August
Alliance of Small Island States Atlantic Ocean
Alliance to Save Energy Atmosphere, Climate and Environment
Alternative Energy, Ethanol Information Programme (UK)
Alternative Energy, Overview Atmospheric Absorption of Solar Radiation
Alternative Energy, Solar Atmospheric Boundary Layer
Alternative Energy, Wind Atmospheric Component of Models
American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy Atmospheric Composition
American Electric Power Atmospheric Emission of Infrared Radiation
American Gas Association Atmospheric General Circulation Models
American Geophysical Union Atmospheric Research and Information Centre
American Meteorological Society Atmospheric Vertical Structure
Andorra Attribution of Global Warming
Angola Aurora
Animals Australia
xxxiii
xxxiv List of Articles

Austria Carbon Dioxide

Automobiles Carbon Emissions
Aviation Carbon Footprint
Azerbaijan Carbon Permits
Carbon Sequestration
B Carbon Sinks
Bahamas Cenozoic Era
Bahrain Center for Clean Air Policy
Bangladesh Center for Energy Efficiency
Barbados Center for International Climate and
Belarus Environment Research
Belgium Center for International Environmental
Belize Law
Benguela Current Center for Ocean-Atmospheric Prediction
Benin Studies
Berlin Mandate Center for Science and Environment (India)
Bhutan Central African Republic
Biogeochemical Feedbacks Chad
Biology Chamberlin, Thomas C.
Biomass Chaos Theory
Blizzards Charney, Jule Gregory
Bolin, Bert Chemistry
Bolivia Chile
Bosnia and Herzegovina China
Botany Clean Air Act, U.S.
Botswana Clean Development Mechanism
BP CLIMAP Project
Brazil Climate
Broecker, Wallace Climate Action Network
Brunei Darussalam Climate Change, Effects
Bryan, Kirk Climate Change Knowledge Network
Bryson, Reid Climate Cycles
Budyko, Mikhail Climate Feedback
Bulgaria Climate Forcing
Burkina Faso Climate Impacts LINK Project
Burundi Climate Models
Bush (George H.W.) Administration Climate Sensitivity and Feedbacks
Bush (George W.) Administration Climate Thresholds
Climate Zones
C Climatic Data, Atmospheric Observations
California Climatic Data, Cave Records
California Institute of Technology Climatic Data, Historical Records
Cambodia Climatic Data, Ice Observations
Cameroon Climatic Data, Instrumental Records
Canada Climatic Data, Lake Records
Canadian Association for Renewable Climatic Data, Nature of the Data
Energies Climatic Data, Oceanic Observations
Cantor Fitzgerald EBS Climatic Data, Proxy Records
Cape Verde Climatic Data, Reanalysis
Capitalism Climatic Data, Sea Floor Records
Carbon Cycle Climatic Data, Sediment Records
 List of Articles xxxv

Climatic Data, Tree Ring Records Djibouti

Climatic Research Unit Doldrums
Clinton Administration Dominica
Cloud Feedback Dominican Republic
Clouds, Cirrus Doris Duke Charitable Foundation
Clouds, Cumulus Drift Ice
Clouds, Stratus Drought
Coal Dynamical Feedbacks
Colombia
Colorado E
Colorado Climate Center Earth’s Climate History
Colorado State University Earthshine
Columbia University East Timor
Comoros Ecological Footprint
Compliance Economics, Cost of Affecting Climate Change
Computer Models Economics, Impact From Climate Change
Condensation Ecosystems
Congo Ecuador
Congo, Democratic Republic of Edison Electric Institute
Connecticut Education
Conservation Egypt
Convection Ekman Layer
Cooperative Institute for Arctic Research El Niño and La Niña
Coriolis Force El Salvador
Cornell University Emissions, Baseline
Costa Rica Emissions, Cement Industry
Côte d’Ivoire Emissions, Trading
Cretaceous Era Energy
Croatia Energy, Renewable
Croll, James Energy Balance Models
Cuba Energy Efficiency
Culture Environmental and Societal Impacts Group
Current Environmental Defense
Cyclones Environmental Development Action in the
Cyprus Third World
Czech Republic Environmental Financial Products, LLC
Environmental History
D Environmental Law Institute
David Suzuki Foundation Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Deforestation Equatorial Countercurrent
Delaware Equatorial Guinea
Denmark Equatorial Undercurrent
Department of Defense, U.S. Eritrea
Department of Energy, U.S. Estonia
Department of State, U.S. Ethics
Desertification Ethiopia
Desert Research Institute European Commission
Deserts European Union
Detection of Climate Changes Evaporation and Transpiration
Developing Countries Evaporation Feedbacks
Diseases Evolution of the Atmosphere
xxxvi List of Articles

