PAPER# 1

Anthony F. Mangila

1. Statistics -deals with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data. We see and use data
in our everyday lives. In statistics, we generally want to study a population. You can think of a population
as a collection of persons, things, or objects under study. To study the population, we select a sample.
The idea of sampling is to select a portion (or subset) of the larger population and study that portion
(the sample) to gain information about the population. Data are the result of sampling from a
population. A statistic is a number that represents a property of the sample. Two words that come up
often in statistics are mean and proportion.
2. Descriptive- statistics are brief descriptive coefficients that summarize a given data set, which can be either
a representation of the entire or a sample of a population. Descriptive statistics are broken down into
measures of central tendency and measures of variability. Descriptive statistics are very important
because if we simply presented our raw data it would be hard to visualize what the data was showing,
especially if there was a lot of it. Descriptive statistics therefore enables us to present the data in a more
meaningful way, which allows simpler interpretation of the data.
3. Inferential-statistics allow you to test a hypothesis or assess whether your data is generalizable to the
broader population. Inferential statistics are often used to compare the differences between the
treatment groups. Inferential statistics use measurements from the sample of subjects in the
experiment to compare the treatment groups and make generalizations about the larger population of
subjects.
4. A variable is a quantity that may change within the context of a mathematical problem or experiment.
Typically, we use a single letter to represent a variable. In statistics, a variable has two defining
characteristics: A variable is an attribute that describes a person, place, thing, or idea. The value of the
variable can "vary" from one entity to another.
5. Data are characteristics or information, usually numerical, that are collected through observation. In a
more technical sense, data are a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables about one or more
persons or objects, while a datum (singular of data) is a single value of a single variable. There are two
general types of data Quantitative and Qualitative. QUANTITATIVE DATA - Quantitative data is
information that you can measure. It’s numbers something you can count because, it’s countable it can
be reliable evidence. QUALITATIVE DATA - Qualitative data is information about qualities, you can’t
count it. That is, it’s information about how people feel about something.
6. Independent variable, sometimes called an experimental or predictor variable, is a variable that is being
manipulated in an experiment in order to observe the effect on a dependent variable, sometimes called
an outcome variable.
7. Dependent variable is what you measure in the experiment and what is affected during the experiment.
The dependent variable responds to the independent variable. It is called dependent because it
"depends" on the independent variable. In a scientific experiment, you cannot have a dependent
variable without an independent variable.
8. Quantitative variable is a variable which can have some numerical value it can be represented in numbers.
Also, arithmetic operations can be performed on these variables even after performing operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication or division, we get some number as the result. These variables can
also be compared with each other to obtain meaningful results. Quantitative variables can be of two
types – discrete and continuous. Discrete variables have whole numbers as their values whereas
continuous variables can even have values in between the whole numbers. qualitative variable, also
called a categorical variable, is a variable that isn't numerical. It describes data that fits into categories.
9. Qualitative Information involves a descriptive judgment using concept words instead of numbers. Gender,
country name, animal species, and emotional state are examples of qualitative information.
10. Discrete variable is a variable whose value is obtained by counting. A discrete random variable X has a
countable number of possible values.
11. Continuous variables can take on an unlimited number of values between the lowest and highest points
of measurement. Continuous variables include such things as speed and distance. Discrete data are
associated with a limited number of possible values.
12. Nominal variable is a type of variable that is used to name, label or categorize particular attributes that
are being measured. It takes qualitative values representing different categories, and there is no intrinsic
ordering of these categories. Some examples of nominal variables include gender, Name, phone, etc.
13. Ordinal data 13. Ordinal data is a statistical type of quantitative data in which variables exist in naturally
occurring ordered categories. In statistics, a group of ordinal numbers indicates ordinal data and a group
of ordinal data are represented using an ordinal scale.
14. Interval data is measured along a numerical scale that has equal distances between adjacent values.
These distances are called “intervals.” There is no true zero on an interval scale, which is what
distinguishes it from a ratio scale. An interval is a distinct measure of time or the physical or temporal
distance between two things.
15. Ratio is a way to show a relationship or compare two numbers of the same kind. We use ratios to
compare things of the same type. For example, we may use a ratio to compare the number of boys to
the number of girls in your class room.
16. A personal interview survey, also called as a face-to-face survey, is a survey method that is utilized when
a specific target population is involved. The purpose of conducting a personal interview survey is to
explore the responses of the people to gather more and deeper information. Interviews are used to
collect data from a small group of subjects on a broad range of topics. You can use structured or
unstructured interviews. Structured interviews are comparable to a questionnaire, with the same
questions in the same order for each subject and with multiple choice answers.
17. Questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set of questions or other types of prompts that
aims to collect information from a respondent. The questionnaire is the main instrument for collecting
data in survey research. Basically, it is a set of standardized questions, often called items, which follow a
fixed scheme in order to collect individual data about one or more specific topics. Sometimes
questionnaires are confused with interviews.
18. Registration method refers to continuous, permanent, compulsory recording of the occurrence of vital
events together with certain identifying or descriptive characteristics concerning them, as provided
through the civil code, laws or regulations of each country.
19. Experimental design is the branch of statistics that deals with the design and analysis of experiments. In
an experimental study, variables of interest are identified. One or more of these variables, referred to as
the factors of the study, are controlled so that data may be obtained about how the factors influence
another variable referred to as the response variable, or simply the response.
20. Observation in statistics is a value of something of interest you're measuring or counting during a study or
experiment a person's height, a bank account value at a certain point in time, or number of animals.
“Observation unit” means the same thing in this context. Data point or observation is a set of one or
more measurements on a single member of unit of observation. For example, in a study of the
determinants of money demand with the unit of observation being the individual, a data point might be
the values of income, wealth, age of individual, and number of dependents.
21. Random sampling ensures that results obtained from your sample should approximate what would have
been obtained if the entire population had been measured. The simplest random sample allows all the
units in the population to have an equal chance of being selected. Random sampling is a method used to
cull a smaller sample size from a larger population and use it to research and make generalizations
about the larger group.
22. Systematic sampling is simpler and more straightforward than random sampling. It can also be more
conducive to covering a wide study area. On the other hand, systematic sampling introduces certain
arbitrary parameters in the data. This can cause over- or under-representation of particular patterns.Use
systematic sampling when there's low risk of data manipulation. Systematic sampling is the preferred
method over simple random sampling when a study maintains a low risk of data manipulation.
23. In statistics, stratified sampling is a method of sampling from a population which can be partitioned into
subpopulations. In statistical surveys, when subpopulations within an overall population vary, it could be
advantageous to sample each subpopulation independently.
24. Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method in which you divide a population into clusters, such as
districts or schools, and then randomly select some of these clusters as your sample. In single-stage
sampling, you collect data from every unit within the selected clusters.This method is usually conducted
when groups that are similar yet internally diverse form a statistical population. Instead of selecting the
entire population, cluster sampling allows the researchers to collect data by bifurcating the data into
small, more productive groups.
25. Quota sampling is a sampling methodology wherein data is coll
26. Convenience Sampling- is a method of collecting samples by taking samples that are
conveniently located around a location or Internet service. 
27. Snowball Sampling- s a purposeful method of data collection in qualitative research.
28. Purposive Sampling- known as judgmental, selective, or subjective sampling, is a form of non-
probability sampling in which researchers rely on their own judgment when choosing members
of the population to participate in their study.
29. Graphical Presentation-  another way of analysing numerical data. A graph is a sort of chart
through which statistical data are represented in the form of lines or curves drawn across the
coordinated points plotted on its surface
30. Bar Graph- Bar graphs transform the data into separate bars or columns. Generally, this type of
visuals have categories on the x-axis and the numbers on the y-axis. So, you can compare
statistical data between different groups. The words used to describe bar chart are pretty
similar to ones used for the line charts.
31. Line graph- This type of charts converts information into points on a grid that is connected with
a line to represent trends, changes, or relationship between objects, numbers, dates, etc. These
lines show movement over time affected by the increase or decrease in the key factors.
32. Pie Graph- pie chart is primarily used to illustrate how different parts make up a whole. The best
way to present your data in a pie chart is to compare the categories with each other. The
following comparison words can be used interchangeably to compare
33. Pictograph-  a graph that shows numerical information by using picture symbols or icon s to
represent data sets. The advantage of using a pictograph is that it is easy to read.
34. Histogram- a display that indicates the frequency of specified ranges of continuous data values
on a graph in the form of immediately adjacent bars.
35. Stem and Leaf Plot A stem and leaf plot is a way to plot data where the data is split
into stems the largest digit and leaves the smallest digits. The stem and leaf plot is used like a
histogram; it allows you to compare data. While a histogram uses bars to represent amounts,
the leaves of the stemplot represent amounts.
36. Box and Whiskers Plot- Boxplots are a standardized way of displaying the distribution of data
based on a five number summary (“minimum”, first quartile (Q1), median, third quartile (Q3),
and “maximum”).
37. Grouped and Ungrouped Data- Ungrouped data is the data you first gather from an experiment
or study. The data is raw — that is, it’s not sorted into categories, classified, or otherwise
grouped. An ungrouped set of data is basically a list of numbers.
38. Mean (Ungrouped)-  mean is the arithmetic average of all the observations in the data. It is also
the balancing point of the data. The mean is found by adding up all of the observations and
dividing by the total number of observations, n.
39. Median (Ungrouped)- The formulas for calculating the median of an ungrouped data, which has
"n" number of observations.
40. Mode (Ungrouped)- Mode of an ungrouped data is equal to the most frequent observation in
the data. Data can consists of more than one mode.
41. Mean (Grouped)-  mean of grouped data, the first step is to determine the midpoint of each
interval, or class
42. Median (Grouped)- To calculate median of a grouped data (which has class and fre quency
distribution) we need to Make a new column for cumulative frequency. Use the
formula (n2)th(n2)th, where n is the sum of all frequency values.

