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CHAPTER 1
WEEK 1-2: Historical Accounts and Evolution of Criminology

 
Criminology is the scientific study of criminals, criminal behavior, and its causes.
Criminologists attempt to build theories that explain why crimes occur and test those
theories by observing behavior. Criminological theories help shape society’s response
to crime both in terms of preventing criminal behavior and responding to it after it
occurs.
Criminology 
● study of crimes, criminals, and criminal behavior (Webster) 
● the body of knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon (Edwin H.
Sutherland)
● a scientific and humanistic study of the social process of identifying crimes,
criminals  , and the compatible solutions (Mannle and Herschel) 

Origin of the word “Criminology” 

● it originates from the Latin word “Crimen” meaning crime and Greek
word “Logos” which means study 
● In 1885, Rafael Garofalo, an Italian Law Professor coined the
term Criminology ¬ In 1889, Paul Topinard, French
Anthropology, used the term criminology in French  Criminologie
for the first time 

• Brief History of Criminology 

● Study of Criminology started in “Europe”. 
● 19th Century - Cesare Lombroso advocated the theory that crime can
be  attributed to heredity predisposition. According to Lombroso, a
criminal person by birth is a distinct type. It can be recognized through
his own personal stigmata or  anomalies 
● Latter part of 19th Century 
● Criminology was accepted as field of study by the department of
sociology in the U.S. 
● 1915 – environmental factors became popular as the causes of crime. 

The discipline of criminology has evolved in three phases, beginning in the 18th century.
Although crime and criminals have been around for as long as societies have existed,
the systematic study of these phenomena did not begin until the late 1700s. Prior to that
time, most explanations of crime equated it with sin — the violation of a sacred
obligation.
Theological Criminology

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The first phase involved when scholars first distinguished crime from sin, they made
possible explanations of criminal behavior that were not theological (religious). This,
Modern Criminology
The second phase, which began in the 19th century, is referred to as modern
criminology. During this era, criminology distinguished itself as a subspecialty within the
emerging disciplines of psychology, sociology, and economics. Scholars formed
criminological societies and founded criminology journals. Criminologist in turn, allowed
for the dispassionate, scientific study of why crime occurs. The development of this
study is now known as the era of classical criminology.
conducted empirical tests (observations or experiments) of their theories, rather than
relying solely on speculation, and consequently developed a wide range of theories.
Independent Criminology
The third phase, beginning in the second half of the 20th century, may best be called
independent criminology. During this period, criminology began to assert its
independence from the traditional disciplines that spawned it. In Western Europe, the
United States, and Canada, criminologists expanded their
professional associations and published an increasing number of journals. A number of
universities developed graduate programs in criminology: Criminological theories have
become more multidisciplinary (spanning various fields of study) because independent
criminologists seek to understand
crime itself rather than study crime as one aspect of an overall sociological or
psychological theory.

EVOLUTION OF CRIMINOLOGY
Note: In 1885, Italian law professor Rafaelle Garofalo coined the Italian term
criminologia. The French anthropologist Paul Topinard used it for the first time in French
“Criminologie” around the same time. The word “Criminology” was also first used by
Paul Topinard.
- the Italian law professor Raffaele Garofalo coined the term criminologia in 1885.
- the French anthropologist Paul Topinard used the term criminologie in 1887.
- The word “Criminology” was derived from the Latin word “Krimen” which can be
translated to offense, crime or accusation and “Logos” - which means “to study”.
WHAT IS CRIMINOLOGY?
▪ Criminology is the scientific study of criminals, criminal behavior and its causes.
▪ Criminology, is a body of knowledge regarding delinquency and crime as a social
phenomenon.

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▪ In its broadest sense, criminology is the entire body of knowledge regarding

crimes, criminal and the effort of society to prevent and repress them.
▪ In a narrower sense, criminology is the scientific study of crimes and criminals.

