CHAPTER 2

WEEK 3: Understanding the development and process of making scientific theories

Scientific Method

A method of discovering knowledge about the natural world based on making

falsifiable predictions (hypotheses), testing them empirically, and developing

peer-reviewed theories that best explain the known data.

The scientific method was first outlined by Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) to

provide logical, rational problem solving across many scientific fields.

Social Science

Sciences concerned with the social behavior of individuals and groups (e.g.,

sociology, anthropology, or psychology) and that are often considered more

subjective due to the focus of study.

Natural Science

Sciences concerned with predicting and describing natural phenomena (e.g.,

biology, physics, or chemistry), using systematic data collection and performing

controlled experiments.

TWO KEY CONCEPTS IN SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1. THEORY- A theory is used to make predictions about future observations.

2. HYPOTHESIS- A hypothesis is a testable prediction that is arrived at logically

from a theory.
The Basic Principles of the Scientific Method

VERIFIABILITY

Verifiability means that an experiment must be replicable by another

researcher. To achieve verifiability, researchers must make sure to document

their methods and clearly explain how their experiment is structured and why it

produces certain results.

PREDICTABILITY

Predictability in a scientific theory implies that the theory should enable us to

make predictions about future events. The precision of these predictions is a

measure of the strength of the theory.

FALSIFIABILITY

Falsifiability refers to whether a hypothesis can be disproved. For a hypothesis to

be falsifiable, it must be logically possible to make an observation or do a

physical experiment that would show that there is no support for the hypothesis.

Even when a hypothesis cannot be shown to be false, that does not necessarily

mean it is not valid. Future testing may disprove the hypothesis. This does not

mean that a hypothesis has  to be shown to be false, just that it can be tested.

To determine whether a hypothesis is supported or not supported, psychological

researchers must conduct hypothesis testing using statistics. Hypothesis testing is

a type of statistics that determines the probability of a hypothesis being true or

false. If hypothesis testing reveals that results were “statistically significant,” this
means that there was support for the hypothesis and that the researchers can

be reasonably confident that their result was not due to random chance. If the

results are not statistically significant, this means that the researchers’ hypothesis

was not supported.

FAIRNESS

Fairness implies that all data must be considered when evaluating a hypothesis.

A researcher cannot pick and choose what data to keep and what to discard

or focus specifically on data that support or do not support a particular

hypothesis. All data must be accounted for, even if they invalidate the

hypothesis.

The Basic Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Observe a natural phenomenon and define a question about it

2. Make a hypothesis, or potential solution to the question

3. Test the hypothesis

4. If the hypothesis is true, find more evidence or find counter-evidence

5. If the hypothesis is false, create a new hypothesis or try again

6. Draw conclusions and repeat–the scientific method is never-ending, and

no result is ever considered perfect

Causes of Crime According to Early Theologians

St. Augustine
– He expressed the early church’s position on crime. The church thought of an

individual as a God. When one surrenders to evil, the result is often crime. Early

theologians located the cause of crime in the relationship between humankind

and evil. 

St. Thomas Aquinas

– He stated that people by nature tried to perform good acts. Sin or  crime took

place when their power to reason failed. 

Causes of Crime According to Early Philosophers 

Plato

-stated that certain social and political factors encouraged crime.

Aristotle

- stressed the ability of the law to improve social condition, the distribution of the

right and requirements for strict obedience to the state. 

Voltaire and Rousseau

- argued that all people have equal rights. Behavior (crime of  otherwise) was

to be based on one’s ability to reason. Philosopher at this period stated  that

an unjust legal system encourages crime. When the government begins to

take  away legal rights, it is committing a crime and revolution is justified.  

 Theories of Crime Causation 

1. Subjective Approach - Deals with the biological explanation of crimes,

focused on the  forms of abnormalities that exist in an individual before

and after the commission of  crime. 

2. Objective Approach – Deals with the study of groups, social processes

and institutions  as influenced to behavior. 

