SYSTEMS PLUS COLLEGE FOUNDATION

LOGIC

Introduction
The love of learning is inherent in every human being. More so, logical thinking is
appreciated by the research and listeners if it is presented in a simple and systematic
way. It has to be taught as well in a simple manner that students may understand wholly
the art and science of correct thinking.

Chapter 1: Background of Logic

Learning outcomes:

1. Able to understand the philosophical background of logic;

2. Can elaborate the definition, fundamental principles and branches of philosophy;
3. Can able to discuss a continual relationship of philosophy to sciences and art; and
4. Determine the divisions or types of philosophy.

A. The Philosophical Background of Logic

Logic is one of the subjects of Philosophy that emulates not material things or
physical but ideas or concepts, proposition or premises and their inferential
relations to attain the truth value of the conclusions.

It is necessary to take up the etymological1 and real definition of Philosophy to

strengthen the philosophical background of Logic.

Definition of Philosophy

ETYMOLOGY REAL DEFINITION

The word "philosophy" comes from the
Greek word "philosophia," which
combines the words "philo” meaning
"love of" and "sophia" meaning
"wisdom."
Philosophy is a pursuit for meaning.
Practically the word means to gaze or
look for something. Philosophically, it is
more of a pursuit or quest for the
meaning of something. It has the
fundamental principles to understand
the meaning.

1
Etymology. The study of the origin of words and the way in which their meanings have changed
throughout history. (Oxford Dictionary)

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Some common etymological definitions

of philosophy are "love of wisdom" or
"love of knowledge."

Philosophy, therefore, is a science of

sciences of all that exist (of beings), in
their ultimate causes and principles
through the help of human intellect
alone.

B. Fundamental Principles in the Definition of Philosophy

1. It is a science of sciences, because it is systematic body of knowledge which

is not only bases on the ideas, theories, and hypothesis but on knowledge
that conforms to reality.
2. Of beings, because from the point of view of metaphysics2, tells everything
that exists, or may exist, of everything knowable. Ergo est., it is therefore,
the highest synthesis of all dealing with man, nature and of course GOD. It
is therefore qualified as mother of all sciences because of its much
unabridged meaning scope.
3. In their ultimate cause, it tells us all about asking and answering not only
the facts and causes but which conforms to reality.
4. Through the help of human intellect alone, because Philosophy deals with
the human metaphysical reason, toward the concept of Theosophy, (from
the Greek word Theos means God and Sophia means wisdom of God).

C. Continual Relationship to Sciences and Art

There is a continual relationship of Philosophy to Sciences and Art. They are both
interested in the knowledge of seeking to ask question to the best possible
philosophical conclusion. Therefore, Philosophy starts always with the question
“why”?

On the other hand, Philosophy seeks the highest ultimate knowledge while
Sciences seek knowledge of facts. Therefore, Philosophy takes full cognizance in
the findings of science because science seeks to determine facts and facts are its
end products.

It is concluded that a method being used in this continual relationship to sciences

involved the interpretation and explanation of the ultimate and meaning of facts.

Philosophy and Art have a common goal in seeking the truth. They have a common
interesting in philosophizing, interpreting experiences and manifesting the
meaning of life.

2
The branch of philosophy that deals with the first principles of things, including abstract concepts such
as being, knowing, identity, time, and space. (Oxford Dictionary)

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D. Types of Philosophy

Philosophy is divided into two types: (1) Speculative Philosophy; and (2)
Applied/Practical Philosophy

1. Speculative Philosophy

Philosophy embodying beliefs insusceptible of proof and attempting to gain

insight into the nature of the ultimate by intuitive or a priori means.3

Speculative philosophy of history is concerned with history as a whole,

which includes explicitly relating the past to the present and the present
to the future. It proposes a philosophical appreciation of the importance of
history in our lives and in our self-knowledge, but where history is
understood not only as revealing to us what is past, but also as a shaping
of the present, which itself sets the conditions for future developments.

Types of Speculative Philosophy

Cosmology From the Greek word Cosmos and Logos.

- Means philosophical study of being in the
nonliving world.
- Considered the study of the Universe as a
whole via theory and observation, of its
beginning, evolution, large-scale structure,
and far future.
- A philosophy of cosmology seeks to discern
ways of knowing the universe, given that we
have only one data point (one universe) and
we cannot conduct classic experiments on it.
- A philosophy also seeks implications and
meaning, if any.