SOCIOLOGICAL DEFINITION OF CRIMINOLOGY: refers to the body of knowledge

regarding delinquency and crime as a social phenomenon.
SCOPE OF CRIMINOLOGY
1. The making of laws - This pertains to the examination of the nature and
structure of laws in the society which could be analyzed scientifically and
exhaustively to learn crime causation and eventually help fight them.
2. The breaking of laws - It is concentrated in the scientific analysis of the causes of
crimes.
3. The reaction towards the breaking of laws - This involves the study of the reaction
of people and government towards the breaking of laws.

• Nature of Criminology… Science or Art?? 

● Science – from the Latin word scientia meaning knowledge. It refers to
any systematic  knowledge or practice. 
● Art – refers to the use of skill and imagination in the creation of
aesthetic objects,  environment or experiences. 
• Edwin H. Sutherland 
¬ Hoped that it will become a science in the future since the causes of crimes
are  almost the same which may be biological, environmental or combination
of the  two. 

•Generally, it is not an absolute science because its principles have not yet
acquired  universal validity and acceptance. However, it is a science in itself
when under the  following nature: 

● Applied Science – The study of Criminology involves the use of

knowledge and  concept of other sciences and field of study which
makes the study of  criminology 
● Social Science – crime is the creation of men who are members of the
society ¬ Dynamic – the body of knowledge about crimes and criminals
changes as the  social condition change 
● Nationalistic – study of criminology must be in relation with the existing
penal law within a specific territory. 

IS CRIMINOLOGY A SCIENCE?

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▪ According to Edwin Sutherland and Donald Cressey (American Authors) claimed

that criminology at present is not a science, but it has hope of becoming a
science.
▪ George L. Wilker- argued that criminology cannot possibly become a science.
▪ Cirillo Tradio- criminology is a science
*Forensic Science, sometimes referred to Criminalistics, is therefore covered in the
broad field of criminology.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN CRIMINOLOGY AND A CRIMINALISTICS
CRIMINOLOGY IS:
▪ social science
▪ deals more on theories
▪ study of criminal people
CRIMINALISTICS IS:
▪ applied science
▪ use practical and technological theories
▪ study of criminal things

IMPORTANT AREAS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CRIMINOLOGY

▪ The development of criminal law and in defining crime;
▪ The cause of law violation; and
▪ Methods used in controlling criminal behavior.

Why do we study CRIMINOLOGY?

▪ In reality, there are many and varied purpose of studying criminology.
▪ However, all these purposes fall on either of the two (2) primary aims of studying
criminology.
▪ To understand crimes and criminals.
▪ To prevent the occurrence of crime.

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*BRANCHES OF CRIMINOLOGY
▪ A. CRIMINAL DEMOGRAPHY- study of the relationship between
criminality and population.
▪ B. CRIMINAL ECOLOGY- study of the relationship between environment
and criminality.
▪ C. CRIMINAL PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY- study of criminality in
relation to physical constitution of men.
▪ D. CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY- study of human behavior in relation to
criminality.
▪ E. CRIMINAL PSYCHIATRY- study of human mind in relation to
criminality.
▪ F. CRIMINAL VICTIMOLOGY - deals with the victimization of crime which
is considered by political society as any act or omission punishable by law.
(Victimless Crimes)
NATURE OR CHARACTERISTICS OF CRIMINOLOGY
Criminology is:
1. An Applied Science - It is useful. Sciences like anthropology, psychology,
sociology and other natural sciences may be applied in the study of the causes of
crime while chemistry, medicine, physics, mathematics, etc. may be utilized in
crime detection.
2. A Social science - In as much as crime is a societal creation and it exists in
society, its study must be considered as part of social science.
3. Dynamic - The progress of criminology is concordant with the advancement of
other sciences that have been applied to it. Criminology changes as social
condition changes.
4. Nationalistic - The study of crime must always be in relation with the existing
criminal law with in the territory. The study of crime and/or criminology must
always conform to the existing criminal law of the land.
PRINCIPAL COMPONENT OF CRIMINOLOGY
In studying Criminology, there are three important components namely:
1. Criminal Etiology
● the scientific analysis of the causation of crimes and the criminal  behavior 
● Criminal etiology involved the application of scientific analysis of the causes of
crime. An individual perpetrating a crime had no single reason; hence, there is no
single and only explanation of causes of crimes. A different theory has evolved in

