MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND TERTIARY EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT

KUSHINGA PHIKELELA POLYTECHNIC

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

SUBJECT: RESARCH METHODS AND STATISTICS

QUESTION 1

Critically discuss the use of the two data collection methods listed below:

a) Personal interview (20 marks)

b) Postal questionnaire method (20 marks)

QUESTION 2

Identify and explain the five steps of the research process. (20 marks)

QUESTION 3

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of personal interview. (20 marks)

QUESTION 4

Discuss the four non-probability sampling techniques given below:

a) Convenience sampling (5 marks)

b) Judgmental sampling (5 marks)

c) Quota sampling (5 marks)

d) Snowball sampling (5 marks)

QUESTION 5

Discuss the role and characteristics of a research proposal in research. (20 marks)

QUESTION 6
Identify and explain the four levels of measurement of research data. (20 marks)

QUESTION 7
Discuss the importance of studying related literature when carrying out a research study. (20 marks)

QUESTION 8
Identify sources of literature and discuss their use in research. (20 marks)

QUESTION 9
Explain the following qualitative data collection methods.
a) Depth interviews (7marks)
b) Focus group (7marks)
c) Projective techniques (6marks)

QUESTION 10
Discuss what the researcher can do to increase questionnaire response. (20 marks)

QUESTION 11

Describe the nature of a survey research. (20 marks)

QUESTION 12

Explain what internet interviews are. (2 marks)

Discuss the merits and demerits of web surveys. (18 marks)

Question 13

Discuss the following observation methods of collecting research data.

a) Personal observation (10 marks)

b) Participant observation (10 marks)

MARKING GUIDE

QUESTION 1

a) PERSONAL INTERVIEWS
-data is collected by means of face to face communication between the

interviewer (researcher) and the respondents or study participants

-Respondents are contacted, asked questions and the responses are recorded,

therefore, the interviewer’s tasks are to meet the respondents, ask questions and

record the responses on the interview schedule.

-Interviews can be either structured or unstructured.

Structured interview is a method of interviewing where questions are predetermined. Interviews are purposefully
standardized so that each respondent is exposed to the same questions or questionnaire (interview schedule) as well as
the questioning process. This means that the interviewer cannot alter the interview either by:

-adding or deleting questions from the interview schedule or questionnaire

-changing the sequence of the questions

-changing the wording of the questions

Highly structured interviews contain structured questions, that is, questions which require short answers like “Yes” or”
No”

Have a low degree of flexibility. Questions are fixed.

Useful when the respondents are large

An unstructured interview is a method of interview where questions are not completely pre-determined and the
interviewer is free to probe for all details and underlying feelings. Such interviews are used when the researcher wants
to the flexibility of being able to ask questions in different orders to determine the working of specific questions for
different respondents or to be able to probe respondents to clarify certain answers to questions

There is high degree of flexibility. Wording can be changed and also order of questions. Additional questions not,
included on the questionnaire, may be asked to gain more information. Interview schedules are only used as a guide in
questioning

Frequently used in exploratory studies and when the researcher has little understanding or knowledge of the problem.

Questions are open ended. Respondents are not restricted in their responses

Advantages of personal interviews

  Higher response rate is generally achieved because respondents tend to be more cooperative in personal
interviews
 Questioning allows probing for reasons
 Greater data accuracy is generally ensured because the interviewer can help the respondent to understand the
questions
 Data collection is immediate, that is, there is immediate feed back
 Non-verbal responses and visual aids can be observed and noted. Face to face contact can tell the interviewer
a lot about the respondent therefore more data can be collect at one goal. Is a two in one method of collecting
data
 Generally more questions can be asked, permits the longest questionnaire, open-ended and complex questions
to be asked
 Responses are spontaneous, that is, spontaneous answers can be obtained
 The use of aided- recall questions is possible
 Difficult in one question does not result in the loss of answers to all of them
 The respondent does not know what other coming questions when answering so these cannot influence
replies
Disadvantages of personal interviews

 Time consuming and very cost especially when the responses are many
 Respondent anonymity is lost
 It may be difficult to find convenient time for interviewing certain busy people
 Respondents do not have time to consider replies or look up for information therefore pre- mature or
incomplete data can be collected
 Possibility of gathering biased data is introduced by the interviewer’s interest or respondents answering
questions to please the interviewer or the interviewer may influence the respondent’s answers. Appearance,
tone of voice etc of the interviewer may influence responses.
 The method is expensive if the interviewers/ees have to be paid. Interviewers may need to be trained and
paid. In addition, the interviewee may require an incentive if to be involved in the process.
 Very difficult in case of geographically spaced respondents
 Other respondents may not be interested in well-coming unfamiliar visitors in doors
 Generally fewer interviews are conducted because of time and cost constraints. This means that the sample
size is usually restricted by high costs and may not be a representative of the population

b) POSTAL QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD (Mail Interviews)

