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Effects of mental fatigue on passing decision- making performance in

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DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2019.1656781

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 European Journal of Sport Science

ISSN: 1746-1391 (Print) 1536-7290 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tejs20

Effects of mental fatigue on passing decision-

making performance in professional soccer
athletes

Petrus Gantois, Maria Elisa Caputo Ferreira, Dalton de Lima-Junior, Fábio

Y. Nakamura, Gilmário Ricarte Batista, Fabiano S. Fonseca & Leonardo de
Sousa Fortes

To cite this article: Petrus Gantois, Maria Elisa Caputo Ferreira, Dalton de Lima-Junior, Fábio
Y. Nakamura, Gilmário Ricarte Batista, Fabiano S. Fonseca & Leonardo de Sousa Fortes (2019):
Effects of mental fatigue on passing decision-making performance in professional soccer athletes,
European Journal of Sport Science, DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2019.1656781

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 1

Publisher: Taylor & Francis & European College of Sport Science

Journal: European Journal of Sport Science

DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2019.1656781

Effects of mental fatigue on passing decision-making performance in professional soccer

athletes

Running Head: Mental fatigue in soccer athletes

Abstract
The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of mental fatigue on passing decision-making
in professional soccer athletes. A controlled and counterbalanced cross-over design was
adopted consisting of three visits with a 1-week interval between sessions. Twenty (20)
professional soccer male athletes participated in three randomized conditions divided into three
visits: control, 15-min Stroop task, and 30-min Stroop task. Inhibitory control was accessed by
the Stroop task (accuracy and response time) before and after induced mental fatigue protocol.
The athletes played a training match (90-min) following the experimental conditions. The
Game Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI) was used for the passing decision-making
analysis. The GPAI analysis showed impaired passing decision-making performance following
the 30-min Stroop task compared with the 15-min and control condition (F(2,17) = 6.99, p = .01).
Moreover, an increase in response time during the Stroop task was found following 30-min
Stroop task condition (F(2,17) = 6.57, p = .03) compared to 15-min of Stroop task and control
conditions. Prolonged cognitive tasks may be considered a mediating factor in passing
decision-making performance in male professional soccer athletes throughout a full-length
training match. Thus, athletes should avoid highly demanding-cognitive tasks before a soccer
match. Future studies are required to explore more ecological cognitive tasks to induce mental
fatigue (i.e. smartphones and video-games) and their effects on other performance indicators
(e.g., physical, technical, tactical) in a full-length training match setting.
Keywords: Sports psychology; soccer; fatigue; athletes.
Introduction

Soccer is a team sport with intermittent characteristics which requires a prolonged low-

intensity activity interspersed with several high-intensity actions (Nédélec et al., 2012).

Moreover, soccer is an open skill sport characterized by a dynamic and unpredictable

environment (Wang et al., 2013). During a soccer match, an athlete must be able to quickly

anticipate and react to the fast-changing situations (i.e. positioning of teammates and

opponents) to make the best decision. Thus, soccer athletes experience a significant cognitive

demand as they are required to maintain concentration over prolonged periods and perform fast
 2

and accurate decision-making in an unpredictable environment (Huijgen et al., 2015;

Memmert, 2010; Romeas, Guldner, & Faubert, 2016; Smith et al., 2016).

Decision-making refers to the human brain’s ability to perceive relevant information

from the environment, correctly interpret this information, and then select the appropriate

motor response (Baker, Coté, & Abernethy, 2003), which is considered essential in team sports

(Gonzaga, Albuquerque, Malloy-Diniz, Greco, & Teoldo Da Costa, 2014). Passing decision-

making performance in soccer becomes important because a good pass may reach a teammate

who is directly or indirectly unmarked and therefore create a chance to score a goal; it may also

reach a teammate who is in the most advantageous position (Romeas et al., 2016). Considering

the cognitive process related to decision-making (visual perception, attention, anticipation, and

memory) (Afonso, Garganta & Mesquita, 2012) and the amounts of information given to the

athletes every moment, it is likely that soccer athletes may not make the best decisions if one

of his decision-making components is compromised (i.e. the athlete is mentally fatigued).