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studying the causes of crime such as Biological, Psychological, and Sociological

Theories.
What is a crime?
-An act committed or omitted in violation of law, commanding or forbidding it.
-An act that is injurious, detrimental or harmful to the norms of the society
-It is generic term that refers to offense, felony and delinquency or misdemeanor
What is an offense?
-An act or omission that is punishable by special laws
What is a felony?
-An act or omission that is punishable by the Revised Penal Code
Delinquency/Misdemeanor
-Acts that are in violation of simple rules and regulations
Classes of Crime
Mala in Se (singular: malum in se)
-is a term that signifies crime that is considered wrong in and of itself.
-inherently evil
Mala Prohibita (singular: malum prohibita)
-wrong because they are prohibited
2. Sociology of Law
● refers to the investigation of the nature of criminal law and its 
administration 
● Sociology of law entails the importance of law or the criminal law as a process of
formal social control. Criminal law seeks to protect the public from harm by
inflicting punishment upon those who are tempted to do harm. Thus, criminal law
often strives to avoid harm by forbidding conduct that may lead to harmful
results.
3. Penology
●  the study of the control of crimes and the rehabilitation of offender
● Penology, the study of criminal punishment, is a sub-field of criminology.
Criminologists theorize about why people commit crimes and deviate from
society s norms of behavior. They also study how society punishes criminals

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because different methods of punishment may cause people to alter their

behavior in different ways. Thus, criminologists devise theories that not only
explain the causes of crime but also addresses its prevention, control and
treatment. Today, one more concern in Criminology is crime detection and
Investigation. Criminologists are also engaged in studying the criminal things.
▪ Penology is the study of punishment for crime or of criminal offenders. It
includes the study of control and prevention of crime through punishment of
criminal offenders. It is a term derived from the Latin word “poena” which means
pain or suffering.
▪ Also known as Penal Science
PUNISHMENT VS. PENALTY
▪ PUINISHMENT: It is the redress that the state takes against an offending
member of society that usually involves pain and suffering. It is also the penalty
imposed on an offender for a crime or wrongdoing.
▪ PENALTY: Is defined as the specific suffering inflicted by the state against an
offending member for the transgression of law with limitations provided for by
law.
Three Elements of Punishment
1. Swift/Celerity
2. Certain
3. Severe
The Criminal Formula

C=T+S
R

C- Crime/Criminal Behavior (Act)

T- Criminal Tendency(Desire/Intent)
S- Total Situation(Opportunity)
R-Resistance to Temptation(Control)
Anatomy of Crime
Motive-refers to the reason why a person will commit a crime
Instrumentality-the means or instrument used in the commission of the crime

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Opportunity- chance of a person to commit the crime

Elements of Crime
1. There must be an act or omission
2. The act must be in violation of the public law
3. The act is committed either by dolo or culpa
Dolo/Deceit
– When the act was with deliberate intent 

Fault /Culpa
– When the wrongful act results from imprudence, negligence, lack  of foresight or
lack of skill.  

CHAPTER 2

WEEK 3: Understanding the development and process of making scientific theories

Scientific Method
A method of discovering knowledge about the natural world based on making falsifiable
predictions (hypotheses), testing them empirically, and developing peer-reviewed theories that
best explain the known data.
The scientific method was first outlined by Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) to provide logical,
rational problem solving across many scientific fields.

Social Science
Sciences concerned with the social behavior of individuals and groups (e.g., sociology,
anthropology, or psychology) and that are often considered more subjective due to the focus of
study.

Natural Science
Sciences concerned with predicting and describing natural phenomena (e.g., biology, physics, or
chemistry), using systematic data collection and performing controlled experiments.

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TWO KEY CONCEPTS IN SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1. THEORY- A theory is used to make predictions about future observations.