F Grenada
FEEM (Italy) Gross National Product
Fiji Gross Primary Production
Finland Guatemala
Floods Guinea
Florida Guinea-Bissau
Florida International University Gulf Stream
Florida State University Guyana
Food Miles
Food Production H
Foraminifera Hadley, George
Forced Climate Variability Hadley Circulation
Forests Haiti
Foundation for International Environmental Hansen, James
Law and Development Harvard University
Fourier, Joseph Hawaii
Framework Convention on Climate Change Health
France Heat, Latent
Friends of the Earth Heat, Sensible
Heinz Center
G Historical Development of Climate Models
Gabon History of Climatology
Gaia Hypothesis History of Meteorology
Gambia Holocene Era
Geography Honduras
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Hot Air
Georgia (Nation) Hungary
Georgia (U.S. State) Hurricanes and Typhoons
Geospatial Technology Hydrofluorocarbons
Germany Hydrological Cycle
Ghana
Glaciers, Retreating I
Glaciology Ice Ages
Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) Ice Albedo Feedback
Global Environment Facility (GEF) Ice Component of Models
Global Industrial and Social Progress Research Iceland
Institute (GISPRI) Idaho
Globalization Idaho State Climate Services
Global Warming Illinois
Goddard Institute for Space Studies Impacts of Global Warming
Gore, Albert, Jr. India
Greece Indiana
Green Buildings Indiana University
Green Cities Indian Ocean
Green Design Indonesia
Green Homes Industrialization
Greenhouse Effect Institute of Energy Economics (Argentina)
Greenhouse Gases Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Greenland Cores Internal Climate Variability
Greenland Ice Sheet International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU)
Greenpeace International International Energy Agency (IEA)
 List of Articles xxxvii

International Geophysical Year (IGY) Lesotho

International Geosphere-Biosphere Program Liberia
(IGBP) Liechtenstein
International Institute for Sustainable Development Life Cycle Analysis
(IISD) Lindzen, Richard
International Research Institute for Climate Lithuania
Prediction Little Ice Age
International Solar Energy Society (ISES) Lorenz, Edward
International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics Louisiana
(IUGG) Louisiana State University
Intertropical Convergence Zone Luxembourg
Iowa
Iowa State University M
Iran Macedonia (FYROM)
Iraq Madagascar
Ireland Maine
Israel Malawi
Italy Malaysia
Maldives
J Mali
Jamaica Malta
Japan Manabe, Syukuro
Jet Streams Marine Mammals
Johns Hopkins University Marshall Institute
Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere Marshall Islands
and Ocean (JISAO) Maryland
Jordan Massachusetts
Jurassic Era Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Mauritania
K Mauritius
Kansas Maximum Sustainable Yield
Kazakhstan Measurement and Assessment
Keeling, Charles David Media, Books and Journals
Kentucky Media, Internet
Kenya Media, TV
Kiribati Meridional Overturning Circulation
Korea, North Mesosphere
Korea, South Mesozoic Era
Kuroshio Current Methane Cycle
Kuwait Mexico
Kyoto Mechanisms Michigan
Kyoto Protocol Micronesia
Kyrgyzstan Midwestern Regional Climate Center
Milankovitch, Milutin
L Milankovitch Cycles
Land Component of Models Minnesota
Land Use Mississippi
Laos Mississippi State University
Latvia Missouri
LDEO Climate Modeling Group Mixed Layer
Lebanon Modeling of Ice Ages
xxxviii List of Articles

