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Development in angiosperms

VSAQ Section A
1) Lymphotoxin?
Lymphotoxin is a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily of cytokines, whose members are
responsible for regulating the growth and function of lymphocytes and are expressed by a wide variety of cells in
the body.Lymphotoxin plays a critical role in developing and preserving the framework of lymphoid organs and
of gastrointestinal immune responses, as well as in the activation signaling of both
the innate and adaptive immune responses.Lymphotoxin alpha (LT-α, previously known as TNF-beta)
and lymphotoxin beta (LT-β), the two forms of lymphotoxin, each have distinctive structural characteristics and
perform specific functions
2) Statoliths?
Statoliths are dense amyloplasts, organelles that synthesize and store starch involved in the perception of gravity
by the plant (gravitropism), that collect in specialized cells called statocytes.
3) Articulate latex ducts?
Also called "Latex vessels ", these ducts or vessels are the result of anastamosis of many cells. They grow more or
less as parallel ducts which by means of branching and frequent anastomoses form a complex network. Latex
vessels are commonly found in many angiosperm families Papaveraceae, Compositae, Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae,
etc.
4) CER-g and TMM genes?

5) Auricle?
 short, often claw-like appendages at the base of the leaf blade which tend to clasp the sheath at the culm
internode. The various shapes can be useful for identifying certain grasses.
6) Symplast?
Symplast is the protoplasts present in plants, which are interconnected by the plasmodesmata. It is the inner part
plasma membrane, which plays a vital role in transporting or free movement of water and other low-molecular-
weight solutes such as sugars, amino acids, and other ions in between cells
7) Dermitogen?
Dermatogen is the primary meristem present at the shoot and root tips of plants.They are formed from the apical
meristematic tissues.They form the outer most layer of a plant or a plant part according to the histogen theory.They form
the epidermis in these regions and act as a protective barrier which prevents water loss, injury and helps in exchange of
gases
8) Trichoblast?
A trichoblast is a cell on the exterior surface of a plant’s root that is responsible for forming root hairs. A plant’s
roots are covered in trichoblast cells to ensure healthy root growth and development.
Trichoblasts, often referred to as root fuzz or root hair, increase the surface area of the roots themselves, allowing
them to increase their nutrient-uptake capabilities.
Trichoblasts are visible in aeroponics systems, where the root zones are fully exposed to the air, rather than rooted
in a medium.
9) What is MADS- box?
The MADS box is a conserved sequence motif. The genes which contain this motif are called the MADS-box
gene family. The MADS box encodes the DNA-binding MADS domain. The MADS domain binds to DNA
sequences of high similarity to the motif CC[A/T]6GG termed the CArG-box. MADS-domain proteins are
generally transcription factors. The length of the MADS-box reported by various researchers varies somewhat, but
typical lengths are in the range of 168 to 180 base pairs, i.e. the encoded MADS domain has a length of 56 to 60
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amino acids. There is evidence that the MADS domain evolved from a sequence stretch of a type II
topoisomerase in a common ancestor of all extant eukaryotes.
10) What are homeotic mutations?
Mutations in homeotic genes cause displaced body parts (homeosis), such as antennae growing at the posterior of
the fly instead of at the head. Mutations that lead to development of ectopic structures are usually lethal.
11) Define male germ unit (MGU)?
In flowering plants, the vegetative nucleus and the two sperm cells are proposed to form a functional assemblage,
the male germ unit (MGU).
12) What is double fertilization?
Double fertilisation: It is the process of fusion of one male gamete with the egg nucleus and another male gamete with
the polar nuclei or secondary nucleus is called double fertilisation. In all angiosperm plants, there is double fertilisation.

13) What is vicilin box?

14) Diffrence between dormancy and quiescence?

Quiescence Dormancy

It is a resting stage where a non- It is an adaptive method that

dormant seed shows zero activity.
Under favourable conditions, they
start germinating.
This phase is comparatively shorter
than dormancy.
No internal barriers in seed
germination.
prevents seed growth during harsh
conditions. It is considered a
survival mechanism.
This phase can be for a month or
even extend up to a year.
The growth barriers can be
exogenous (outside embryo) or
even endogenous (inside embryo).