Metaphysics From the Greek word meta-ta-fusica.

- Means something that goes beyond or
philosophical study of being in its most general
form.
- Concerned with explaining the fundamental
nature of being and the world that
encompasses it.
- The branch of philosophy that deals with the
first principles of things, including abstract

3
https://www.dictionary.com/browse/speculative-philosophy

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concepts such as being, knowing, identity,

time, and space.
- Examines the fundamental nature of reality,
including the relationship between mind and
matter, between substance and attribute, and
between potentiality and actuality.

Theodicy From the Greek word Theo means God.

- Philosophical study of BEING in the highest
form.
- It is an attempt to justify the ways of god to
humans. It is as an attempt to explain the
coexistence of God and Evil.
- The vindication of divine providence in view of
the existence of evil.

Anthropology From the Greek Word Antropos means man.

- Philosophical study of being with its body and
soul.
- Inquires into the essence of human nature
and the human condition. In making this
inquiry it seeks to unify or critique
philosophically the diverse scientific methods
and humanistic approaches to answering the
question of human nature.

Rational From the Greek word Psyche means soul

Psychology - Philosophical study being with its soul.
- Determine the nature of the human soul by a
priori reasoning.

Logic From the Greek word Logos means thought.

- Science and art of correct thinking
- Logic investigates and classifies the structure
of statements and arguments, both through
the study of formal systems of inference and
through the study of arguments in natural
language.
- It deals only with propositions (declarative
sentences, used to make an assertion, as
opposed to questions, commands or
sentences expressing wishes) that are capable
of being true and false.
- It covers core topics such as the study of
fallacies and paradoxes, as well as specialized
analysis of reasoning using probability and

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arguments involving causality and

argumentation theory.

Epistemology From the Greek word Episteme means human

knowledge
- “Episteme” can be translated as “knowledge”
or “understanding” or “acquaintance”, while
“logos” can be translated as “account” or
“argument” or “reason”.
- Philosophical study of human knowledge with
regard to value of thought.

Ethics From the Greek word Ethos means man’s will.

- Philosophical study of the morality of the
Human act that distinguishes good from evil
and right from wrong.
- Also called moral philosophy, the discipline
concerned with what is morally good and bad
and morally right and wrong. The term is also
applied to any system or theory of moral
values or principles.
- Ethics deals with such questions at all levels.
Its subject consists of the fundamental issues
of practical decision making, and its major
concerns include the nature of ultimate value
and the standards by which human actions
can be judged right or wrong.

2. Applied/Practical Philosophy

The results of Speculative Philosophy are applied to specific topics and

discussion in the different aspects of individuals’ life such as society, history,
education, religion, etc.

Types of Applied/Practical Philosophy

Philosophy of The metaphysical dimension of man as a person.

Man

Social The study of interpersonal relationship between man

Philosophy and society.

Philosophy of The meta-personal study of man with GOD.

Religion

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Axiology Philosophical study of man’s value.

Aesthetics Philosophical study of Oriental ways of life.

Philosophy of Philosophical and methodological approach of

Education teaching and procedural learning process.

This chapter contains the introduction such as the philosophical background of logic,
the definitions, fundamental principles and branches of philosophy. It also discusses a
continual relationship of philosophy to sciences and arts, and the divisions or types of
philosophy.

GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. What is the etymological definition of Philosophy?
2. What is the real definition of Philosophy?
3. Define Speculative Philosophy.
4. Define Applied Philosophy.

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LOGIC

Introduction
The love of learning is inherent in every human being. More so, logical thinking is
appreciated by the research and listeners if it is presented in a simple and systematic
way. It has to be taught as well in a simple manner that students may understand wholly
the art and science of correct thinking.

Chapter 2: Introduction to Logic

Learning Outcomes:

1. Differentiate the nominal and real definition of logic;

2. Understand the fundamental principle of the definition of logic;
3. The importance of logic;
4. Identify the different types of logic; and
5. The nature and importance of language.

Logic is essentially the study of reasoning or argumentation. We use reason all the
time to draw inferences that are useful to us.