2. HYPOTHESIS- A hypothesis is a testable prediction that is arrived at logically from a
theory.

The Basic Principles of the Scientific Method

VERIFIABILITY

Verifiability means that an experiment must be replicable by another researcher. To achieve

verifiability, researchers must make sure to document their methods and clearly explain how
their experiment is structured and why it produces certain results.

PREDICTABILITY

Predictability in a scientific theory implies that the theory should enable us to make predictions
about future events. The precision of these predictions is a measure of the strength of the theory.

FALSIFIABILITY

Falsifiability refers to whether a hypothesis can be disproved. For a hypothesis to be falsifiable,

it must be logically possible to make an observation or do a physical experiment that would show
that there is no support for the hypothesis. Even when a hypothesis cannot be shown to be false,
that does not necessarily mean it is not valid. Future testing may disprove the hypothesis. This
does not mean that a hypothesis has  to be shown to be false, just that it can be tested.

To determine whether a hypothesis is supported or not supported, psychological researchers must

conduct hypothesis testing using statistics. Hypothesis testing is a type of statistics that
determines the probability of a hypothesis being true or false. If hypothesis testing reveals that
results were “statistically significant,” this means that there was support for the hypothesis and
that the researchers can be reasonably confident that their result was not due to random chance.

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If the results are not statistically significant, this means that the researchers’ hypothesis was not
supported.

FAIRNESS

Fairness implies that all data must be considered when evaluating a hypothesis. A researcher
cannot pick and choose what data to keep and what to discard or focus specifically on data that
support or do not support a particular hypothesis. All data must be accounted for, even if they
invalidate the hypothesis.

The Basic Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Observe a natural phenomenon and define a question about it

2. Make a hypothesis, or potential solution to the question

3. Test the hypothesis

4. If the hypothesis is true, find more evidence or find counter-evidence

5. If the hypothesis is false, create a new hypothesis or try again

6. Draw conclusions and repeat–the scientific method is never-ending, and no result is ever
considered perfect

Causes of Crime According to Early Theologians

St. Augustine
– He expressed the early church’s position on crime. The church thought of an individual as a
God. When one surrenders to evil, the result is often crime. Early theologians located the cause
of crime in the relationship between humankind and evil. 

St. Thomas Aquinas

– He stated that people by nature tried to perform good acts. Sin or  crime took place when their
power to reason failed. 

Causes of Crime According to Early Philosophers 

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Plato
-stated that certain social and political factors encouraged crime.

Aristotle
- stressed the ability of the law to improve social condition, the distribution of the right and
requirements for strict obedience to the state. 

Voltaire and Rousseau

- argued that all people have equal rights. Behavior (crime of  otherwise) was to be based on
one’s ability to reason. Philosopher at this period stated  that an unjust legal system encourages
crime. When the government begins to take  away legal rights, it is committing a crime and
revolution is justified.  

Theories of Crime Causation 

1. Subjective Approach - Deals with the biological explanation of crimes, focused on the 
forms of abnormalities that exist in an individual before and after the commission of 
crime. 
2. Objective Approach – Deals with the study of groups, social processes and institutions 
as influenced to behavior. 
3. Contemporary Approach – It is the combination of different approaches to explain the 
reasons or causes for the commission of crimes which focuses on the psychoanalytical, 
psychiatric and sociological theories. 

Subjective Approaches 
1. Anthropological – deals with the study of physical characteristics of an individual 
offender with non – offenders in an attempt to discover differences covering criminal 
behavior. 
2. Medical Approach – Application of medical examination for the explanation of mental 
and physical condition of the individual prior and after the commission of the crime. 3.