They are quickly reversed under Even under favourable conditions,

favourable conditions. the growth reversal is not as quick
as quiescence.

15) Define apospory?

Apospory is the development of gametophytes from the vegetative cells or parts of the sporophyte, without any
meiotic division and formation of spores. Such types of gametophytes are diploid. The process of their formation
is called apospory.
16) Biennial bearing?

Biennial bearing (or alternate) bearing is a term used in pomology to refer to trees that have an irregular
crop load from year to year. In the "on" year too much fruit is set, leading to small fruit size. Excess weight
in the main branches can be too much for their mechanical resistance, causing them to break. Another
major consequence is that flower induction will be lower, and the subsequent year will be "off" year (too
little fruit).
The behavior could be due to plant hormones, particularly gibberellins produced in excess in the "on"
years in the embryos of the young fruit. It could also be caused by depletion of carbohydrate reserves in the
tree.
Biennial bearing is more common in certain fruit crops like mango, apple, pear, apricot and avocado, and
is almost nonexistent in grapes.
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17) Two functions of tapetum during pollen development ?

18) Define Dichogamy?

Dichogamy is a cross-pollination promoting device. In this, the bisexual flower promotes cross-pollination by maturing the
carpel and stamen at different times. It is of two types:
1. Protandry: when the stamens mature earlier than the carpels. It occurs in sunflower, jasmine, etc.
2. Protogyny: when the carpel mature earlier than the stamens. It occurs in rose, Ashoka, etc.

19) Sporophytic and gametophytic self incompatibility?

Gametophytic self incompatibility

 In this type of incompatibility, pollen is binucleate and pollen behaviour is determined by the S allele present in
each pollen and stigma is wet type.
 It means the incompatibility reaction of pollen is determined by its own genotypes, and not by the genotype of the
plant on which it is produced.
 Generally, incompatibility reaction is determined by a single gene having multiple alleles.
Sometimes, polyploidy may lead to the loss of incompatibility due to a competition between the two S alleles
present in diploid pollen.
 Important examples are pineapple, loquat, apple, pear, plum, cherry, almond, apricot, some citrus and members of
Solanaceae family.

Sporophytic incompatibility

 The incompatibility reaction of pollen is governed by the genotype of plant on which the pollen is produced and
not by the genotype of the pollen.
 It means the incompatibility is imposed by the maternal genotype, due to that all the pollen grains from a given
plant behave similarly.
 Incompatibility occurs at the stigmatic surface resulting in the inhibition of pollen germination. Pollens are
trinucleate and the stigmatic surface is dry e.g. Mangifera indica.

20) Major landmarks of embryo pattern formation in plants?

21) What is passive repressor model of asymmetrical first pollen mitosis?

22) Diffrentiate between homogenous and heterogenous embryo sacs?

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23) What is the striking feature of canal cells in hollow styles?

24) Composition of stigma exudates?

Stigma exudates mainly contains water, sugars, lipids, but other compounds such as phenols, amino
acids, ROS/RNS and Ca2+ ions are also in measurable amounts.
Also rich in hydrolytic enzymes such as O- glycosylases, esterases, lipases, proteases

25) Physiological function of ABA in plant development?

26) How senescence is different from programmed cell death?

27) Diffrentiate between wood of tropical trees and Temperate trees?

28) What is heterochronic mutation?

The mutations that delay the transition from juvenile to adult development. These mutations affect the timing of
developmental events. E.g plants carrying mutations Tp1 and Tp2 will have four or five additional juvenile phytomeres

29) What are homeodomain genes?

30) What are chasmogamous flowers?

 Chasmogamous flowers are flowers that have open petals such that the pollen and stigma (the reproductive
organs) are exposed to allow cross-pollination. On top of that chasmogamous flowers are large, colorful, and
scented flowers to attract pollinators.

31) What is an open RAM?

