Useful formulas for the AMC

Math31415926535
January 2021

1 The Basics (must know)

1.1 Pythagorean Theorem
In a right triangle with side lengths a, b, and c, with a and b being the legs and c being
the hypotenouse, a2 + b2 = c2 .

1.2 Quadratic Formula

Let a quadratic
√
equation be in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, the roots of the quadratic are
2
x = −b± 2ab −4ac

1.3 Stars and Bars

 
n+k−1
Formula where k in the number of identical objects to distribute to n things: n−1

1.4 Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion

If (Ai )1≤i≤n are finite sets, then:
| ni=1 Ai | = ni=1 |Ai |− i<j |Ai ∩ Aj |+ i<j<k |Ai ∩ Aj ∩ Ak |−· · · +(−1)n−1 |A1 ∩ · · · ∩ An |
S P P P

2 More formulas (useful)

2.1 Polynomial formulas
2.1.1 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
It states that a single variable polynomial with degree n has exactly n complex roots.

2.1.2 Factor theorem

The Factor Theorem states that if p(x) is a polynomial, then x − a is a factor of p(x) if
an only if p(a) = 0.

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2.1.3 Polynomial Remainder Theorem
When a polynomial f (x) is divided by x − a, the remainder is f (a).

2.1.4 Conjugate Root Theorem

The Conjugate Root Theorem states that if P (x) is a polynomial
√ with real coefficients,
and a + bi is a root of the equation P (x) = 0, where i = −1, then a − bi is also a
root. √
A similar theorem states that if P (x) is a polynomial
√ with rational coefficients and
a + b c is a root of the polynomial, then a − b c is also a root.

2.1.5 Rational Root Theorem

Given a polynomial P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 with integral coefficients,
an 6= 0. The Rational Root Theorem states that if P (x) has a rational root r = ± pq with
p, q relatively prime positive integers, p is a divisor of a0 and q is a divisor of an .

2.1.6 Vieta’s Formula

Let P (x) be a polynomial of degree n, so P (x) = an xn +an−1 xn−1 +· · ·+a1 x+a0 , where the
coefficient of xi is ai and an 6= 0. We can also write P (x) = an (x − r1 )(x − r2 ) · · · (x − rn ),
where ri are the roots of P (x). We thus have that
an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 = an (x − r1 )(x − r2 ) · · · (x − rn ). Expanding out the
right-hand side gives us
an xn −an (r1 +r2 +· · ·+rn )xn−1 +an (r1 r2 +r1 r3 +· · ·+rn−1 rn )xn−2 +· · ·+(−1)n an r1 r2 · · · rn .
The coefficient of xk in this expression will be the (n − k)-th elementary symmetric sum
of the ri . And this gives us some relationships between the roots of the polynomial and
the coefficients of the polynomial.

2.1.7 Newton’s Sums

Consider a polynomial P (x) of degree n,
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 Let P (x) = 0 have roots x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . Define
the following sums:
P1 = x 1 + x 2 + · · · + x n
P2 = x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n
..
.
Pk = xk1 + xk2 + · · · + xkn
..
.
Newton sums tell us that,
an P1 + an−1 = 0
an P2 + an−1 P1 + 2an−2 = 0
an P3 + an−1 P2 + an−2 P1 + 3an−3 = 0
..
.

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2.2 Formulas on special factorizations
2.2.1 Basics factorizations (must know)
a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)
a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )

2.2.2 more advanced factorizations

an − bn = (a − b)(an−1 + an−2 b + · · · + abn−2 + bn−1 )
if n is odd:
an + bn = (a + b)(an−1 − an−2 b + an−3 b2 − an−4 b3 + · · · + bn−1 )
(a+b+c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca)
(a + b + c)3 = a3 + b3 + c3 + 3(a + b)(b + c)(c + a)
(a + b + c)5 = a5 + b5 + c5 + 5(a + b)(b + c)(c + a)(a2 + b2 + c2 + ab + bc + ca)
(a+b+c)7 = a7 +b7 +c7 +7(a+b)(b+c)(c+a)((a2 +b2 +c2 +ab+bc+ca)2 +abc(a+b+c))
a4 + 4b4 = (a2 + 2b2 + 2ab)(a2 + 2b2 − 2ab)