Modeling of Ocean Circulation Norway

Modeling of Paleoclimates Nuclear Power
Moldova
Monaco O
Mongolia Ocean Component of Models
Monsoons Oceanic Changes
Montana Oceanography
Montreal Protocol OECD Annex 1 Expert Group on the UNFCCC
Morocco OECD Climate Change Documents
Movements, Environmental Office of Naval Research
Mozambique Ohio
Munk, Walter Ohio State University
Myanmar Oil, Consumption of
Oil, Production of
N Oklahoma
Namibia Oman
National Academy of Sciences, U.S. Orbital Parameters, Eccentricity
National Aeronautics and Space Administration Orbital Parameters, Obliquity
(NASA) Orbital Parameters, Precession
National Association of Energy Service Companies Oregon
(NAESCO) Oregon Climate Service
National Center for Atmospheric Research Oregon State University
(NCAR) Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Development (OECD)
(NOAA) Oxygen Cycle
National Science Foundation
Natsource P
Natural Gas Pacific Ocean
Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) Pakistan
Nauru Palau
Navy, U.S. Paleoclimates
Nebraska Paleozoic Era
Needs and Wants Panama
Nepal Papua New Guinea
Netherlands Paraguay
Net Primary Production Penguins
Nevada Penn State University
New Hampshire Pennsylvania
New Jersey Perfluorocarbons
New Mexico Peru
New Mexico Climate Center Peruvian Current
New York Pew Center on Global Climate Change
New Zealand Philippines
Nicaragua Phillips, Norman
Niger Phytoplankton
Nigeria Plants
Nitrous Oxide Pleistocene Era
Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) Pliocene Era
North Atlantic Oscillation Poland
North Carolina Polar Bears
North Dakota Policy, International
 List of Articles xxxix

Policy, U.S. São Tomé and Principe

Pollution, Air Saudi Arabia
Pollution, Land Schneider, Stephen H.
Pollution, Water Scripps Institute of Oceanography
Population Sea Ice
Portugal Sea Level, Rising
Precambrian Era Seasonal Cycle
Precautionary Principle Seawater, Composition of
Precipitation Senegal
Preparedness Serbia and Montenegro
Princeton University Seychelles
Public Awareness Sierra Leone
Simulation and Predictability of Seasonal and
Q Interannual Variations
Qatar Singapore
Quaternary Era Singer, S. Fred
Slovakia
R Slovenia
Radiation, Absorption Smagorinsky, Joseph
Radiation, Infrared Snowball Earth
Radiation, Long Wave Social Ecology
Radiation, Microwave Soil Organic Carbon
Radiation, Short Wave Soils
Radiation, Ultraviolet Solar Energy Industries Association
Radiative Feedbacks (SEIA)
Rain Solar Wind
Rainfall Patterns Solomon Islands
Refugees, Environmental Somalia
Regulation Somali Current
Religion South Africa
Renewable Energy Policy Project (REPP) South Carolina
Resources South Dakota
Resources for the Future (RFF) Southern Ocean
Revelle, Roger Southern Oscillation
Rhode Island Spain
Richardson, Lewis Fry Species Extinction
Risk Sri Lanka
Romania Stanford University
Rossby, Carl-Gustav Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI)
Royal Dutch/Shell Group Stommel, Henry
Royal Meteorological Society Stratopause
Russia Stratosphere
Rwanda Sudan
Sulphur Dioxide
S Sulphur Hexafluoride
Saint Kitts and Nevis Sunlight
Saint Lucia Suriname
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Sustainability
Salinity Sverdrup, Harald Ulrik
Samoa Swaziland
San Marino Sweden
xl List of Articles