In this meristems of tissue system are not distinguished from the central initials. It can be of two types;
In the one ( Helianthus) all regions of roots are derived from common initials. In another type like in
(allium) the meristem of all regions develop on the periphery of the central initials

32) Diffrentiate between apoptosis and nacrosis?
Sl.no Apoptosis
Apoptosis is a regular process of
death of the cell that occurs in
1.
the body where cell itself takes
part in the death
It is a natural process and not
2.
caused by external factors
The organelles are still
3. functional even after the death of
the cell
The cell membrane breaks into
4.
several apoptotic bodies
This process is said to be a bit
beneficial. But, is known to be
abnormal if in case the cellular
5.
processes that keep the body
balanced cause many cell deaths
or even too few.
No symptoms are observed
6.
during the process of apoptosis
It is caused due to the self-
7.
generated signals within a cell.
Not much treatment is required
8.
in case of apoptosis
This process does not require
9. energy since the enzymes carry
out the process.
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Necrosis
Necrosis is a cellular
process of death occurring
when the cells are highly
exposed to extreme
external conditions
It is caused by external
agents such as infection,
trauma, toxins.
The organelles are not
functional after the death of
cell
The cell membrane breaks
and releases the cell
contents
It is always damaging or
harmful
The symptoms like
Inflammation, tissue death
and decreased blood flow
at the infected site are
observed during the
process
It is caused by Bacterial
and fungal infections,
mycobacterial infections,
denatured proteins,
pancreatitis, or by the
deposits of antibodies and
antigens
Necrosis, when untreated is
said to be very dangerous
and can prove to be fatal.
Hence, medical treatment is
very much necessary in
case of necrosis.
This process requires
energy to carry out the
process
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33) Which gene is necessary for apical meristem development?

REVOLUTA that is required to promote the growth of apical meristems and to limit cell division in leaves and stems
of Arabidopsis thaliana. REVOLUTA maps to the bottom of the fifth chromosome. Apical meristems of both
paraclades (axillary shoots) and flowers of revoluta mutants frequently fail to complete normal development and form
incomplete or abortive structures. The primary shoot apical meristem sometimes also arrests development early.
34) Where are ARP genes expressed?
Leaf Primodia
35) What is inbreeding depression?
The reduced biological fitness in a given population as a result of inbreeding, or breeding of related individuals is
called inbreeding depression. - Biological fitness can be referred to as an organism's ability to survive and maintain the
stability of its genetic material.
SECTION B
1) What are Brassinosteroids? Their role in seedling growth?
2) Organization of Root Apical Meristem?
3) Wood? Its development in response to agro climatic conditions?
4) What is PCD? Mechanism of apoptosis in plants?
5) Natural and artificial means of vegetative propogation?
6) Diffrentiate between monosporic and bisporic embryo sac? Describe development of monosporic type?
7) Types of pollination ? contravenses of cross pollination?
8) Define polyembroyny? How can polyembroyny occur in angiosperms? What is the fate of multiple
polyembroyny?
9) Role of micro RNA in flower development?
10) Various types of embryo sac development?
11) Pollen stigma interaction in species with dry stigma?
12) Biochemical changes associated with fruit growth and ripening?
13) Shoot vascular tissue differentiation in plants?
14) Floral evocation in detail?
SECTION C
1) Senescence mechanism in details?
2) Epidermis diffrentation with refrence to stomata and Trichomes?
3) ABC model of flower development? Determination of floral organs
4) Shoot apical meristem ?
5) Role of tapetum in male gametophyte development?
6) Development of different endosperms?
7) Seed dormancy types and methods of overcoming?
8) Sexual incompatibility?
Applied Ecology
Section A
1) Describe process of ozonolysis?
Oxidation of alkenes with the help of ozone can give alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, or carboxylic acids. Alkynes undergo
ozonolysis to give acid anhydrides or diketones. If water is present in the reaction, the acid anhydride undergoes
hydrolysis to yield two carboxylic acids. Ozonolysis of elastomers is also known as ozone cracking. Trace amounts of
ozone gas in the atmosphere cuts the double bonds in elastomers. For azo compounds, the ozonolysis yields nitrosamines.
2) Name different S(IV) species that are formed upon dissolution of So2 in water?
H2SO3, HSO3, SO3
3) What is Quasi-biennial ossilation and how it influence stratospheric ozone concentration?
The quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) is a quasiperiodic oscillation of the equatorial zonal wind between easterlies and
westerlies in the tropical stratosphere with a mean period of 28 to 29 months. The alternating wind regimes develop at the
top of the lower stratosphere and propagate downwards at about 1 km (0.6 mi) per month until they are dissipated at the
tropical tropopause. Downward motion of the easterlies is usually more irregular than that of the westerlies.
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The amplitude of the easterly phase is about twice as strong as that of the westerly phase. At the top of the vertical QBO
domain, easterlies dominate, while at the bottom, westerlies are more likely to be found. At the 30mb level, with regards
to monthly mean zonal winds, the strongest recorded easterly was 29.55 m/s in November 2005, while the strongest
recorded westerly was only 15.62 m/s in June 1995.
4) Is greenhouse effect good are bad ?
The greenhouse effect is a good thing. It warms the planet to its comfortable average of 59 degrees
Fahrenheit (15 degrees Celsius) and keeps life on earth, well, livable. Without it the world would be a frozen,
uninhabitable place, more like Mars. The problem is, mankind’s voracious burning of fossil fuels for energy is
artificially amping up the natural greenhouse effect. The result? An increase in global warming that is altering
the planet’s climate systems in countless ways. Here’s a look at what the greenhouse effect is, what causes it,
and how we can temper its contributions to our changing climate.
5) List various types of biosensors used for environmental monitering ?
Biosensors including immunosensors, aptasensors, genosensors, and enzymatic biosensors have been reported
for the detection and monitoring of various environmental pollutants, using antibodies, aptamers, nucleic acids,
and enzymes as recognition elements, respectively.