3. Contemporary Approach – It is the combination of different approaches

to explain the  reasons or causes for the commission of crimes which focuses

on the psychoanalytical,  psychiatric and sociological theories. 

Subjective Approaches 

1. Anthropological – deals with the study of physical characteristics of an

individual  offender with non – offenders in an attempt to discover

differences covering criminal  behavior. 

2. Medical Approach – Application of medical examination for the

explanation of mental  and physical condition of the individual prior and

after the commission of the crime. 3. Biological Approach – according to

Taft, heredity is one major factor why a person  commits crime 

4. Physiological Needs – Maslow explained that the deprivation of the

primary needs is a  strong factor in the commission of crime 

5. Psychological - Concerned in the deprivation of psychological

needs of man which  constitute the development of deviations of

normal behavior resulting to repulsive  sentiment and action 

6. Psychiatric – this approach explains that mental disease is the reason

why a person  violates norms and laws of the land 

 7. Psychoanalytical – According to Freud, the imbalance condition of Id,

Ego and Superego  causes deviation of the individual to the norms of

society 

Objective Approaches 

1. Geographical Approach

– Considers topography, natural resources, Geographical  location,

and climate lead an individual to commit crime. Founder Quetelet,

“Thermic Law of Delinquency”, crimes against person prevail in the

South Pole and during warm  season while crimes against property

predominate in the north pole and cold countries.

2. Ecological Approach

– according to Park, this is concerned with the biotic grouping of  men

resulting to migration, competition, social discrimination, division of

labor and social  conflict as factors to crime. 

3. Economic Approach

– Merton believed that poverty or economic difficulty pushes a 

person to commit crime in order to support his needs. 

4. Socio-Cultural

– Cohen affirms that institutions, education, politics and religion are

major  factors in the commission of crimes.  

5. Biological Factors
 -Men as living organism have been the object of several studies which

has the purpose of determining the causes of crimes

● Physiognomy

-this is the study of the relationship between the facial features and

human conduct of a person in relation to his crime.

● Phrenology or Craniology

-This is the study of external formation of the skull that indicates the

conformation of the brain and the development of its various parts in

relation to the behavior of the criminal advocated by Franz Joseph

Gall & Spurzheim.

6. Heredity Factors

-The common household expressions like “it is in the blood” and “like father

like son” are usually heard and said whenever there are several members of

the family who are criminals. The old biblical injunction that “the sins of the

fathers shall be visited on the sons”.

 Kallikak Family Tree 

Martin Kallikak was a soldier of the American revolutionary war and while

stationed in a  small village he met and had illicit relations with a feeble –

minded girl. About  489descendants from this lineage where traced which

included 143 feeble-minded and  only 46 were normal. Thirty-six were

illegitimate, 3 were epileptic, 3 criminals, 8 kept  brothels and 82 died in

infancy.  

At the closed of the war, Martin Kallikak, Sr. returned to his home and

married a quaker  of good family. Out of this marriage, 4, 967 of the

 descendants has been traced and all but I was convicted of religious

offense, 15 died in infancy and no one become criminal or  epileptic. 

• Juke Family Tree 

The Juke family consisted of 6 girls some of whom were illegitimate. One

of the six  sisters, Ada Juke was known as “Margaret”, the mother of

criminals. Dugdale traced the 1, 200 descendants for 75 years from its origin

and found 280 as paupers, 140-criminals, 60  habitual thieves, 300 infants

prematurely born, 7 murders, 50 prostitutes, 440  contaminated with sexual

diseases, and 30 were prosecuted for bastardly. Studied by Richard

Dugdale.

• Sir Jonathan Edwards Family Tree 

Sir Jonathan Edwards was a famous preacher during the colonial

period. When his  family tree was traced, none of the descendants was

found to be criminal. On the other  hand, many become presidents of

the United States, governor, members of Supreme  Court, famous writers,

preachers and teachers.  

7 Psychoanalytic & Psychiatric Factors

● Psychoanalytic- analysis of human behavior

● Psychiatric-study of human mind