LOGIC is the science and art of correct thinking

SCIENCE because it is a systematized body of logical truths and principles

governing correct thinking

ART, logic is a “techno” - is a term in philosophy that refers to making or doing

and it teaches how to make a good argument

-Often called the arts of arts because it develops and perfects the intellect
which all artists need in their work

A. What is Logic?

NOMINAL REAL

Logic comes from the Greek word Logic is an art and science of
logos which mean thought, study or fundamental principle of correcting
science. thinking.

It is a science of fundamental principles of principles, laws, pedagogical methods

that man’s mind must follow in its way of thinking for its validity and licitly4
attainment of truth.

4
in a way that is allowed or legal

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B. Fundamental Principles of the Definition of Logic

1. Science because it is a body of organized pedagogical method of true

knowledge toward with the rectitude or reasoning.
2. An Art because the validity/licitly argument is done wonderfully.
3. Fundamental principle because it involves the metaphysical foundation of
cause and effect, principle of identity and principle of non-contradiction.
4. Of correct thinking because it denotes ownership toward the conformity to
the rules of rectitude as conclusion.

C. The Formal Object of Logic

When it comes to logic, reasoning is the conformity to reality. Therefore, it

involves always the validity and licitly arguments. It leads the students or
searching the truth from the known towards the unknown and from the sassiest
datum towards and the most difficult datum. An argument is genuine when it is
both valid and licit.

Examples:

Some leaves are green.

But, grass is a leaf. Valid and licit

Therefore, grass is green

Some lawyers are honest.

But, John Angelu is lawyer. Valid and licit

Therefore John Angelu is honest.

D. Importance of Logic
According to Benito Reyes, a pragmatist5, there are ten (10) importance ithe n
application of capability if valid and licit thinking. They are as follows:

1. It develops the habit of clear thinking. It reaches us how to think, either

we read or hear correctly and logically. It is only when we think that we
commit mistakes and very seldom to think if it is correct.
2. It is a guide in the process of drawing out conclusions. We have a lot of
experienced things to be considered and often wrong decisions as well.
The process of thinking will construct us to understand deeply.

5
a person who is guided more by practical considerations than by ideals: (oxford dictionary)

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3. It emphasizes the importance of definition. It tells us the real and nominal

definition that conforms to reality. It denotes clarity and precision in the
use of terms which is one of the most required principles of the process
of thinking.
4. It helps us interpret the facts adequately. Genuine and accurate facts’
interpretation is very important when it comes to the conformity of truth
it trains us analyzing, classifying and defining facts.
5. It cultivates the habit of looking for the assumptions presupposed in
reasoning. Some people are often confused by delicate and unnoticeable
arguments because of incorrect reasoning that puts us on guard against
mistake.
6. It trains us in the technique of determining implications. It provides
training in order to develop the ability to comprehend implications and
protects us with technique in determining assumptions.
7. It helps us detect fallacies and avoid self-deceptions. It gives us an
auxiliary to illogical reasoning. Every person has a gift of common sense,
but common sense must be developed in order to make progress as an
instrument of philosophical reason.
8. It helps us persuade or convince others. No man is an island. Loving
oneself it to acknowledge and share life with others. It therefore trains us
in various methods having a good and right decision in thinking of others.
9. It stimulates scientific thinking and love of truth. An order person requires
a clear reasoning. Logic is important equipment in order to comprehend
sciences. The primary goal of logic is truth in order to simplify the truth
statement. It seeks an argument of a perfect quality which asserts itself.
10. It familiarizes us with terminology and problems in Philosophy. This is the
questions of why, how and what is in reality. The assertive curiosity gives
us interpersonal relationship between things and themselves. All of us
think because it is the right way to Philosophy.

E. Types of Logic

1. Based on Form and Concept

a. Formal Logic

Formal logic is the structure, correctness, and sequence that

follows the rules. It looks with the given standards. It is therefore
that an argument must be good and not only in form but in content
as well.

Example: John Louie is student.

Our concerned is how it is structured or built to create a sound

reasoning. The given example tells us that “John Louie” is the
complete subject, “is”, is the main verb in the third person singular

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of the infinitive form of the verb to be, “a”, is the indefinite article
and the “student” is the complete or simple predicate in the
sentence.

b. Material Logic

Material logic is the subject matter, the content and the truth. It is
the conformity of the reality.

Example: John Deewee is a man.