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Biological Approach – according to Taft, heredity is one major factor why a person 
commits crime 
4. Physiological Needs – Maslow explained that the deprivation of the primary needs is a 
strong factor in the commission of crime 

5. Psychological - Concerned in the deprivation of psychological needs of man which 

constitute the development of deviations of normal behavior resulting to repulsive 
sentiment and action 

6. Psychiatric – this approach explains that mental disease is the reason why a person 
violates norms and laws of the land 
7. Psychoanalytical – According to Freud, the imbalance condition of Id, Ego and Superego 
causes deviation of the individual to the norms of society 

Objective Approaches 
1. Geographical Approach
– Considers topography, natural resources, Geographical  location, and climate lead
an individual to commit crime. Founder Quetelet, “Thermic Law of Delinquency”,
crimes against person prevail in the South Pole and during warm  season while
crimes against property predominate in the north pole and cold countries.

2. Ecological Approach
– according to Park, this is concerned with the biotic grouping of  men resulting to
migration, competition, social discrimination, division of labor and social  conflict as
factors to crime. 

3. Economic Approach
– Merton believed that poverty or economic difficulty pushes a  person to commit
crime in order to support his needs. 

4. Socio-Cultural

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– Cohen affirms that institutions, education, politics and religion are major  factors in
the commission of crimes.  
5. Biological Factors
-Men as living organism have been the object of several studies which has the
purpose of determining the causes of crimes
● Physiognomy
-this is the study of the relationship between the facial features and human conduct
of a person in relation to his crime.
● Phrenology or Craniology
-This is the study of external formation of the skull that indicates the conformation
of the brain and the development of its various parts in relation to the behavior of
the criminal advocated by Franz Joseph Gall & Spurzheim.
6. Heredity Factors
-The common household expressions like “it is in the blood” and “like father like son” are
usually heard and said whenever there are several members of the family who are criminals.
The old biblical injunction that “the sins of the fathers shall be visited on the sons”.
 Kallikak Family Tree 
Martin Kallikak was a soldier of the American revolutionary war and while stationed in
a  small village he met and had illicit relations with a feeble – minded girl. About 
489descendants from this lineage where traced which included 143 feeble-minded and 
only 46 were normal. Thirty-six were illegitimate, 3 were epileptic, 3 criminals, 8 kept 
brothels and 82 died in infancy.  

At the closed of the war, Martin Kallikak, Sr. returned to his home and married a quaker 
of good family. Out of this marriage, 4, 967 of the descendants has been traced and all but
I was convicted of religious offense, 15 died in infancy and no one become criminal or 
epileptic. 

• Juke Family Tree 

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The Juke family consisted of 6 girls some of whom were illegitimate. One of the six 
sisters, Ada Juke was known as “Margaret”, the mother of criminals. Dugdale traced the 1,
200 descendants for 75 years from its origin and found 280 as paupers, 140-criminals, 60 
habitual thieves, 300 infants prematurely born, 7 murders, 50 prostitutes, 440 
contaminated with sexual diseases, and 30 were prosecuted for bastardly. Studied by
Richard Dugdale.
• Sir Jonathan Edwards Family Tree 

Sir Jonathan Edwards was a famous preacher during the colonial period. When his
family tree was traced, none of the descendants was found to be criminal. On the other
hand, many become presidents of the United States, governor, members of Supreme
Court, famous writers, preachers and teachers.  

7 Psychoanalytic & Psychiatric Factors

● Psychoanalytic- analysis of human behavior

● Psychiatric-study of human mind

CHAPTER 3

The following are the basic theories in Criminology used in explaining the etiology
of crime, criminal behavior, deviant behavior, and human behavior.

● PRE-CLASSICAL THEORY:
▪ Demonological Theory — it maintains that criminal behavior was believed to
be the result of evil spirits and demons something of natural force and
controls behavior.
− During the medieval period, the most common explanations for the commission
of wrong act is said to be caused by the devil. From this account, method uses
in the determination of truth (trial) were arbitrary and unreasonable. Although
through the Middle Ages (1200-1600), superstition and fear of satanic
possession dominated the thinking. People who violated
social norms or religious practices were believed to be witches or possessed

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by demons. The prescribed method for dealing with the possessed was
burning at stake, a practiced that survived into the 17th Century.

th
Pre 20 Century (1738-1798) 
FOUNDATIONAL THEORIES IN CRIMINOLOGY:

• Classical Theory — it asserts that human beings are endowed with absolute
free will to choose right from wrong. Human beings are fundamentally
rational, and most human behavior is the result of free will coupled with
rational -choice.
• Pain and suffering are the two central determinants of human behavior
• - It was introduced by Cesare Beccaria (Essay on Crimes and Punishment)
and Jeremy Bentham (Utilitarian Hedonism)

Classical School of Thought 

• Advocates are Cesare Beccaria (Cesare Bonesara Marchese de Beccaria)

who is known as Founder of Classical School of Thought and Jeremy
Bentham.
• Beccaria in his book “An Essay of Crime and Punishment” presented key ideas
on the abolition of torture as legitimate means of extracting confession.
• Beccaria graduate of a law degree from the University of Pavia returned home
to Milan and joined a group of radial intellectuals, and organized themselves
into the ACADEMY OF FISTS. Their purpose was to investigate the type of
reforms that were needed to modernize Italian Society.

• Beccaria believed that: 

• People want to achieved pleasure and pain.

• Crime provides some pleasure to the criminal.
• To deter crime, he believed that one must administer pain in an appropriate
amount to counterbalance the pleasure obtain from crime.
• Famous in sayings “Let the punishment fit the crime”

Characteristics of Classical School 

• The basis of criminal liability is human free will and the purpose of
penalty is retribution

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• Man is essentially a moral creature with an absolute free will to choose

between right and wrong.
• That every man is therefore responsible for his act.
• The law, or the judge, should determine the punishment to be attached to
a criminal act and should provide a scale of punishment to all persons
committing the same crime, irrespective of age, sex, color, creed, or
circumstances.

PURPOSE OF PUNISHMENT (CLASSICAL)

PURPOSE OF PUNISHMENT (CLASSICAL)
Jeremy Bentham
• Proposed “Utilitarian Hedonism or Felicific Calculus or Penal Pharmacy” which
explains that person always acts in such a way to seek pleasure and avoid pain.
• ¬ Bentham devoted his life to developing scientific approach to the making
and breaking laws. He borrowed from Beccaria the notion that the laws should
provide “the greatest happiness shared by the greatest number”. His work has
governed by utilitarian principles.

Arguments against Classical School 

• It treats all person as if they were machines without considering their

individual differences and surrounding circumstances during the
• Commission of crime.
• The punishment imposed upon the first-time offender and recidivist is
equal.
• The nature and definition of penalty is not individualized.
• It does not consider the mental condition of the perpetrator rather it focused
on the injury caused.
• It became the Magna Carta or pattern of the criminal, since he knows what
will be the penalty in case he will be arrested, thus he can calculate the pleasure
and pain.

NEO- CLASSICAL SCHOOL

Neo-classical Theory
• This maintains that there are some situations or circumstances that made it
impossible to exercise freewill thus, humans are not always responsible for
their actions.

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• This school argued that situations or circumstances that make it impossible

to exercise freewill are reasons to exempt the offender from conviction.
• The Classicists believed in the absolute free will of men to choose
between pleasure and pain. The person is always totally responsible for the
• Consequences of his acts. On the other hand, the Neo-Classicists argued that
it is not always, since the free will of a person in not absolute.

REACTIONS TO CHOICE THEORIES

REACTIONS TO CHOICE THEORIES
Positivist Italian School or Positivist Theory

• This school of thought emphasizes scientific treatments of criminals, not on

the penalties to be imposed because it is believed that man is subdued
occasionally by a strange and morbid phenomenon which constrains him to do
wrong in spite of or contrary to his own volition.
• Maintains that crime as any act is a natural phenomenon and is comparable
to disaster or calamity. That crime is a social and moral phenomenon which
cannot be treated and checked by the imposition of punishment rather
rehabilitation or the enforcement of individual measures.

Positivist Italian School or Positivist Theory

• Proponents of this school are: Dr. Cesare Lombroso (Father of

Modern Criminology); Enrico Ferri (Best known Lombroso’s associate,
brilliant lawyer, accomplished editor, scholar, public lecturer and a
great parliamentarian); and, Raffaele Garofalo (Italian nobleman,
magistrate, professor of law and senator).