Switzerland University of Birmingham

Syria University of California, Berkeley
University of Cambridge
T University of Colorado
Tajikistan University of Delaware
Tanzania University of East Anglia
Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI) University of Florida
Technology University of Hawaii
Tennessee University of Illinois
Tertiary Climate University of Kentucky
Texas University of Leeds
Thailand University of Maine
Thermocline University of Maryland
Thermodynamics University of Miami
Thermohaline Circulation University of Michigan
Thermosphere University of Nebraska
Thunderstorms University of New Hampshire
Togo University of Oklahoma
Tonga University of Reading
Toronto Conference University of St. Gallen (Switzerland)
Tourism University of Utah
Trade Winds University of Washington
Transportation Upwelling, Coastal
Trexler and Associates, Inc. Upwelling Equatorial
Triassic Period Uruguay
Trinidad and Tobago U.S. Global Change Research Program
Tropopause Utah
Troposphere Utah Climate Center
Tsunamis Uzbekistan
Tunisia
Turkey V
Turkmenistan Validation of Climate Models
Tuvalu Vanuatu
Tyndall, John Venezuela
Vermont
U Vermont Law School
Uganda Vienna Convention
Ukraine Vietnam
UN Conference on Trade and Development/Earth Villach Conference
Council Institute: Carbon Market Program Virginia
United Arab Emirates Volcanism
United Kingdom Von Neumann, John
United Nations Vostok Core
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) W
United States of America Walker, Gilbert Thomas
University Corporation for Atmospheric Research Walker Circulation
University Corporation for Atmospheric Research Washington
Joint Office for Science Support Washington, Warren
University of Alaska Waves, Gravity
University of Arizona Waves, Internal
 List of Articles xli

Waves, Kelvin World Health Organization

Waves, Planetary World Meteorological
Waves, Rossby Organization
Weather World Resources Institute
Weather World 2010 Project World Systems Theory
Western Boundary Currents Worldwatch Institute
Western Regional Climate Center World Weather Watch
West Virginia World Wildlife Fund
Wind-Driven Circulation Wyoming
Winds, Easterlies
Winds, Westerlies Y
Wisconsin Yemen
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Younger Dryas
World Bank
World Business Council for Sustainable Z
Development Zambia
World Climate Research Program Zimbabwe
 Pollution, Water 813