43. Mode Grouped- The mode of a list of data values is simply the most common value .When data
is grouped (binned) as in a histogram, we normally talk only about the modal class (the class,
or group, with the greatest frequency), because we don't know the individual values.
44. Quartile- Quartiles are values that divide your data into quarters. However, quartiles aren’t
shaped like pizza slices, Instead they divide your data into four segments according to where
the numbers fall on the number line.
45. Decile- is used to categorize large data sets from highest to lowest values, or vice versa. Like
the quartile and the percentile, a decile is a form of a quantile that divides a set of observations
into samples that are easier to analyze and measure.
46. Percentile- a percentile or a centile is a score below which a given percentage of scores in its
frequency distribution fall exclusive definition or a score at or below which a given percentage
fall.
47. Hypothesis- The main purpose of statistics is to test a hypothesis. For example, you might run an
experiment and find that a certain drug is effective at treating headaches. But if you can't
repeat that experiment, no one will take your results seriously.
48. Null Hypothesis-  is a type of hypothesis used in statistics that proposes that there is no
difference between certain characteristics of a population or data-generating process.
49. Alternative Hypothesis- An alternative hypothesis is one in which a difference (or an effect)
between two or more variables is anticipated by the researchers; that is, the observed pattern
of the data is not due to a chance occurrence
50 Type I and II Error- In statistical analysis, a type I error is the rejection of a true null hypothesis,
whereas a type II error describes the error that occurs when one fails to reject a null hypothesis
that is actually false. The error rejects the alternative hypothesis, even though it does not occur
due to chance.