2.3 Formulas for sum of series

n(n+1)
, and in general bi=a i = (b−a+1)(a+b)
Pn P
i=1 i = 2 2
Pn 2 n(n+1)(2n+1)
i=1 i = 6
n(n+1) 2
 
Pn 3 Pn 2
i=1 i = ( i=1 i) = 2
Pn xn+1 −1 b+1 −ca
n
= x−1 , and in general bi=a ci = c c−1
P
i=0 x
 
Pn n n
i=0 i = 2

2.4 Inequalities
2.4.1 AM-GM inequality
For a set of nonnegative real numbers a1 , a2 , . . . , an , the following always holds: a1 +a2 +...+an
≥
√
n a a ···a
n
1 2 n

2.4.2 Cauchy-Schwartz inequality

For any real numbers a1 , . . . , an and b1 , . . . , bn ,
n
!2 n
! n
!
a2i b2i
X X X
ai b i ≤
i=1 i=1 i=1

with equality when there exists a nonzero constant µ such that for all 1 ≤ i ≤ n, µai = bi .

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2.5 Theorems in Number Theory
2.5.1 Fermat’s Little Theorem
If a is an integer, p is a prime number and a is not divisible by p, then ap−1 ≡ 1 (mod p).
A frequently used corollary of Fermat’s Little Theorem is ap ≡ a (mod p).

2.5.2 Euler’s Totient Function

Let φ(n) be Euler’s totient function. If n is a positive integer, φ(n) is the number of
integers in the range {1, 2, 3 · · · , n} which are relatively prime to n, then
! ! !
1 1 1
φ(n) = n 1 − 1− ··· 1 − .
p1 p2 pm

2.5.3 Euler’s Totient Theorem

Let φ(n) be Euler’s totient function. If n is a positive integer, φ(n) is the number of
integers in the range {1, 2, 3 · · · , n} which are relatively prime to n. If a is an integer
and m is a positive integer relatively prime to a,Then aφ(m) ≡ 1 (mod m).

2.5.4 Modular Arithmetic Identities

Addition: a + c ≡ b + d (mod m).
Subtraction: a − c ≡ b − d (mod m).
Multiplication: ac ≡ bd (mod m).
Division: ae ≡ eb (mod gcd(m,e)
m
), where e is a positive integer that divides a and b.
e e
Exponentiation: a ≡ b (mod m) where e is a positive integer.

2.5.5 Wilson’s Theorem

Wilson’s Theorem states that if integer p > 1 , then (p − 1)! + 1 is divisible by p if and
only if p is prime.

2.5.6 Legendre’s Formula

Legendre’s Formula states that
∞ j k n − Sp (n)
npi =
X
ep (n!) =
i=1 p−1

where p is a prime and ep (n!) is the exponent of p in the prime factorization of n! and
Sp (n) is the sum of the digits of n when written in base p

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2.6 Formulas in Combinatorics
2.6.1 Binomial Theorem
The Binomial Theorem states that for real
 or complex a, b, and non-negative integer n,
n Pn n n−k k n n!
(a + b) = k=0 k a b where k = k!(n−k)! is a binomial coefficient. In other
n
words, the coefficients when (a + b) is expanded and like terms are collected are the
same as the entries in the nth row of Pascal’s Triangle.

2.6.2 Euler’s Polyhedral Formula

Let P be any convex polyhedron, and let V , E and F denote the number of vertices,
edges, and faces, respectively. Then V − E + F = 2.

2.7 Formulas in Geometry

2.7.1 Power of a Point Theorems
There are three possibilities as displayed in the figures below.
1. The two lines are chords of the circle and intersect inside the circle (figure on the
left). In this case, we have AE · CE = BE · DE.
2. One of the lines is tangent to the circle while the other is a secant (middle figure). In
this case, we have AB 2 = BC · BD.
3. Both lines are secants of the circle and intersect outside of it (figure on the right). In
this case, we have CB · CA = CD · CE.