Introduction
Before diving into the details of Biosensors, let us quickly recap the concept of sensors in general.
Sensor is a device which detects changes in a physical quantity like temperature, humidity, water flow,
intensity of light etc. and converts it into a quantity that can be measured and/or analyzed.

If this definition seems a little bit confusing, then let us try to understand it with the help of a simple
example. We all know LDR or Light Dependent Resistor. It is a simple device whose resistance
changes according to the ambient light intensity.

Usually, when the intensity of the light is more, its resistance is very low and if the intensity is high,
well, its resistance shoots up to a very high value.

This means that a simple device like LDR can act as a Light Sensor as it produces a quantity (its
resistance) corresponding to the quantity it is measuring (light).

Similarly, a Biosensor is a device, which converts a Biological signal into a more useful electrical
signal. We will see more about the “Biological signal” as we move along with the tutorial.

What are Biosensors?

The simplest definition of a Biosensor is given here: A Biosensor is an analytical device that detects
changes in Biological processes and converts them into an electrical signal. The term Biological
process can be any biological element or material like enzymes, tissues, microorganisms, cells, acids,
etc.

So, a Biosensor is a combination of a Biological sensing element and a transducer, which converts the
data into electrical signals. Additionally, there will be an electronic circuit which consists of a Signal
Conditioning Unit, a Processor or Microcontroller and a Display Unit.

The following is a simplified block diagram showing the important components of a Biosensor.
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In the above block diagram, the Signal Conditioning unit comprises of an Amplifier and a Filter
(usually a Low Pass Filter) circuitry. This block diagram will be clearer when we take a look at an
example in the coming sections.

Principle of a Biosensor
The desired biological material is usually in the form of an enzyme. By a process known as
Electroenzymatic approach, which is a chemical process of converting the enzymes into corresponding
electrical signals (usually current) with the help of a transducer.

One of the commonly used Biological response is the oxidation of the enzyme. Oxidation acts as a
catalyst and alters the pH of the biological material. The change in pH will directly affect the current
carrying capacity of the enzyme, which is once again, in direct relation to the enzyme being measured.