Mental fatigue is a psychobiological state induced by sustained periods of demanding

cognitive activity and characterized by feelings of tiredness and lack of energy (Marcora,

Staiano, & Manning, 2009). It was previously reported that mental fatigue compromises

executive function and the ability to maintain attention on what is important during a task,

compromising focus, performance adjustment, rapid and accurate reaction, and interpretation

of meaningful cues in the visual field (Boksem, Meijman, & Lorist, 2005; Lorist, Boksem, &

Ridderinkhof, 2005). Therefore, mental fatigue might be detrimental for soccer athletes’

performance since decision-making and technical skills rely on those cognitive components

(Huijgen et al., 2015; Romeas et al., 2016).

Previous studies found that mental fatigue impaired soccer-specific physical, technical,

and perceptual-cognitive performance (Badin, Smith, Conte, & Coutts, 2016; Coutinho et al.,

2018; Smith et al., 2016b). Badin et al. (2016) showed impaired technical performance in
 3

mentally fatigued athletes, but no difference was observed in physical performance during a

small-sided game. Regarding tactical behavior, mental fatigue reduced the synchronized

movement between teammates (Coutinho et al., 2018). In these studies, it was suggested that a

decrease in technical and tactical performance may be related to impaired attention on

irrelevant stimuli, anticipation, and the ability to perceive the appropriate environmental

information (Boksem & Tops, 2008; Lorist et al., 2005). It is consequently likely that athletes

may also not make the best decisions during a soccer match since mental fatigue compromises

high-order cognitive functions.

To the best of the authors’ knowledge, Smith et al. (2016b) have been the only group

to investigate the effects of mental fatigue on soccer players. Smith et al. (2016b) found that

mental fatigue impairs the accuracy and speed of decision-making in soccer athletes using a

film-based analysis (i.e. declarative knowledge). However, a film-based assessment has limited

ecological validity, which could compromise the generalization of their findings, especially for

professional soccer athletes. Previous studies suggest that professional athletes may be more

resilient to mental fatigue (Martin et al., 2016; Smith et al., 2018) since they make faster and

more accurate decisions and have higher executive functions than their less experienced peers

(Vestberg, Gustafson, Maurex, Ingvar, & Petrovic, 2012; Vaughan, Laborde, & McConville,

2018). Thus, it is likely that professional soccer athletes may experience lower levels of mental

effort to perform perceptual-cognitive demands (Smith et al., 2018; Huijgen et al., 2015).

However, to date no studies on soccer athletes have been performed with professional athletes

throughout a full-length soccer training match (90 min).

Additionally, litle information about the time spent on the cognitive task to induce

mental fatigue is available. Previous studies have induced mental fatigue adopting 90-min

(Marcora et al., 2009; Brownsberger et al., 2013), 60-min (Staiano et al., 2018), 40-min

(Duncan et al., 2014) or 30-min (Badin et al., 2016; Smith et al., 2016) in cognitive tasks.
 4

However, the effect of shorter cognitive task duration (i.e. 15-min) on mental fatigue is

unknown. This data may add practical information to the current body of knowledge.

Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze the effect of mental fatigue (i.e. shorter

or prolonged cognitive task) on passing decision-making performance in professional soccer

athletes. It was hypothesized that mental fatigue would impair passing decision-making.

Methods

Participants

The sample size was estimated using a priori power analysis in the G∗Power software

version 3.0.10 (Heinrich-Heine-Universitat Dusseldorf, Germany). Repeated measures

ANOVA with an α = .05, 1 − β = .80, and effect size (ES = .37) for decision-making based on

declarative knowledge from a previous study (Smith et al., 2016b) gave a statistical power of

83.8% and an estimated sample size of 18 subjects. Thus, we selected 20 soccer athletes (mean

± SD: age 22.6 ± 3.3 years; height 1.7 ± .09 m; body mass 78.2 ± 5.4 kg; body fat 13.7 ± 4.4%)

non-probabilistically in the present study. The participants belonged to one professional team

linked to the Brazilian Soccer Confederation. All positions except the goalkeepers were part of

the investigation.

Athletes were habitually involved in one training session per day (~150 minutes per

session), 5 days per week; in addition, one official match was played during the week. Training

sessions usually consisted of technical drills, tactics, sprints, intermittent running exercises,

and specific conditioning work, as well as resistance training and plyometrics. To be included

in the study, athletes should: a) have been a professional soccer athlete for at least three years;

b) systematically perform soccer training for at least 10 hours per week; c) be enrolled in the

State Soccer League Championship.