-Is method of collecting overt primary data

-data is collected by means of mail communication between the researcher and the

respondents

-Questionnaires are mailed (posted) to pre-selected potential respondents

-A complete mail interview package consists of the out- going envelope, cover

letter, questionnaire, return stamped envelope and possibly an incentive for

participation

-Respondents complete and return the questionnaires to the interviewer

-There is no verbal/ oral interaction between the researcher and the respondents

-Is appropriate when the target population from which the data required is large

and geographically dispersed

 -Questionnaires may personally hand administered to respondents and re-

collected

Advantages of mail interviews

i) A larger sample of respondents can be reached. Questionnaires can be distributed widely and to many people
ii) More cost effective, that is, cheaper than personal interviews and can be conducted by a single researcher
iii) Respondents have more time to consider their responses. They have time to consider their opinions and
check on accuracy and current information or records
iv) Anonymity of respondent is assured, generally, result in more honest responses hence avoid interviewer bias
v) Respondents can complete the questionnaire at their own convenient spare time
vi) Questionnaires can be sent out periodically to update the data
Disadvantages of mail interviews

i) Response rate is very low unless there is incentive or legal obligation to reply
ii) Respondent cannot obtain clarity or misunderstood questions and such questions may not be answered or
wrongly answered or answers may be meaningless
iii) Postal or mail questionnaires must be shorter and simpler to complete hence not all questions may be asked
iv) The possibility of probing or investigating further are limited
v) Data collection takes a long time. It is difficult to or no control over how long people take to reply
vi) There is no control over who actually answers the questionnaire. The answers may not be entirely the
respondent’s own. No control over conditions under which the questionnaire is completed
vii) Data cannot be collected from illiterate people.
viii) There is no possibility of check backs to check on the validity of responses.
ix) Knowledge of what questions are to come, later may influence answers to earlier ones
x) There is no spontaneity feedback
xi) Postal questionnaires are difficult to design
xii) Non verbal responses cannot be observed

QUESTION 2

The Research Process

Basically, the research process follows a series of steps as follows:

-Defining the problem and setting research objectives

-Developing the research plan (proposal)

-Collecting the data

-Analyzing the data and derive information

-Presenting of findings

QUESTION 3

 Higher response rate is generally achieved because respondents tend to be more cooperative in personal
interviews
 Questioning allows probing for reasons
 Greater data accuracy is generally ensured because the interviewer can help the respondent to understand the
questions
 Data collection is immediate, that is, there is immediate feedback. Responses are spontaneous
  Non-verbal responses and visual aids can be observed and noted. Face to face contact can tell the interviewer
a lot about the respondent therefore more data can be collect at one goal. Is a two in one method of collecting
data
 Generally more questions can be asked, permits the longest questionnaire, open-ended and complex questions
to be asked
 The use of aided- recall questions is possible
 Difficult in one question does not result in the loss of answers to all of them
 The respondent does not know what other coming questions when answering so these cannot influence
replies
Disadvantages of personal interviews

 Time consuming and very costly especially when the respondents are many and geographically scattered.
 Respondent anonymity is lost.
 It may be difficult to find convenient time for interviewing certain busy people
 Respondents do not have time to consider replies or look up for information therefore pre- mature or
incomplete data can be collected
 Possibility of gathering biased data is introduced by the interviewer’s interest or respondents answering
questions to please the interviewer or the interviewer may influence the respondent’s answers. Appearance,
tone of voice etc of the interviewer may influence responses.
 The method is expensive if the interviewers/ees have to be paid. Interviewers may need to be trained and
paid. In addition, the interviewee may require an incentive if to be involved in the process.
 Other respondents may not be interested in well-coming unfamiliar visitors in doors
 Generally fewer interviews are conducted because of time and cost constraints. This means that the sample
size is usually restricted by high costs and may not be a representative of the population

QUESTION 4

1. Convenience Sampling
- Also known as haphazard or accidental sampling
- This represents a sample drawn to suit the convenience of the researcher e.g. it may be convenient to interview only
employees within one company instead of selecting employees from a number of companies or those available during
the study or readily accessible with minimum effort and costs or friendly to the researcher
- The researcher may also selects anyone he or she happens to come across
- Saves costs and time
- Systematic errors are unpredictable and not measurable on the resultant sample.
- The sample may not be a representative of a the defined population
Convenience sampling is a useful tool in the exploratory phase of research, phase in which h ideas and insights are
more important than scientific objectivity.