Output of the transducer i.e. the current, is a direct representation of the enzyme being measured. The
current is generally converted into voltage so that it can be properly analyzed and represented.

Working of Biosensors
The combination of biological sensitive element and a transducer will convert the biological material
into a corresponding electrical signal. Depending on the type of enzyme, the output of the transducer
will be either current or voltage.

If the output is voltage, then well and good. But if the output is current, then this current should be
converted into equivalent voltage (using an Op-Amp based current to voltage converter) before
proceeding further.
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The output voltage signal is usually very low in amplitude and superimposed on a high frequency
noise signal. So, the signal is amplified (using an Op-Amp based Amplifier) and then passed through a
Low Pass RC Filter.

This process of amplifying and filtering the signal is the job of a Signal Processing Unit or a Signal
Conditioning Unit. The output of the signal processing unit is an analog signal that is equivalent to the
biological quantity being measured.

The analog signal can be displayed directly on an LCD display but usually, this analog signal is passed
to a Microcontroller, where the analog signal is converted into digital signal, since it is easy to
analyze, process or store a digital signal.

Example of Biosensor
Before proceeding further with different types of Biosensors and applications of Biosensor, let us
quickly take a look at a simple example of a Biosensor: The Glucometer, which is one of the most
common applications (unfortunately).

Diabetes is a disease characterized by the levels of glucose in the blood. Regularly checking the blood
glucose levels is very important for diabetes patients. Glucometers are a type Biosensors, which
measure the concentration of glucose in blood.

Usually, they consists of a test strip, which collect a small sample of blood to analyze the glucose
levels. This particular sensor implements the Electroenzymatic approach i.e. oxidation of glucose.

The test strip consists of a trigger electrode and a reference electrode. When blood is placed on the test
strip, a simple chemical reaction takes place and an electrical current is generated, which is directly
proportional to the concentration of glucose.

Internally, the Glucometer consists of a powerful processor like a Cortex-M3 or Cortex-M4 along with
current to voltage converter, amplifier, filter and a display unit.

Different Types of Biosensors

Biosensors are classified into two groups i.e. either based on the Biological Element used in the
analysis or the method of transduction implemented. As mentioned already, some of the commonly
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used biological elements or bio-recognition elements are DNA, enzymes, antibodies, microorganisms,
tissues, cell receptors etc.

The next and most commonly used classification of Biosensors is based on the type of transduction
used in the sensor i.e. type of physiochemical resulting from the sensing event. Further, the biosensors
based on method of transduction are again divided into three types. They are:

 Mass based Biosensors

 Optical based Biosensors
 Electrochemical Biosensors
There are again few subclasses in each of these types. The following image shows a comprehensive
list of different types of Biosensors.

Piezoelectric Biosensors
They are a subdivision of Mass based Biosensors. Piezoelectric Biosensors are also known as Acoustic
Biosensors as they are based on the principle of sound vibrations i.e. acoustics. When a mechanical
force is applied on a piezoelectric biosensor, they produce an electrical signal.

The biological elements are attached to the surface of the piezoelectric biosensor. The piezoelectric
biosensor, which is essentially a mass to frequency converter, converts the mechanical vibrations of
the sensing molecules into proportional electrical signals.

Electrochemical Biosensors
In electrochemical biosensors, the biological molecules are coated onto a probing surface. The sensing
molecules are held in place with the help of non-interfering membrane. Then, the sensing molecules
react appropriately to the compound to be detected and produces an electrical signal proportional to
the quantity being measured.
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Electrochemical Biosensors can employ various types of transducers like Potentiometric,

Amperometric, Impedimetric etc. converting the chemical information into a measurable electrical
signal.

Optical Biosensors
Optical Fibers play an important role in Optical Biosensors. The optical fibers allow detection of the
sensing elements based on the different properties of light like absorption, scattering and fluorescence.

The reaction causes changes in either of the above mentioned properties as a result of the change in the
refractive index of the interacting surface. For example, if the biological elements are antibodies and
are bound with a metal layer, the refractive index of the medium which comes in contact with this
layer will be varied.