Experimental design
 5

This study constituted a controlled and counterbalanced, randomized, experimental

within-subjects investigation consisting of three visits with a 1-week interval between visits.

Professional male soccer athletes participated in three randomized conditions divided into three

evaluations: control (CON), 15-min Stroop task (15ST) and 30-min Stroop task (30ST). The

allocation was counterbalanced according to playing position by a blinded researcher and the

order of experimental conditions (CON, 15ST, and 30ST) was randomized on a website

(www.randomizer.org).

Three Stroop task trials were also performed at pre- and post-experimental conditions,

and post-training match as intervention check. The average performance was used for the

analyses. Thereafter, the athletes performed a full-length training match (two halves of 45 min,

15 min recovery in-between), adopting official soccer rules. Importantly, both teams were in

the same experimental condition in each training match and athletes played on the same team.

All training matches were filmed and the Game Performance of Assessment Instrument (GPAI)

was adopted (Memmert & Harvey, 2008) for further analysis of passing decision-making

performance. Decision-making performance analysis was done during the entire match and at

four moments (first-half = 0-15 and 15-45 and second-half = 45-60 and 60-90 minutes) to

assess the time course of mental fatigue effects.

A standardized 5 min warm-up using the ball preceded the training match. Urine

osmolarity, heart rate variability (HRV), perception of recovery, and inhibitory control

performance were measured before the experimental conditions. Moreover, Stroop task was

performed after the experimental conditions and the training matches. Participants were

familiarized with the Stroop task. The session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) was obtained

30 min after the end of the matches. All experimental procedures are illustrated in Figure 1.

Pretest instructions were provided to reduce possible external biases. Participants were

specifically requested to maintain their same sleep pattern behavior and avoid alcohol
 6

consumption, vigorous exercise, and prolonged stressful cognitive tasks before each of the

following evaluations. In addition, it was requested that the athletes avoid caffeine

consumption 3 h prior to the experimental condition and consume a light meal 2 h before the

experiment. These data were self-reported before each experimental condition.

The study was approved by the local Ethics and Research Committee following the

ethical principles contained in the Declaration of Helsinki (2008). Written informed consent

was obtained from each participant before participation.

Interventions

The computerized version of the Stroop task (Graf, Uttl, & Tuokko, 1995) consisting

of 15- (15ST) and 30- min (30ST) was performed to induce mental fatigue. It was previously

shown that the Stroop task is able to induce mental fatigue (Badin et al., 2016; Smith et al.,

2016a; Pageaux et al., 2014). Since a decrement in the accuracy and response time to Stroop

task is indicative of mental fatigue (Van Cutsem et al., 2017), the participants performed three

Strop task trials, as intervention check, in the pre- and post-experimental conditions as well as

after matches. The mean values of accuracy and response time were recorded for analysis. The

tests were carried out on a full-HD screen (1800 x 1260 pixels) laptop (MacBook Pro, A1502

model, USA).

First, stimuli on the Stroop task vary between congruent (word and color have the same

meaning), incongruent (word and color have a different meaning) and control (a rectangle with

one of the test colors: red, green, blue, and black). Participants answered the word color

according to its name since the color of the words might be different from what is typed (i.e.

the word “blue” might show up in “red” color, the word “green” in “blue”, and so on). The

keys D (red), F (green), J (blue), and K (black) were used for answering the questions. Stimuli

of 50 words with 200 ms interval were provided between a response and a new stimulus for

each trial. The same stimulus (50 words) were randomly shown every time which were repeated
 7

during 15ST and 30ST to avoid learning effect. Moreover, the stimulus did not fade from the

screen until a response was given. When the answer was correct, the stimulus disappeared and

a new one was set. In the case of incorrect answers, an X showed up on the screen and a new

stimulus subsequently appeared. The accuracy of the correct answers and mean response time

were collected at the end of the test. The evaluator was blind for all the other assessments and

had previous training to administer the test.

The CON condition watched 30 min of advertising videos. Participants believed that

the study was about the effects of three different cognitive activities on the physiological

responses during a training soccer match. It was recommended that the athletes ingested fluid

ad libidum up to 2 h before each experimental session.

Variable measurements

Primary outcome

Passing decision-making index (PDM). Decision-making was evaluated in a training full-

length soccer match. The participants played two halves of 45 min (official soccer rules). The

entire game was recorded by a CANON® camera (SX60 model, Yokohama, Japan). The

analysis and categorization of actions were based on the GPAI (Memmert & Harvey, 2008).