We may ask from this example that: is John Deewee really a man?
If that is so, therefore, our argument is true. The correct reasoning
is formally valid unless one or many of the rules are violated. A
good and sound reasoning then is one that is formally valid and
licit and at the same time, materially valid and licit as well.

2. Based on Process and Thinking

a. Deductive Logic

Deductive logic is one in which the arguments flows logically and

correctly into the conclusion. It is also called FORMAL DEDUCTIVE
LOGIC. It is therefore, from general to specific or particular.

Example:

All Filipinos are Asians General

But, John Deewee is a Filipino Particular

Therefore, John Dewee is an Asian Particular

b. Inductive Logic

Inductive logic is one in which the statement flows logically from

particular to general or universal. It implies the sense of probability
and closely related to the scientific method of inquiry which flows
from specific to universal.

Example:

This man talks. This Grandfather………….. this wife

This son or daughter …………therefore, all given subjects talk.

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F. Three main dimensions of Logic

Even if we sleep, our process of thinking always awakes and it never rests.
According to St. Thomas Aquinas in Summa Theologiae, it is one of the most
complex realities in existence. In order to comprehend their nature, it introduces
the three dimensions of logic namely: (1) Simple Apprehension; (2) Judgment;
and (3) Reasoning.

1. Simple Apprehension;

Simple denotes an act that cannot be resolves to another form and

Apprehension denotes an act of conceiving an object. Therefore, simple
apprehension is the process through which the capability of thinking
comprehends the objective reality as it is outside the mind. When one
holds the idea or thought tightly, it is therefore formed through the use
of term.

Simple apprehension is the act of perceiving an object intellectually,

without affirming or denying anything concerning it. To apprehend is to
take hold of a thing as if with the hand; an apprehension, as an act of the
mind, is an intellectual grasping of an object. The mind cannot take an
object physically into itself; but it knows an object by taking it in
intellectually, in a manner suited to its own nature; forming to itself an
intellectual image, called a species of the object. The act of forming this
mental image is called a conception, and the fruit of it, the image itself, is
the concept, idea or notion of the object. The word simple added to
apprehension emphasizes the fact that the apprehension neither affirms
nor denies the existence of the object; it affirms nothing and denies
nothing, it simply conceives the idea of the object.

Example of terms: Man; mortal; John Deewee

2. Judgment;

Judgment comes from the Latin word “iudicare” which means pronounce
regarding the agreement or disagreement between two concepts is made.
Therefore, judgment is the process through which an argument may
assert or deny something. It is therefore the process of knowing whether
it is assertive or denial, not assertive and denial. The expression of
judgment is also called as proposition and not preposition.

Example of the proposition: John Deewee is a student.

In this given example of the proposition, it contains the simple subject,

simple predicate and is the verb in the third person and singular of the

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infinitive verb to be. In relation to English grammar, we do have the basic

sentence pattern line: S-TV-DO-IO. So do as in logic, we have S-C-P which
means SUBJECT-COPULA-PREDICATE.

3. Reasoning

Reasoning is the process through which the mind or the capability of

thinking arrives at the conclusion from the previously possessed
judgment. It tells us how to form a new proposition from the premises
and it is also called INFERENCE, otherwise known as the process to
arrive in a certain conclusion. Basically this inference is usually expressed
through Syllogism6.

Example of an Inference:

Joseph is with Mary

But, Peter is with Joseph

Therefore, Peter is with Mary

Furthermore, in order to have the methodological parallelism in as far as three

(3) dimensions of logic are concerned, it relates us on how these three (3)
divisions explain and emphasize to different dimensional aspects of other
subjects. Therefore, from the point of view of Philosophy, logic presents Simple
Apprehension, Judgment and Reasoning. From a Psychological point of view, we
have Knowledge, Attitude and Skill. From the theological point of view, we have
Prophetic, Priestly and Kingly. From the educational point of view, we have
Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor. From the oriental point of view, we have
Mind, Soul and Body. From the multiplicity of languages, we have Informative,
Expressive and Directive. From the Filipino Christian living, we have Head, Heart
and Hand.

To have a clear view of the three basic divisions of Logic, a tabular scheme is
presented below.

Mental Mental Product External

Expression

Simple Apprehension Idea/Concept Term

6
An instance of a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed propositions
(premises); a common or middle term is present in the two premises but not in the conclusion, which may be
invalid.