2.7.2 Heron’s Formula

For any triangle with side lengths a, b, c, the area A can be found using the following
formula:
q
A = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
where the semi-perimeter s = a+b+c
2
.

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2.7.3 Ptolemy’s Theorem
Given a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD with side lengths a, b, c, d and diagonals e, f :
ac + bd = ef.

2.7.4 Shoelace Theorem

Suppose the polygon P has vertices (a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b2 ), ... , (an , bn ), listed in clockwise
order. Then the area (A) of P is

A = 12 |(a1 b2 + a2 b3 + · · · + an b1 ) − (b1 a2 + b2 a3 + · · · + bn a1 )|

You can also go counterclockwise order, as long as you find the absolute value of the
answer.

2.7.5 Stewart’s Theorem

Given a triangle 4ABC with sides of length a, b, c opposite vertices are A, B, C, re-
spectively. If cevian AD is drawn so that BD = m, DC = n and AD = d, we have that
b2 m + c2 n = amn + d2 a. (This is also often written man + dad = bmb + cnc, a form
which invites mnemonic memorization, i.e. ”A man and his dad put a bomb in the sink.”)

2.7.6 Ceva’s Theorem

Let ABC be a triangle, and let D, E, F be points on lines BC, CA, AB, respectively.
Lines AD, BE, CF are concurrent if and only if

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 BD CE AF
DC
· EA
· FB
= 1,

2.7.7 Menelaus’ Theorem

If line P Q intersecting AB on 4ABC, where P is on BC, Q is on the extension of AC,
and R on the intersection of P Q and AB, then
P B QC AR
· · = 1.
CP QA RB

2.7.8 Pick’s Theorem

Pick’s Theorem expresses the area of a polygon, all of whose vertices are lattice points
in a coordinate plane, in terms of the number of lattice points inside the polygon and
the number of lattice points on the sides of the polygon. The formula is:
A = I + 12 B − 1
where I is the number of lattice points in the interior and B being the number of
lattice points on the boundary.

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2.7.9 Carnot’s Theorem
Carnot’s Theorem states that in a triangle ABC, the signed sum of perpendicular dis-
tances from the circumcenter O to the sides (i.e., signed lengths of the pedal lines from
O) is:

OOA + OOB + OOC = R + r

2.8 Trigonometry Identities

sin(90 − θ) = cos(θ)
cos(90 − θ) = sin(θ)
tan(90 − θ) = cot(θ)
sin(180 − θ) = sin(θ)
cos(180 − θ) = − cos(θ)
tan(180 − θ) = − tan(θ)
eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ
(tan θ + sec θ)2 = 1−sin
1+sin θ
θ
sin(θ) = cos(θ) tan(θ)
sin(θ)
cos(θ) = tan(θ)
sec(θ) = tan(θ)
sin(θ)
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
1 + cot2 x = csc2 x
tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x
sin(α ± β) = sin α cos β ± sin β cos α
cos(α ± β) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β
tan α±tan β
tan(α ± β) = 1∓tan α tan β

sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α

cos 2α = cos2 α − sin2 α
= 2 cos2 α − 1
= 1 − 2 sin2 α

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 2 tan α
tan 2α =
1 − tan2 α
q
sin 2θ = ± 1−cos θ
2
q
cos 2θ =± 1+cos θ
q 2
tan 2θ = ± 1−cos θ
1+cos θ
sin θ
= 1+cos θ
= 1−cos
sin θ
θ
sin θ + sin γ = 2 sin θ+γ
2
cos θ−γ
2
θ−γ θ+γ
sin θ − sin γ = 2 sin 2 cos 2
cos θ + cos γ = 2 cos θ+γ 2
cos θ−γ
2
cos θ − cos γ = −2 sin θ+γ 2
sin θ−γ
2
a
sin A
= sinb B = sinc C = 2R
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A.

2.9 Logarithm Identities

logan bn = loga b
logb a = log da
logd b
logb x − logb y = logb (x/y)
blogb x = x
logb x + logb y = logb (xy)
logb xy = y logb x