The soccer decision-making components proposed by Romeas et al. (2016) were adopted.

Thus, appropriate decision-making was considered as when the pass went to one of the

members of his team who was unmarked and: a) directly or indirectly created a goal chance or;

b) it was for a member of his team that was in a better position than the opponent. To avoid

external bias, the coach was not allowed to instruct the athletes during the game.

The passing decision-making index (PDM) was calculated according to the formula

below (Equation 1), considering the modifications suggested by Memmert & Harvey (2008).

Each action was analyzed by two experts and classified as appropriate or inappropriate. The

investigators who reviewed the video footage and categorized the decision-making actions
 8

were blinded to the experimental treatments [30ST vs. 15ST vs. CON] to minimize this source

of bias. Acceptable coefficient of agreement (kappa = .92, p = .01) was identified for the

classifications of the two specialists (James, Taylor, & Stanley, 2007).

𝐴𝑎
PDM = 𝑥 100 (𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1)
𝐴𝑎 + 𝐼𝑎

Aa = appropriate actions

Ia = inappropriate actions

Secondary outcomes

Heart Rate Variability (HRV). The R-R intervals were obtained using a portable heart rate

monitor (Polar® RS800cx, Kempele, Finland) with sampling at 1,000 Hz, uninterruptedly for

5 min seated in a quiet room (24 ºC). Data were analyzed in the final 2 min period. The R-R

values were downloaded into Polar Software (Polar® ProTrainer, Kempele, Finland) and

exported to time-domain analyses using Kubios v2 Software (Polar® Kubios v2, Kuopio,

Finland). Ectopic beats were automatically removed and replaced by interpolation of the

adjacent R-R intervals using low filter.

Time-domain indices included the root mean square of successive normal-to-normal

interval differences (RMSSD), the standard deviation of all NN intervals (SDNN), and the

successive percentage of R-R interval differences greater than 50 ms (pNN50). HRV was

evaluated after the experimental condition since a decline in vagal activity might impair

cognitive performance (Thayer et al., 2009).

Hydration state. The athletes provided urine samples immediately before each condition in

transparent containers to determine the urinary color index that was determined by Armstrong’s

scale (2007). This scale adopts eight different urine colors, ranging from light yellow (color 1)

to brownish green (color 8). The hydration state was evaluated before every experimental

condition since hypohydration might impair decision-making performance in soccer athletes

(Fortes, Nascimento-Júnior, Mortatti, Lima-Júnior, & Ferreira, 2018).

 9

Total Quality Recovery (TQR). The Total Quality Recovery (TQR) scale proposed by

Laurent et al. (2011) was used before each experimental condition to assess the level of

perceived recovery. TQR is a scale that ranges from zero (very poorly recovered/extremely

tired) to 10 (very well recovered/highly energetic). Higher values mean increased recovery

perception.

Analysis of internal load during the match. The athletes internal load was quantified by the

sRPE (Foster et al., 2001). The athlete was asked to demonstrate their intensity perception of

the session from the 10-point Borg scale (0 = rest to 10 = maximum effort) according to the

method developed by Foster et al. (2001). The product of the values demonstrated by the RPE

scale and the total time in minutes of the session was calculated and displayed in arbitrary units

(a.u.). Athletes were familiarized with the sRPE method for a period of 30 days before

beginning the investigation.

Weather condition. Data on the weather conditions were obtained by a heat stress monitor

(Instrutemp®, São Paulo, Brazil). Data were recorded at the beginning and end of each training

match to obtain the ambient temperature and the relative air humidity.

Statistical analysis

Data are presented as mean and standard deviation. The Shapiro Wilk normality test

confirmed the parametric distribution of data. The Levene’s test was used for homoscedasticity.

Two-way ANOVA verified the interaction effect (condition x time) for inhibitory control

performance and time course of passing decision-making skill. Data sphericity was verified by

the Mauchly’s test, and the Greenhouse-Geisser correction was adopted when this assumption

was violated. One-way ANOVA for repeated measures was performed to verify the simple

main condition effect for passing decision-making, number of passes, weather conditions,

internal game load during a training match, and HRV. Bonferroni post-hoc test was used to

identify possible statistical differences. Partial eta-squared was adopted as the effect size. In
 10

addition, Cohen’s d was used to reveal differences in passing decision-making from a practical

point of view. The analysis was performed in the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

(SPSS) 20.0 version (Chicago, USA) with a significant level of 5%.