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Judgment Pronouncement of two (2) ideas Proposition

Reasoning Argument-Inferential thinking Syllogism

Below is the dimensional chart that shows the logical parallelism to different
aspects of the different field of study.

G. The Nature of Language

Basic Function of Language

According to Irvin Copi (1968), there are three (3) basic functions of language
that based in the integral parts of man namely: (1) Head-Informative; (2) Heart
–Affective; and (3) Hand-Directive

1. Informative

This is the most common function of language wherein we inform

or asking information about the things we know and ask about the
things that we do not know yet. If one person asks your name like
I am John Deewee, then you used is an informative discourse.
Therefore in logic, the proposition and argument are either
assertive or denial; positive or negative.

2. Expressive

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This second function of language illustrates emotions and attitudes

where being express wonderfully. This will be found basically in
poetry. It also illustrates common exclamations like, Oh my god! It
also expresses different moods and mere expressions of feeling
and emotions. Furthermore, these arguments do not deny or affirm
something.

3. Directive

This last function of language is most easily seen in commands or

request. It is that which prevents an action to be done. Example
kindly comes early.

This chapter contains the presentation of how logic is being defined and it
classification. It tells us on how the classification of terms defines according to its
definition that conforms to reality. It also indicates the overview of logic like its
object, classification and importance. The nature of language as tool of logical
activity is also discussed to help the student determine the correct thinking from
vague, doubtful and incorrect reasoning.

GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. What is the etymological definition of Logic?
2. What is the essential definition of Logic?
3. Why Logic a Science? An Art?
4. Are you born logician? Support your answer whether is tis
affirmative or negative.
5. Why the study of Logic is important?
6. Differentiate Formal Logic from Material Logic.
7. Differentiate deductive logic from inductive Logic.

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LOGIC

Introduction
Knowledge of the methods and principles of logic is very important because it is a means
by which we are able to obtain the truth and the validity of any arguments, which is the
goal of any logician. Moreover, knowledge of logic is very important because it is much
better than ignorance. Knowing all the principles of logic is not only important just for the
sake of knowing logical principles.

The love of learning is inherent in every human being. More so, logical thinking is
appreciated by the research and listeners if it is presented in a simple and systematic
way. It has to be taught as well in a simple manner that students may understand wholly
the art and science of correct thinking.

Chapter 3: Concepts and Terms

Learning Outcomes:
1. Identify what is concept and terms;
2. Able to recognized the types of concepts; and
3. Can emphasizes that concept is created by the process of thinking by
conceiving an object.

A. What is a concept?

A concept comes from the Latin word infinitive form of the verb “concepire”
means to conceive. A concept means a mental image which is created by
the process of thinking on the process of conceiving an object. Therefore, it
is a representation of an object by the intellect through which a student
comprehends a thing. On the other hand, it is attained through the process
of abstraction.

B. Abstraction

Abstraction comes from the Latin infinitive form of the verb “abstrahere”
which means to separate or to move away. It is therefore, a mental act
by which the process of thinking studies the physical characteristics with
regard to its color, size, material, etc., in order to think of the purpose of an
object.

C. Attention

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Attention is also a mental act by which the process of thinking fixes its
consideration upon a particular object after having sense it. For example, if
you are driving a car, you need a full attention of driving a car. As a student,
you basically pay attention to your professor because of good professor must
be a good student, first.

D. Mental Reflex Activity

This is also called are “reflection”. It is also a mental act having aware of an
act itself so that it looks things objectively, having differences between the
two given arguments

Example: face of the man and the face of a cat

E. Comparison

It is a mental act by which the process of thinking notices his similarities and
difference in the object having the same essence or with the same genuses
or classes.

For example: Angela and Monkey

They are both the same in essence but Angela is a rational animal and
monkey is a brute.

F. Types of Concept

There are four types of concept with different classifications:

1. Concept based on Intention
2. Concept based on Subject and Form
3. Concept based on Substance and Accidents
4. Concept based on Existence and Possession

1. Concept based on Intention

a. First Intention –it is a concept by which you know things in the

process of thinking independently.

A concept by which we understand what a thing is according to what

it is in reality, regardless of what we think about it.

It is that by which we grasp what a thing is according to its proper

being without adverting to the special mode of existence that the thing
has as it exists in the mind and gets as a result of being unknown.