One of the main advantages of using optical biosensors is their non-electrical nature. This allows them
to analyze multiple elements on a single layer just by varying the wavelength of the light.

Applications of Biosensors
Since their development in the early 1950’s, Biosensors have become very important in the fields of
medicine, clinical analysis and in general health monitoring. The advantages of biosensors over lab
based equipment are as follows:

 Small size
 Low cost
 Quick results
 Very easy to use
Apart from the desired medicine and health based applications, Biosensors have also found critical
applications in several other fields like industrial processing, agriculture, food processing, pollution
control etc.

So, the following is a small list of the potential fields where Biosensors are frequently used.

 Medicine, Clinical and Diagnostic Applications

 Environmental Monitoring
 Industrial Applications
 Food Industry
 Agriculture Industry
Let us briefly take a look at these areas of application of Biosensors individually.

Medicine, Clinical and Diagnostic Applications

The main area of interest of Biosensor is the Medicine, Clinical and Diagnostics applications.
Electrochemical based Biosensors are commonly used in biochemical labs and clinics to monitor and
measure glucose levels as well as lactic acid.

Commercial Biosensor in the field of personal health care are becoming quite popular, especially, self-
monitoring of blood glucose. The main advantage of this method is the blood samples cannot be
contaminated and also it is undiluted for more accurate results.

Earlier self-monitoring devices are one-time use applications i.e. test can be performed for a single
time and the sensor must be disposed after that. But advances in this field allows, reusable sensors for
improved patient care.  
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Environmental Monitoring
One of the major application of Biosensor is in the field of Environmental Pollution Monitoring.
Especially, water pollution monitoring is an area where Biosensors have substantial advantage. There
are numbering pollutants that are contaminating ground water and as a result the quality drinking
water is getting worse.

Biosensors with sensing elements for nitrates and phosphates are becoming common for battling water
pollutants.

Another important application is for the military to detect chemicals and hazardous biological
specimens that can be used a bio-weapons.  

Industrial Applications
Fermentation is a large industrial operation used in dairy, alcohol and other similar products. Large
scale Bacteria and cell culture must be maintained for this purpose. In order to minimize the cost of
production and risk free fermentation, it is essential to monitor these delicate yet expensive processes.

Biosensors are designed to monitor and measure the generation of a fermented product.  

Food Industry
Commercial Biosensors that can measure carbohydrates, acids, alcohol, etc. are already available in
the market. Biosensors are used in food industry for food quality control for measurement of amino
acids, carbohydrates, alcohols, gases, etc.

Some of the common food industries are Wine, Beer, Yogurt, soft drinks etc.

Agriculture Industry
Biosensors in the field of agriculture are generally used for detection of pesticides.

6) Diffrentiate between phytostabilization and phytotransformation ?

7) List the indicators of sustainability ?
8) Energy
9) Emissions
10) Water
11) Materials
12) Waste
13) Injuries
14) Pay equity

15) What is meant by ecological footprint?

The impact of human activities measured in terms of the area of biologically productive land and water required to produce
the goods consumed and to assimilate the wastes generated.

Section B
1) Impact of elevated co2 concentration on plants at general biochemical and single
leaf levels?
2) Role of microbes in abatement of organic pollution ?
3) How does deposition of acidifying substances impact terrestrial ecosystems ?
4) Give a brief account of Biodiversity ecosystem function relationship?
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Section C
1) Describe chapman cycle of stratospheric ozone formation and explain how different natural
and anthropogenic chemical species degrade stratospheric ozone. Why is ozone whole
formed over Antartica?
2) Bioremedation?
3) Tradational ecological knowledge and Ecological restoriation
4) Impact of So2 on plants and EIA?