Results

Repeated measures one-way ANOVA did not reveal significant differences for number

of passes (F(2,17) = 1.23, p = .56,  p2 = .05), perceived recovery level (F(2.,) = .42, p = .66,  p2

= .02), hydration state (F(2,17) = 1.73, p = .19,  p2 = .08), internal load during the match (F(2,17)

= 2.41, p = .13,  p2 = .16), temperature (F(2,17) = 1.09, p = .45,  p2 = .07), relative humidity in

the air (F(2,17) = 1.28, p = .42,  p2 = .08), or HRV indicators (RMSSD, SDNN, and pNN50) (p

> .05) between the CON, 15ST, and 30ST conditions (Table 1).

Inhibitory control performance

Inhibitory control performance, accuracy, and response time are shown in Figure 2. No

statistical difference was observed for accuracy (%) on the Stroop task (p > .05). On the other

hand, an interaction effect (condition vs. time) was found for response time (F(2,17) = 6.57, p =

.03,  p2 = .62). Specifically, post-Stroop task in the 30ST condition were significantly higher

than 15ST and control conditions in comparison to baseline values. In addition, response time

after training matches was greater in all experimental conditions in comparison to baseline

values (F(2,17) = 9.97, p < .01,  p2 = .53).

Passing decision-making performance

Figure 3 presents the results of the passing decision-making performance according to

the experimental condition. A simple condition effect was observed (F(2,17) = 6.99, p = .01;  p2

= .21), with decreased performance following 30ST condition compared with 15ST (F(2,17) =

6.99, p = .02; ES = .31) and control condition (F(2,17) = 6.99, p = .05; ES = .30). No difference

was verified between 15ST and control condition (F(2,17) = 6.99, p > .05). The individual
 11

response showed that 16 and 12 of all participants presented a decrease in passing decision-

making performance in the 30ST condition compared with the 15ST and control conditions,

respectively.

In addition, a time course analysis of passing-decision making performance across

soccer training match moments (First-half = 0-15 and 15-45; and Second-half = 45-60 and 60-

90 minutes) is displayed in Figure 4. A simple condition effect was found (F(2,57) = 5.33; p =

.009;  p2 = .22), in which athletes showed lower decision-making skill after 30ST conditon.

No time or interaction effects were found across moments during the soccer training match (p

> .05).

Discussion

The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of mental fatigue on inhibitory control

and passing decision-making in professional soccer athletes. In agreement with our primary

hypothesis, mental fatigue impaired both passing decision-making performance and the

response time on the Stroop task. Previous research has shown that mental fatigue negatively

affects soccer-specific decision-making using film-based simulations of an offensive soccer

match (Smith et al., 2016b). In the present study, we extend those findings to a more ecological

setting using 90-min of training full-length soccer match and including a shorter cognitive task

(i.e. 15 minutes) in professional soccer athletes.

The results presented a similar number of passes, perception of recovery, hydration

state, internal load during the match, weather conditions, and HRV parameters across the

experimental conditions. In doing so, the athletes perform all the training matches under similar

physiological and environmental conditions. This is important because these factors have been

previously related with soccer-specific decision-making, level of effort, cognitive performance,

and mental fatigue (Nielsen & Nybo, 2003; Thayer et al., 2009; Badin et al., 2016; Fortes et

al., 2018).
 12

Previous research showed an increase in subjective ratings of mental fatigue following

prolonged cognitive task compared with the control condition (i.e. watching TV or reading

magazines) (Marcora et al., 2009; Badin et al., 2016; Smith et al., 2016a). In the present study,

we considered a decline in cognitive task performance as an objective manifestation of mental

fatigue (Van Cutsem et al., 2017). Corroborating with previous studies (Boksem et al., 2005;

Lorist et al., 2005; Marcora et al., 2009), we found a decline in cognitive performance by means

of an increased response time during the Stroop task following the 30ST condition (Δ% =

13.07). This data suggests that 30 minutes of Stroop task was effective to induce mental fatigue.