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Example: All of us we know that the dog has four legs. Definitely the
concept of the “Dog” is taken as an animal with four legs. It is
therefore understood that the dog is according to what it is reality;
regardless of what we think about it.

b. Second Intention –it is concept by which we conceive a thing in

reality in so far as the process of thinking understands. It is not
regardless of what it is in reality but how it is in our process of thinking.

Concept by which we conceive a thing in reality in so far as the mind

understands it.

A concept by which we understand not only what thing is in reality but

also how it is in our minds. After understanding what a thing is
according to its own proper being, we also advert to the special mode
of existence that the thing has as it exists in the mind.

Example: The Los Angeles, California is the city of angels. Here, Los
Angeles, California is understood to be the place of the city of Angels
in so far as the mind says it.

2. Based on Subject and Form

These subject and form are also called as essence and quiddity
metaphysically.

The Form is that which makes an object exist as it is. It is the attribute
of the subject.

The Subject is that which has or which is looked upon as having attribute
embodied in itself. Subject is the one who is spoken of, therefore it has
or which is looked upon as having a perfection or attribute embodied
in it.

a. Concrete Concept is a concept that expresses a form and a subject.

It creates a form and subject in the mind.

Example: Black dress, Red lips, Green shirt, body, spirit, woman

b. Abstract Concept is a concept endowed with form only.

Example: kindness, beauty, blackness, loyalty, simplicity

3. Based on Substance and Accidents

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Substance comes from the Latin word “SUBSTANTIA” means the existence
in itself without requiring another being as a subject of it inherence. It is the
existence of the form and not mere modification of the subject which they
inhere to. These are being classified into two namely: (a) Absolute concept
and (b) Conative concept.

a. Absolute Concept -it denotes the meaning of complete substance

endowed with its independent reality.

Is a concept that signifies the meaning of a complete substance

endowed with its independent reality. It is a concept that manifests
itself to the mind as a substance and as an independent reality.

It is also called abstract concept when it signifies something to the

mind which shows the quality of an abstract noun.

Example:
The absolute concept, moon and its abstract concept is brilliance;
The absolute concept, dog and its abstract concept is animality.

b. Conative Concept –It represents from without the subject. When it

comes to an English grammar, it tells something about the adjectives
that being modified to the subject. It is therefore in logic that, it
signifies the object as an accident existing in the substance.

Example: The wise man found Jesus in the manger.

The word wise is used as a modifier that modifies to the
subject man.

4. Based on Existence and Possession

In this concept it tells something about assertive or denial; positive or

negative.

a. Positive Concept –it signifies the possession or the existence of

something.

An essential characteristic of this classification is that it formulates the

concept in an affirmative form.

Example: beautiful, happy or love

b. Negative Concept -it denotes the non-existence or non-possession

of something. It expresses an object that lacks something or that
which is stated in negative form.

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Example: non-beautiful, non-happy or non-love

G. TERM

Term is an external sign of concept and last element of a proposition. A

term is oral if it is uttered and written if it is drafted.

Terms are verbal or written words or signs communicative of a concept. The

spoken word is an articulated human voice and the written word is the sign
of the spoken word.

There are five types of terms, namely:

1. Terms according to the kinds of concept

a. First intention and second intention

(Refer to the explanation of concept from the topic above)

b. Abstract and concrete terms

i. Abstract – is a term which pertains to the abstract
quality in form only, thus it cannot be perceived by the
senses.

Example: Frugalness of a man

Faithfulness of a woman

ii. Concrete - is a term which pertains to the expressions of

a form and a subject. Thus it can be perceived by the
senses.

Example: Strawberry jam: you can taste, see and touch.

Jay-Em is tall, dark and handsome –Jay Em

embodies the abstract quality of being
handsome. You can see his height and color of
the skin.

c. Absolute and Connotive terms

i. Absolute –it pertains to the definition of a complete
subject which is based on independent reality.

Example: Every lilies is a flower

Man is a rational animal. Man is a social being.

ii. Connotive -it pertains to the object as an accidental

manifested in a substance. It expresses a form only.

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Example: Singer, Teacher, Table

d. Positive and negative terms

i. Positive –it pertains to the possession or existence of
something.

Example: knowledge, vibrancy, wisdom

ii. Negative -it pertains to the non-possession or non-

existence of something.