BIOENERGETICS AND METABOLISM

Section A
1) What is meant by gibbs free energy?
Gibbs free energy is a portion of total energy of a system that is available for useful work. Change
in free energy is denoted by ΔG under constant temp. And pressure relationship between change in
free energy and change in entropy is ΔG = ΔH + ΔS
2) Define activation energy?
Minimum amount of extra energy required by a reacting molecules to get converted into products.
Denoted by Ea
3) Difference between Prepatory phase and Pay off phase ?
Prepratory phase also called glucose activation phase. Here 2 molecules of ATP are invested and
hexose chain is cleaved into 2 triose phosphates
In pay off phase cell gains 2 ATP molecules and 2 NADH compounds at the end glucose gets
partially oxidized to pyruvate
4) Define substrate level phosphorylation ?
SLP is a metabolism reaction that results in the production of ATP or GTP by the transfer of
phosphate group from a substrate directly to ATP or ADP
5) Define role of any 3 enzymes involved in krebs cycle?
Citrate synthase : condensation of acetyl CoA and OAA to yield citrate and coenzyme A
Aconitase : causes isomerisation reaction in which water is ist added then removed back, moves
the hydroxyl group from one carbon atom to its neighbour
Isocitrate dehydrogenase : oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate to α ketoglutarate
6) Role of light harvesting complexes in photosynthesis?
LHC contain pigments that absorb light for photosynthesis, transferring it to photosyseem reaction
centre that turn solsr energy into chemical energy
7) What are the various components of F1 complex of ATP synthase ?
3α 3β γ δ έ
8) What is meant by phosphoryl group transfer ?
It is a chemical process of transfer of the phosphoryl group (Po3) from a phosphate ester or
anhydride to a nucleophile
9) Explain the role of GOGAT ?
10) What are nod factors ?
These are signalling molecules produced by soil bacteria known as rhizobia in response to
flavonoid exudation from plants under nitrogen limited conditions. These initiate the establishment
of a symbiotic relationship between legumes and rhizobia by inducing nadulation
11) What is meant by S state hypothesis in water oxidation of photosynthesis?
12) What is meant by reversible phosphorylation of LHC II protein?
13) Explain the reduction of NAD to NADH+H ?
When NAD+ is converted to NADH , it gains 2 things 1) a charged hydrogen molecule (H+) 2) 2
electrons . the combination of +vely charged NAD+ and H+ coupled with 2 electrons, effectively
cancel each other out and neutralize the resulting NADH molecule
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14) What are nif genes ?

The nif genes are genes encoding enzymes involved in fixation of atm. Nitrogen into a form of
nitrogen available to living organisms . the primary enzyme encoded by nif genes is nitrogenase
complex which is in charge of converting atmospheric nitrogen to other nitrogen forms such as
ammonia which the organisms can use for various purposes
15) Define competitive inhibition ?
It occurs when molecule very similar to the substrate molecules bind to the active site and prevent
binding of actual substrate e.g penicillin
16) Name various types of C4 plants with one example each ?
17) Define free energy ?
18) What is entropy with respect to Biological systems?
19) What is meant by cyanide resistant respiration
20) What are waxes ?
21) What are Isoenzymes ?
22) Define the role of any 3 enzymes associated with glycolysis?
23) What is photophosphorylation?
It is the process of producing ATP mol. From the ADP during the biological process of
photosynthesis in presence of sun light . therefore it is also known as light dependent reaction
24) Calculate the total number of ATP molecules formed during the conversion of palmitic acid
into 8 acetyl coA molecules ?
Activation of palmitate to palmitoyl CoA = consumes 2ATP
Oxidation of 8 acetyl CoA = 8×10 = 80
Oxidation of 7 FADH2 = 7×1.5 = 10.5
Oxidation of 7 NADH =7×2.5 = 17.5
Total = 108-2 = 106
SECTION B
1) Describe the concept of Free Energy?
2) Give brief account about classification of lipids?
3) Mechanism of Biological nitrogen fixation?
4) Synthesis and release of ATP by binding change mechanism?
5) Beta oxidation of palmitic acid?
6) Phosphoryl group transfer and ATP ?
7) What are coupling reactions ? explain with examples ?
SECTION C
1) Current concept about mechanism of enzyme action ?
2) Biosynthesis of palmitic acid in plants?
3) Describe TCA with the help of suitable reactions?
4) Process of photorespiration and its significance?
5) Describe Michaelis Menton equation and its significance ?
6) Mechanism of assimilation of nitrate ions?
7) Glyoxylate cycle ?
8) Co2 fixization in CAM plants?
9) Co2 fixation in C3 plants?
Cytogenetics
Section A
1) Define primary ,secondry,tertiary trisomics?
Extra chromosome is normal and homologous to 1 pair of homologues in the chromosome complement,
each chromosome exerts a saperate effect on the phenotype of the plant e.g D stromium (2n +1 =25)
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When extra chr. Is iso chromosome , the aneuploid is called sec. Trisomic . its formula is 2n+iso one chr.
Arm is represented 4 times
The cell or individual carrying a translocated extra chr. The ends of extra chr. Are homologous to the ends
of two different chr.s that are non homologous
2) Define B chromosome? How does it differ from Autosomes?
3) What is bar eye locus and why it is famous in cytogenetics?
Bar eye locous is a region of tendem repeates
4) What are Robertsonian translocations?
A special pattern of translocation involving 2 acrocentric chrs. Is called centric fusion type or robertsonian
translocation. Type of reciprocal translocation involving 2 acrocentric chrs. Breaks occur close to
centromere affecting short arms of both chr. Transfer of segments leads to 1 very large chr. And 1 small
one ( 13-14 14_21 14-15)
5) Diffrentiate between chromosome and chromatid?