Indeed, a prolonged mental effort involving response inhibition (i.e. Stroop task)

increases the sensation of tiredness, which is often related to difficulties in concentration and

focus on the main task (Boksem et al., 2005; Brownsberger, Edwards, Crowther, & Cottrell,

2013). Moreover, it is well established that cognitive tasks which require executive functions

might overload cerebral areas responsible for higher-order cognitive functions (Brownsberger

et al., 2013; Lorist et al., 2005; Pires et al., 2018). These high-order cognitive functions play

an important role in soccer games since athletes must be able to constantly assess the situation,

compare it to past experiences, create new possibilities, and make quick decisions to act, but

also quickly inhibit planned decisions (Vestberg et al., 2012).

Regarding passing decision-making, mentally fatigued athletes presented a skill

reduction. Specifically, 16 and 12 of all participants had lower performance following the 30-

min Stroop task compared with 15-min and control condition. Moreover, at the beginning of

training match (0-15 minutes) athletes already displayed lower skill than 15ST and control

condition. However, similar performance was found between 15ST and control, demonstrating

that shorter cognitive task is insufficient to affect cognitive performance in professional soccer

athletes. Decision-making relies on several cognitive components (anticipation, attention,

working memory, and perception) (Fortes et al., 2018), which have previously been shown to
 13

be affected by mental fatigue (Boksem et al., 2005; Boksem & Tops, 2008; Lorist et al., 2005).

Accordingly, Smith et al. (2016b) using film-based simulations of offensive soccer match

found that amateur soccer athletes in a mentally fatigued state presented lower accuracy and

speed of soccer-specific decision-making when compared with a control condition.

Despite the relevant contribution of Smith et al. (2016b) about the impact of mental

fatigue on decision-making, general differences exist between “knowing what to do” and

actually using the information in the best decision-making during a match (“how to do”)

(Bruce, Farrow, Raynor, & Mann, 2012; Huijgen et al., 2015). Moreover, the number of

irrelevant stimuli is greater in ecological settings than in controlled ones (Smith et al., 2016b).

Thus, depending on the moment, some options may be available (i.e. teammates free to receive

the ball) and not available in the very next moment (i.e. defender action) (Johnson, 2006).

One potential explanation for the mental fatigue impairment in passing decision-making

is related to the increased attention on irrelevant stimuli, reduced anticipation, and the inability

to perceive the appropriate environmental information (Boksem et al., 2005; Lorist et al.,

2005). As a consequence of these reduced higher-order cognitive functions when mentally

fatigued, athletes may not make the best passing decisions in a dynamic environment, even if

they are still technically skillful (Fortes et al., 2018).

It has been proposed that professional soccer players may be more resilient to negative

effects of mental fatigue since they display higher cognitive/executive function than their less

experienced peers (Smith et al., 2018; Vestberg, Gustafson, Maurex, Ingvar, & Petrovic, 2012).

However, our data reveal that 30 min of Stroop task induced-mental fatigue and impaired

decision-making skill in professional soccer athletes. A previous study showed that

professional cyclists displayed superior inhibitory control and were more resilient to the

negative effects of mental fatigue than recreational counterparts (Martin et al., 2016). These

different results may be explained by the open (i.e. team sports) vs. closed skill (i.e. cycling)
 14

nature of the task. For instance, a soccer match may be more cognitively-demanding because

of the greater number of irrelevant stimuli and the dynamic/unpredictable environment (Smith

et al., 2016b; Thompson et al., 2018) than a stable/predictable environment in cycling (Wang

et al., 2013). However, this comparison is currently lacking and needs to be addressed in the

future.

While our investigation clearly reveals the negative effect of mental fatigue on passing

decision-making, some limitations should be acknowledged: (I) lack of subjective and

physiological markers of mental fatigue should be considered a limitation of our study.

Although the reduction in response inhibition performance is indicative of mental fatigue (Van

Cutsem et al., 2017), it is suggested that cognitive performance does not have necessarily

reduce when athletes are mentally fatigued since compensatory effects may occur (i.e. an

increase in brain activity and/or motivational component) (Van Cutsem et al., 2017); thus,

cognitive performance along with subjective scale would provide us with a greater

understanding of cognitive task induced-mental fatigue; (II) since we specifically evaluated

passing decision-making, we cannot generalize to other technical movements; (III) despite a

training soccer match being included in our study, a more practical approach is needed to assess

mentally fatigue athletes considering a common pre-match activity; (IV) finally, when

implementing a full-length training match there are several factors which, despite the best

efforts to standardize them, cannot be closely controlled.