Example: ignorance, passive, arrogance

2. Terms as an last element of the proposition

a. Subject
b. Predicate

3. Terms as sign of a concept

a. The significant Term – when it is stand for his own existence.
In English grammar, the significant terms are the subject and the
predicate

b. The non-significant term –when it does not stand for his

existence like the demonstrative adjectives and demonstrative
pronouns. The indefinite article “THE” and definite articles “A” or
“An” used as modifiers.

4. Terms as to incompatibility with other term

a. Contradictory –this is a term which is mutually exclusive. Hence,
the two terms are in contrast with one another, without the
possibility of a middle term.

Example: legal-illegal, valid-invalid, correct-incorrect

b. Contrary –this is a term that is opposing to one another, similar

to opposition but there is possibility of a middle term.

Example: hot-cold, small-large, ebony-ivory

c. Correlative –this is a term that is mutually related to each other.

To extent of being dependent to one another.

Example: Bride-groom, master-slave, teacher-student

d. Privative – this is a term that express one is perfect, the other

is lacking.

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Example: wealth-poverty, sight-blindness, hearing-deaf.

5. Term as to definiteness of meaning.

a. Univocal comes from the Latin word “unus” means one
infinitive verb if the Latin word “Vocare” means to call, in short,
to call one. A term with exactly the same meaning at least it
two occurrences

Example
Every monkey eats banana.
Banana is a tropical fruit.

In the 2 examples, the term banana is used with exactly the

same meaning.

b. Equivocal is a term maybe considered, if it exhibits difference

in meaning whenever it is used in a two occasions.

These are terms that have completely different meanings in at

least two occurrences.

Example: His lover gave him a ring.

The bell rings.

c. Analogous terms are that express partly the same and partly
different meaning.

Example: Peter stands in one foot at the foot of the mountain.

In this example, the term foot in the first and second

propositions are analogous terms because the foot of
Peter is partly the same with foot of the mountain
inasmuch as they serve as the base on which they
stand. They are also partly different in as far as
anatomy is concerned.

H. Properties of Terms
Terms are properly understood by its property. There are three properties
of terms, namely: (a) comprehension; (b) extension; and (c) supposition.

a. Comprehension from the Latin word “comprendere” means

to understand. It is therefore, the totality of all essential
characteristics belonging to the given term.

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Example: Man is a rational being. For instance, if we consider

the term “man”, we might predicate to him the
character of a rational being with possessed
knowledge.

b. Extension of the terms are terms that denote individual

things or particulars that express the totality of all the
individual things or particular for which the essential
characteristics belonging to a term can be applied.

Classification of Term According to Extension

i. Universal
A term is a term when which applied to each members of
given class. For instance; all leaves are green. The term
subject “leave” has a universal extension by the virtue of
its quantifier “all”. This denotes that everything that is
“leaves” is universal.

ii. Singular
A term is a term which applied only one specific object,
individual or group. For instance, “He is a catholic priest.”
The term “HE” in the given example denotes that the
subject is applied to one and only person which happens
to be a male.

iii. Particular
A term is a term which applied to an indeterminately
designated portion of its absolute extension. By the term
“indeterminately”, we predicate a thing that is not
absolutely qualified. For instance, “some students are
medical technicians”, the term “students” we applied to
undetermined number of “students”. Weather the term is
applied to two or more “student” the answer will always
be speculative.

Quantifier’s Table

Universal Singular Particular

all, any, anything, all common some, something,

anyone nouns someone

anybody, each, all collective somebody, sometimes,

every, everything nouns few

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everybody, all superlatives several, plenty, most,

everyone, no, majority
nothing

no one, nobody, all demonstrative almost all, almost every

never, whatever pronouns

all proper nouns Practically, every

practically everyone,
not all not, not many

not everyone, not

everything

the use of numbers like

fifty percent or 50 or 1
kilo

The table above shows some of the modifiers as quantifiers used for
each classification of terms according to extension.

c. Supposition comes from the Latin word “sub” means under

and infinitive form of the verb “ponere” means to put.
Therefore, it is “to put under”. This is also a property of term
that acquires from it used in the proposition. There are two
kinds of suppositions, namely: Formal Supposition and Material
suppositions.

i. Formal supposition uses the word for its real meaning.