Pollution, Water
Water pollution usually describes the intro-
duction or presence of harmful or objectionable
substance in water in magnitude sufficient to alter
814 Pollution, Water
the quality indices of natural water. It also connotes
the presence of polluting substances in rivers, lakes,
bays, seas, streams, underground water, or oceans
in levels capable of resulting in measurable degra-
dation of the water quality or usefulness. For exam-
ple, if water contains too much contamination as a
result of certain harmful chemical compounds or
microorganisms, it could be rendered unsafe in its
existing state for an intended purpose. This could be
described as water pollution. In most cases, water
pollution may arise from the use to which the water
has been put. Although some kind of water pollution
can occur through natural processes, it is mostly
caused by human activities.
Water pollution has many sources and characteris-
tics. These sources can be categorized into point and
nonpoint sources. Point sources of water pollution are
direct discharges to a single point, or simply station-
ary location discharges. Examples include discharges
from sewage treatment plants, power plants, facto-
ries, ships, injection wells, and some manufactur-
ing or industrial sources. Nonpoint sources of water
pollution are more diffused across a broad area and
their contamination is traceable to a single discharge
point. Examples of nonpoint sources include mining
activities and agricultural and urban runoffs. Water
pollution arising from nonpoint sources accounts for
the majority of contaminants in streams, rivers, bays,
underground water, and seas.
A water pollutant is any biological, chemical, or
physical substance if when present in water at exces-
sive concentrations has the capability of altering the
chemical, physical, biological, and radiological integ-
rity of water, thereby reducing its usefulness to living
organisms, including man. Although there are many
sources of pollutants in our waters, the primary sources
of water-polluting substances come from sewage, agri-
cultural runoffs, oil spills, industrial wastewaters, land
drainage, and domestic wastes. The major categories
of common water pollutants include heavy metals,
pathogens, nutrients, acids, organic chemicals, and
radioactivity. Many of these substances are toxic and
are capable of interacting additively or synergistically
or antagonistically to give varying responses in aquatic
ecosystems and in humans. However, the influence of
a pollutant in natural waters varies according to the
polluting substance, the local environmental condi-
tions, and the organism involved.
Major Types of Water Pollutants
Heavy metals are toxic and include many metal pol-
lutants that could have potentially harmful effects
on human health and aquatic ecosystems. Common
examples include cadmium, nickel, arsenic, lead,
vanadium, mercury, and selenium. Typical sources
of metal pollutants include wastes from domes-
tic, industry, agriculture, urban, and mining drains.
Acids are inorganic water pollutants caused by indus-
trial discharges, especially sulfur dioxide from indus-
trial power plants, drainage from mines, wastes from
industry, and aerial acid deposition. Acids have the
potential of causing harm to aquatic ecosystems via
the mobilization of toxic heavy metal pollutants.
Organic chemicals such as insecticides, herbicides,
petroleum hydrocarbons, detergents, and a range
of volatile organic compounds such as solvents dis-
charged into aquatic ecosystems have the potential
of altering the integrity of natural waters. This variety
of chemicals regarded as water pollutants arises from
agricultural use of pesticides, especially insecticides
and herbicides, industrial wastes, marine oil spillage,
and domestic wastes. They are potentially harmful to
human health and aquatic organisms. Nutrients aris-
ing from sewage and agricultural use of fertilizers may
cause eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems.
Although nutrients are elements essential for the
growth of living organisms, human-caused contami-
nations can greatly enhance the presence of nutrients
(especially nitrogen and phosphorus compounds),
leading to anthropogenic or cultural eutrophication.
Continuous nutrient loading to aquatic systems could
ultimately increase the phytoplankton population,
resulting in algal bloom, by providing more food for
the algae than is normally available. Nutrients may
affect human health. Excessive algal population in
water has the potential of unbalancing the food chain,
discoloration of water, and reduction in the quantity
of light radiation that is available to aquatic life. How-
ever, when the algae dies, the rotting algae could pro-
duce a strong, unpleasant smell and the remains could
be toxic to aquatic fauna and flora. This process could
also result in depletion of dissolved oxygen in water.
There are several sources of water pollutants, and
these are domestic and industrial wastewaters, agri-
cultural runoff water, and other nonpoint sources.
Domestic wastes commonly carry organic mat-
ter, microbiological contaminants, and sometimes