6) Discuss the uses of monosomics in constituting the substitution lines?

7) Give some examples of alien substitution lines?

Wheat , cotton , tobacco, oats
8) What is Genetic Drift?
Evolutionary change in the allelic frequencies of a pop. As a matter of chance. It occurs in very small pops.
But its effects are small . it occurs due to error in selecting the allels for next generation from the gene pool
of current generation. It does not occur due to env. influences
9) Define cistron?
Segment of DNA that codes for a polypeptide during protein synthesis. DNA segment with one cistron is
called mono cistronic
10) What is frame shift mutation?
It is a mutation caused by deletion or insertion in a DNA sequence that shifts the way the sequence is read.
This shift results in modification of AA seq. During protein translation
11) What are base analoges?
These are the chemicals with similar structures to that of any of the 4 standard bases of DNA e.g 5BU –
thymine, 2AP -adenine
12) Constitutive and facultative heterochromatin?
13) C- value paradox?
14) Symmetric and asymmetric karyotype?
15) Pseudo-Dominance and position effect?
16) Chromosome and Chromatid segregation?
17) Turner syndrome?
18) 2c and 4c DNA content?
Amount of DNA present in diploid set of chrs. Which gets duplicated in s phase of cell cycle
Section B
1) Explain Molecular organization of centromere and telomere?
2) Discuss the origin, meiosis and breeding behaviour of paracentric and pericentric inversion
heterozygotes?
3) Give an account of various method for production of aneuploids? Discuess the uses of
monosomics constituting the substitution lines?
4) What is the significance of chromosome condensation?discuss the organization of eukaryotic
chromosome?
5) Charecteristics of B chromosome and the factors that influence their distribution in plant
kingdom?
6) Origin, meiosis and breeding behaviour of autotriploids and add note on economic importance
and drawbacks?
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Section C
1) Give a detailed account of origin of allopolyploids and its role in evolution of crop plants? Discuess
the synthesis of hexaploid triticale and mention its Drawbacks?
2) What do you understand by the term structural changes in chromosomes?Describe different
structural alterations and discuss their significance in cytogenetics?
3) Discuss briefly the various methods for the transfer of useful alien genetic material in polyploidy
like wheat involving a) whole genome b) part of genome c) whole individual chromosome?
4) Karyotype evolution and molecular organization of eukaryotic chromosome?
5) Repetitive DNA and its significance , types with examples?
6) Robertsonian translocation, paracentric inversion and origin and meiotic behaviour of duplication
heterozygote?
7) Role of allopolypolidy in crop evolution, origin and meiotic behaviour of trisomics and tetrasomics?
8) Methods of production of alien addition and substitution lines?
9)