For instance, Manila is the capital of the Philippines. We all
know that Manila is the capital of the Philippines,
therefore, Manila uses for its real meaning

ii. Material supposition is a kind of supposition that uses

a word for itself alone. For example, SPCF stand for
Systems Plus College Foundation.

I. Definition

What is definition?

The word definition comes from the infinitive verb of the Latin word
“definire” which means to enclose within a limit. Therefore, it is a term that
being defined. It signifies an act of defining a term. It is not a proposition
but a term, because a proposition is composed of the complete subject and
a complete predicate. There are two kinds of definition namely; Real
definition and Nominal definition.

1. Real definition comes from the Latin phrase “definition rei” which
means “definition of things”. Definition uses a noun followed by the

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word “rei” in genitive case in Latin declension which denotes

ownership means a thing. Basically it means the nature of that thing.
It manifests the intelligible structure of the thing explicitly by the term
to be defined.

Kinds of real definition

a. Essential definition – it is definition that is complete. It is
the equivalent of species, wherein it is constructed by genus
and specific difference. It explains the essence of a thing.

Example: Man is a rational animal

A triangle is a three sided-polygon.

b. Distinctive definition –it is a definition that explains what a

thing is. It is noted for the attributes or properties of a thing.

Example: Man can drive automobile.

Oxygen is a tasteless and odorless gas, 1.105 times
as heavy as air.

c. Genetic definition – it is a definition that pertains to the

process of origin or the production of a thing.

Example: Dengue is a tropical disease transmitted by the

mosquito, causing fever and pain in the joint.

d. Causal definition –it is a definition that pertains to efficient

and final cause. Efficient cause
i. Efficient cause - gives the producer of a thing.

Example: Askalz is the Philippine Football team created

by the Philippine Sports Commission.

The book “Experience day by day with God”

is written by Henry and Richard Blackaby.

ii. Final cause –means the purpose of a thing.

Example: Marriage is the union between man and

woman for procreation and conjugation.

e. Accidental definition – this refers to a thing that may be

contingently connected with its properties.

Example: The book is thick and voluminous.

The table is made of wood.
A good marriage is a product of faithfulness
and love for each other.

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2. Nominal Definition come from the phrase “definition nominis”

means definition of name. Again, “Nominis” comes from the Latin
word “nomens” which means name. It is in genitive case of the Latin
declension “nominis” which means of name because it denotes
ownership.

Kinds of nominal definition

a. Nominal definition by analogy defines the word from its
origin in infinitive verb. For instance, the word Philosophy
comes from the infinitive of the Greek word philien which
means to love and Sophia which means wisdom. Literally
speaking to love of wisdom.

b. Nominal definition by example denotes a definition by

giving a term to be defined. In this sense, it denotes its
example. For instance, if an innocent person asks, what is a
laptop? Definitely you show him a laptop.

c. Nominal definition by synonym defines a word by giving

words with similar meaning. For instance, the word big is
synonymously means large.

d. Nominal definition by description which denotes by

describing the thing signified by a term in order to indicate
what a thing is that being spoken of. For instance, the word
pen is used for writing and not to throws to the students.

Rules of a good definition

The following rules, excerpts from L. Buenaflor, have to be considered in

order to be able to identify whether the term to be defined is really
appropriate for the defining term or not.

1. Clarity –a definition should avoid vagueness or ambiguity. A highly

theoretical definition and figurative language must be avoided. It
must be presented in a terminology that an average person is likely
to understand. It must not be misleading as well.

2. Adequacy –a definition must be specific. It must not be narrow to

too broad. It is said to be narrow if it prevents us from applying a
term to all of the things to which it cannot be applied. It is said to be
broad it is allows us to apply a term to things to which it cannot be
applied. It must also be interchangeable.

3. Positive –a definition must not be needlessly negative. As a rule,

opposition is not an adequate way of defining terms. A definition must
state what a thing is, not what a thing is not.

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4. Brief –a definition must not be circular. It should be specific and

precise.
Summary
This chapter contains the presentation of concepts and terms. It indicates the logical
continuity of a concept to a term. It emphasizes that concept is created by the process
of thinking by conceiving an object. It also discusses a term as an external sign of a
concept.

GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. What is a concept?

2. What are the types of concepts?

3. What is a term?

4. What are the types of term?

5. What are the logical properties of terms? Define each logical

property.

6. What are the classifications of terms according to extension?

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