physical and chemical pollutants. Industrial wastes
contain mostly chemical and radioactive pollutants,
while agricultural run-off water may carry mainly
nutrients, pesticides, and heavy metals. Moreover,
water pollution can be broadly classified into differ-
ent types and these include microbiological, chemi-
cal, physical, and thermal water pollution.
Biological hazards associated with water pollution
include disease-causing (pathogenic) microorganisms,
like parasites, bacteria, and viruses. People exposed
to biologically contaminated waters can become sick
from drinking, washing, or swimming. Disease-caus-
ing pathogens commonly associated with fecal con-
tamination of water include Shigella dysenteriae, Sal-
monella typhi, Salmonella paratyphi, Vibrio cholerae,
Entamoeba histolytica and poliomyelitis virus respon-
sible for causing bacterial dysentery, typhoid fever,
paratyphoid fever, cholera, amoebic dysentery, and
infantile paralysis, respectively. Also, the consumption
of microbe-contaminated seafood, especially shellfish,
could lead to outbreaks of food poisoning.
Chemical Water Pollution
Chemical form of water pollution includes the pres-
ence of a wide range of chemicals from industry, such
as lead, arsenic, nitrates, radioactive substances, met-
als and solvents, and even chemicals which are formed
from the breakdown of natural wastes (ammonia, for
instance). Effluents from chemical industries and
oil pollution from accidental crude spillage are cat-
egorized under chemical form of water pollution. In
aquatic systems, these chemicals are poisonous to
fish and other aquatic life. Chemical pollutants can be
generally categorized into persistent (degrade slowly)
and nonpersistent (degradable) substances.
Nonpersistent pollutants include domestic wastes,
fertilizers, and some classes of industrial wastes. These
polluting substances can be broken down into simple
nonpolluting molecules or compounds such as car-
bon dioxide, and nitrogen by chemical or biological
processes. Persistent water pollution is the most rap-
idly growing type of pollution, and includes polluting
substances that degrade or do not grade or cannot be
broken down at all. These pollutants tend to remain in
aquatic environments for a long period of time. Com-
mon persistent chemical pollutants include some pes-
ticides (such as dieldrin, heptachlor, and DDT), petro-
leum products, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
Pollution, Water 815
chlorophenols, dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocar-
bons (PAHs), radionuclides, and heavy metals. Toxic
metals discharged in effluent can be accumulated in
seafood, especially fish and shellfish such as prawns,
cockles, mussels, and oysters, to levels in excess of
public health limiting levels, therefore posing serious
health concerns to people who eat them.
Pesticides used in agriculture and around the home,
especially those used for controlling insects (insecti-
cides) and weeds (herbicides), are another type of toxic
chemical. These chemicals are used to kill unwanted
animals and plants, and may be collected by rainwa-
ter runoff and carried into streams, lakes, bays, rivers,
and seas, especially if these substances are applied in
excessive quantities. Some of these chemicals are bio-
degradable and may quickly decay into harmless or
less harmful forms, while others are nonbiodegradable
and can persist in the environment for a long time.
When animals consume plants that have been treated
with certain nonbiodegradable toxicants (NBTs), such
as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and chlor-
dane, these chemicals are absorbed into the tissues or
organs of the animals and can accumulate over time.
When other animals feed on these contaminated
animals, the chemicals are passed up the food chain.
Some of these can accumulate in fish and shellfish and
poison people, animals, and birds that eat them. Mate-
rials like detergents and oils float and spoil the appear-
ance of a water body, as well as being toxic; and many
chemical pollutants have unpleasant odors.
Physical Water Pollution
A common form of physical water pollution is thermal
pollution. This includes warm water from cooling tow-
ers, floating debris, foam, and garbage. In highly indus-
trialized areas of the world, power plants are used in
generating electricity, where warmer water generated
in the process is generally released back to the environ-
ment. In nuclear plants, water is used in large quantity to
cool reactors. The discharge of high-temperature water
into a natural body of water can affect the downstream
habitats, therefore altering the ecological balance. It can
lead to cultural eutrophication, thereby promoting algal
bloom. This development has the potential of threaten-
ing certain fish species, as well as disturbing the chem-
istry of the receiving water body.
Heat may also affect man’s legitimate use of water
for fishing. Another common and widespread type
816 Pollution, Water
of thermal pollution is the unsafe removal of vegeta-
tions that should naturally keep streams and small
lakes cool. Natural vegetations, mainly trees and
other tall plants, are usually seen around streams and
sizable water bodies and they block direct sunlight
from heating and thereby increasing the surface tem-
peratures of these waters. People often remove this
shading vegetation in order to harvest wood from the