• The term Positivism refers to a method of analysis based on the collection of

observable scientific facts. It maintained that crime as any other act is a
natural phenomenon and is comparable to disaster or calamity. Crime is a
social and
moral phenomenon which cannot be treated and checked by the
imposition of punishment but rather rehabilitation or the enforcement of
individual measures.

• • Dr. Cesare Lombroso – Father of modern Criminology. Wrote “Crime: Its

Causes and  Remedies” which contains the classification of criminals:

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• ¬ Born Criminal – based on the belief the criminal behavior is inherited

Criminal by Passion – a person who commits crime due to extreme
emotion,  impulse of the moment, fit of passion, great anger or jelousy
• ¬ Criminaloid – an individual who commits crime because of weak self-
control or  less physical stigmata
• ¬ Insane Criminal – a person who commits crime by reason of his
psychological  disorder or mental abnormalities
• ¬ Occasional Criminal – one who commits crime due to insignificant
reasons that  pushed them to do at a given occasion
• ¬ Pseudo Criminal – an individual who kills a person in self-defense •
Lombroso’s most important work was “L’oumo Delinquente (The Criminal
Mind), first published in 1876.

Theory of ATAVISM
• Lombroso was highly influence with the Theory of Evolution of Charles
Darwin which led him to the development to theory of ATAVISM –
criminals were throwbacks to an earlier and more primitive evolutionary
period. Such criminals could be identified by certain physical stigmata,
outward appearance particularly in the face.

Enrico Ferri (1856-1929) 

• ¬ An Italian, born 1856, author of “The Theory of Imputable and the Denial
of Free Will” published in 1878.
• ¬ He agreed with Lombroso on the biological basis of Criminal’s behavior but
his interest in socialism led him to recognize the importance of social,
economic, and political determinants.
• ¬ His greatest contribution was his attack on the classical doctrine of free
will, which argued that, criminals should be held morally responsible for their
crimes because they must have a rational decision to commit these acts.
• ¬ He believed that criminals could not be held morally responsible because
they did not choose to commit crimes, but rather were driven to commit
crimes by conditions in their lives.

Raffaele Garofalo 

• ¬ He treated the roots of the criminals’ behavior not to physical features but to
their psychological equivalent, which he referred to as moral anomalies.
• ¬ He rejected the doctrine of freewill.

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• ¬ Classify criminals as Murderers, Violent Criminals, Deficient Criminals,

and  Lascivious Criminals.

Somatotyping Theory/Constitutional Theory – William Sheldon

● Physical attributes and criminal personality are related.
William Sheldon (1898 – 1977), US
● William Sheldon (1942) proposed a strong correlation between personality
and somatotype (i.e. physique).
● Identified another three body types (AMERICAN SOMATOTYPE
SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY)

● · Mesomorphic (Somatotonic) – physically powerful, aggressive,

athletic physique
● · Endomorphic (Viscerotonic) – predominance of soft roundness
throughout the body
● · Ectomorphic (Cerebrotonic) – fragile, thin and delicate
● *People with predominantly mesomorphic traits has higher criminal
tendencies than other body types.

Each body types was associated with a particular personality:

● Ectomorph - introvert, quiet, fragile, sensitive
● Endomorph - relaxed, sociable, tolerant, peaceful
● Mesomorph - aggressive, assertive, and adventurous.
● · Sheldon noted that the vast majority of criminal were
mesomorphs. One explanation for this is that a solid muscular person
becomes involved in crime at an early age due to their intimidating
appearance.

ERNST KRETCHMER (1888 – 1964), Germany

● Distinguished three principal types of physiques (European
SOMATOTYPE SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY):

(European SOMATOTYPE SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY):

● Aesthetic- (lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders)

● Athletic- (medium to tall, strong, muscular, coarse bones)
● Pyknic- (medium height, rounded figure, massive neck, broad face)

School of Criminal Justice

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School of Criminal Justice