Conclusions

It is possible to conclude that mental fatigue impairs passing decision-making of

professional soccer athletes during a 90-min full-length training match. From a practical point

of view, soccer athletes should avoid pre-match mentally fatiguing tasks to maintain a higher

performance on passing decision-making. Future studies should investigate more ecological

approaches to induce mental fatigue (e.g., smartphone and video-game), and practical strategies
 15

to reduce the negative effects of mental fatigue (e.g., caffeine) and increase readiness before a

soccer match.

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Figure 1 Experimental design

Note. ST = Stroop task; HRV = heart rate variability; IC = inhibitory control performance; CON = control; TQR = Total

Quality Recovery; PDM = passing decision-making performance.

100
15ST 30ST C o n tro l

95
A c c u ra c y (% )

90

85

80

75

0
900

*
R e s p o n s e T im e ( m s )

800
* † *
700

600

500

400

300

0
e

e
p

p
p

p
o

o
o

o
m

m
o

o
o

o
a

a
tr

tr

tr
tr

tr

tr
G

G
S

S
-S

-S

-S
t-

t-

t-
t-

t-

t-
s

s
re

re

re
s

s
o

o
o

o
P

P
P

P
P

P
 19

Figure 2 Inhibitory control performance pre and post-experiment and simulated soccer game according to

experimental condition.

Note: 15ST = 15 minutes of Stroop task; 30ST = 30 minutes of Stroop task; * = different from pre- and post-Stroop (p < .05);

† = different from 15ST and control conditions.

P a s s in g D e c is io n - M a k in g ( % )

1 5 S T v e rs u s C o n tro l

P a s s in g D e c is io n - M a k in g ( % )
100
20
90 *
80 10

70
0
60

50 -1 0

40
-2 0
30

0 -3 0

15ST 30ST C o n tr o l S u b j e c ts

3 0 S T v e rs u s C o n tro l 3 0 S T v e rs u s 1 5 S T
P a s s in g D e c is io n - M a k in g ( % )

P a s s in g D e c is io n - M a k in g ( % )

20 10

10

0
0

-1 0
-1 0

-2 0

-3 0 -2 0

Figure 3 Passing decision-making index (%) performance and individual response according to experimental

condition

Note. 15ST = 15 minutes of Stroop task; 30ST = 30 minutes of Stroop task; * = different from 15ST and control condition.
 20

90

P a s s in g D e c is io n - M a k in g ( % )
80

15ST
70 30ST
C o n tr o l

60

*
50
0
0 -1 5 3 0 -4 5 4 5 -6 0 7 5 -9 0

M in u t e s

Figure 4 Time-course analysis of passing decision-making performance across soccer training match

moments.

Note. 15ST = 15 minutes of Stroop task; 30ST = 30 minutes of Stroop task; * = different from 15ST and control condition.
 21

Table 1. Values of the number of passes, perceived recovery level, hydration state, and weather conditions

according to experimental conditions.

Mean ± SD

CON 15ST 30ST p

Number of passes 40.1 ± 8.7 35.0 ± 9.2 39.6 ± 9.9 .56

Perceived Recovery Level 6.85 ± 0.87 7.0 ± 1.21 6.85 ± 0.87 .66

Hydration State (osmolarity) 1.75 ± 0.72 2.0 ± 0.72 1.75 ± 0.72 .19

Internal Load (a.u.) 733.5 ± 93.6 720 ± 120.4 760.50 ± 114.9 .13

Weather Conditions

Temperature (oC) 27.5 ± 1.9 26.7 ± 2.6 27.2. ± 1.8 .45

Relative humidity (%) 75.3 ± 3.1 72.1 ± 3.3 76.9 ± 2.7 .42

Heart Rate Variability

RMSSD 45.02 ± 8.81 45.67 ± 9.82 45.37 ± 9.01 .69

SDNN 62.15 ± 9.28 61.37 ± 10.99 62.15 ± 9.28 .69

pNN50 14.97 ± 3.41 14.89 ± 3.39 15.16 ± 3.46 .67

Note. Values are presented as mean ± standard deviation; SD = standard deviation; 15ST = 15 minutes of Stroop task; 30ST =

30 minutes of Stroop task; CON = control condition.

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