trees, to make room for crops, or to construct build-
ings, roads, and other structures. When these vegeta-
tions are removed and the aquatic ecosystems are left
uncovered, the water temperature could increase by
as much as 18 degrees F (10 degrees C).
Many wastes are biodegradable, that is, they can
be broken down and used as food by microorganisms
like bacteria. Biodegradable wastes may be prefer-
able to nonbiodegradable ones, because they will be
broken down and not remain in the environment
for a very long time. However, too much biodegrad-
able material can cause the serious problem of oxy-
gen depletion in receiving waters. Like fish, aerobic
bacteria that live in water use oxygen gas, which is
dissolved in the water when they feed. Invariably, the
oxygen is not very soluble in water. Even when the
water is saturated with dissolved oxygen, it contains
only about 1/25 the concentration that is present in
air. So if there are too many nutrients in the water, the
bacteria that are consuming it can easily use up all of
the dissolved oxygen, leaving none for the fish, which
will die of suffocation. Once the oxygen is depleted,
other bacteria that do not need dissolved oxygen take
over. But while aerobic microorganisms convert the
nitrogen, sulfur, and carbon compounds that are pres-
ent in the wastewater into odorless, oxygenated forms
like nitrates, sulfates, and carbonates, these anaerobic
microorganisms produce toxic and smelly ammonia,
amines, and sulfides, and flammable methane.
Nutrients are major chemical pollutants and they
include nitrates and phosphates found in sewage, fer-
tilizers, and detergents. Although phosphorus and
nitrogen are essential elements necessary for plant
growth, in excess levels nutrients overstimulate the
growth of aquatic plants and algae. When discharged
into rivers, streams, lakes, and estuaries, they cause
nuisance growth of aquatic weeds, as well as blooms of
algae, which are microscopic plants. Excessive growth
of these organisms can clog navigable waters, deplete
dissolved oxygen as they decompose, and block light
from penetrating deeper waters. Weeds can make a
lake unsuitable for swimming and boating. Algae and
weeds die and become biodegradable material. If the
water is used as a drinking-water source, algae can
clog filters and impart unpleasant tastes and odors to
the finished water. It can also impair respiration by
fish and aquatic invertebrates, which could lead to a
decrease in animal and plant diversity.
Suspended solids originate from eroded stream
banks, construction, and logging sites. They are a form
of physical water pollution. These pollutants are also
referred to as particulate matter because they con-
tain particles of much larger size which remain sus-
pended in the water column. Although they may be
kept in suspension by turbulence, once in the receiv-
ing water, they will eventually settle out and form
silt or mud at the bottom. As these sediments enter
the rivers, lakes, and streams, they tend to decrease
the depth of the body of water. If there is a lot of bio-
degradable organic material in the sediment, it will
become anaerobic and contribute to the formation of
algal bloom. Toxic materials can also accumulate in
the sediment and affect the organisms that live there,
and can build up in fish that feed on them, and so be
passed up the food chain, causing problems along the
food web. Also, some of the particulate matter may be
coated with grease, which is lighter than water, and
float to the top, creating an aesthetic nuisance.
Conclusion
The pollution of water resources can have serious and
wide-ranging effects on the environment and human
health. The immediate effects of water pollution can
be seen in water bodies and the animal and plant life
that inhabits them. Pollution poisons and deforms
fish and other animals, unbalances ecosystems, and
causes a reduction in biodiversity. Ultimately, these
effects take their toll on human life. Drinking-water
sources become contaminated, causing sickness and
disease. Pollutants accumulate in food, making it dan-
gerous or inedible. The presence of these toxic sub-
stances in food and water can also lead to reproduc-
tive problems and neurological disorders. The effects
of water pollution are varied. They include poison-
ous drinking water, poisonous food animals (due to
these organisms having accumulated toxins from the
environment over their life spans), unbalanced river
and lake ecosystems that can no longer support full
 Population 817

biological diversity, deforestation from acid rain, and

many other effects. These effects are, of course, spe-
cific to the various contaminants.

SEE ALSO: Industrialization; Pollution, Air; Pollution,

Land.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Scott Brennan and J.H. Withgott, Environ-

ment: The Science Behind the Stories (Pearson Education,
Inc., 2004); Bill Freedman, The Ecological Effects of Pol-
lution, Disturbance, and Other Stresses (Academic Press
Limited, 1995); Kiely Gerard, ed., Environmental Engineer-
ing (McGraw-Hill International (UK) Ltd., 1997); R.M.
Harrison, Pollution: Causes, Effects and Control (Royal
Society of Chemistry, 1994); Miroslav Radojevic and V.N.
Baskin, Practical Environmental Analysis (Royal Society of
Chemistry, 1999).

Nsikak Benson
Covenant University

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