2. Judgment Sampling
- The sample consists of sampling units deliberately selected from the population on the basis of the experience,
judgment and expertise used by the researcher to select the best sampling units to include in the sample e.g. a sample
of four of the most influential economists is asked to estimate the next year’s rate of inflation
- Researcher uses his or her judgment to select what he or she thinks to be the best satisfactorily
- This type of sample may be subject to error which although relatively, can still not be measured or predicted.
- Pilot studies are based on such samples
Advantages of judgmental sampling

-Greater elimination of costs and time

-Non-essential are dropped immediately
-Since the researcher is aware of objectives hence only relevant elements and data is gathered
Disadvantages of judgmental sampling
-Bias in estimation
-Strong assumption based upon thorough knowledge of the population may mislead
-Elimination of the use of inferential parameters and statistical tools increase sampling errors
3. Quota Sampling
 - Is a non random sampling in which the researcher first identifies general categories into which cases or people will be
fall and then selects cases from each category to reach a predetermined number of cases in each category.
- The population is divided into a number of segments and the researcher arbitrarily select a quota e.g. a certain
percentage of sampling units of each segment eg under 10, 20 etc
- Chosen in a way that the proportion of sample elements possessing a certain characteristics is approximate the same as
the proportion of the elements with the characteristics of the population
- Elements are assigned a quota that specifies the characteristics of elements to be contacted believed by the researcher to
be more realistic
Advantages of quota sampling

- Permits substitution in case of inability or refusal

- Less expensive and quick sampling method
- Suitable for a population on which no stable population frame is possible
Disadvantages of quota sampling

There is high increase in errors in that:

- Characteristics are not the same characteristics of the population and the sample
- Sample size is not determined using a consistent method
- danger of an error of omission
- Supervision of the interview work is impossible
4 Snowball sampling
Used where respondents are difficult to identify and are based on referrals network.

An individual is initially discovered mostly using a non-probability method, although probability can be used, and is
used to locate others who posses similar characteristics through referrals, who in turn identifies others until the desired
sample size is attained.

This method is used on issues which individuals are unwilling to come up openly; hence incentives can be used to
encourage elements to participate

QUESTION 5

Characteristics of a good research proposal

 Should communicate the importance of the research

 Bears an idea that is worthwhile and account part of community problem
 Should make it clear that the applicant has made a suitable approach to the problem and that the plan of action is
likely to succeed
 Should indicate that the research falls within the area of interest of the sponsor by being properly delimitated
 Should indicate the probable results of the proposed project results so as to justify the expected expenditure
 Should indicate that the researcher has the required capabilities , knowledge etc of the area of research
 Should clearly indicate the delimitation (scope) of the research project
Purpose of research proposal

a) State the purpose of the study

b) State how the research will be executed by:

c) Outlining research methodology to be used e.g. interviews

d) Outlining in detail resources to be used that is time, finance, human, & material

a) Provides the researcher with a guideline in carrying out the research work
QUESTION 6
a) Nominal scale
Is where data of a qualitative random variable such as marital status, gender etc, is assigned to one of a number of categories of
equal importance

Is the lowest least precise level of measurement for which there is a difference in type only among the categories of a variable.
Only indicates that there is difference among categories but cannot indicate to what extend the categories differ. Consists of
putting responses or observations into classes such as yes or no, red or green or blue, or other qualitatively interpreted names for
each category.

It is based on classification and is not often subject to numerical interpretation except from a frequency of a response observation
of view.

Nominal scaled data is associated mainly with qualitative random variables such as gender, type of car, marital status etc.

There is no implied ranking or ordering between the groups of the random variables. No or limited statistical measures can be
applied on the data.

b) Ordinal scaled data

Like nominal scaled data, ordinal scaled data is assigned to only one of a number of coded categories, but there is now a ranking
implied between the categories in terms of better, longer, older taller or stronger etc.

Is a level of measurement that identifies a differences among categories of a variable and allows the categories to be rank
ordered.

Ordinal measurement simply means the ranking of the characteristics of a variable according to some criterion such as
preferences, importance etc. While there is an implied difference between the categories, this difference cannot be exactly
measured, that is, the distance between categories cannot be quantified nor assumed to be equal. Eg agree, Strongly agree,
Disagree, Strongly disagree.

In research, ordinal scaled data is generated from ranked responses. In ranking, one cannot say that the item ranked as one is
twice as preferred as that ranked two or that the difference between ranks is constant. There is limit on statistics on this data.

c) Interval scaled data

-Is a level of measurement that identifies differences among variables, attributes, ranks categories and
measures distance between categories, but there is no true zero origin

-Is data associated with quantitative random variable.

-differences can be measured between values of a quantitative random variable. Thus interval scaled data
possess both order (implied ranking) and distance properties.

-An interval scale is one where an item is assigned a score and the distance between scores is constant e.g. the
distance between an item scored fourth and that scored second is the same as that between one scored tenth
and that scored eighth. Interval scaled data does not possess an absolute origin; therefore the ratio of values
cannot be meaningfully compared for interval scaled data. Only absolute differences make sense when
interval-scaled data has been collected.

Do not have zero origin eg Temperature can be 5 degrees, 45 degrees

d) Ratio scaled data

Is the highest, most precise level of measurement. Variable attributes can be rank ordered, the distance
between them precisely measured and there is an absolute zero
 -Is data associated mainly with quantitative random variables such as income, time, age, distance, prices etc.
It is numeric data with a zero origin. The zero origin indicates the absence of the attribute being measured
and zeros are there to help keep a score

Thus ratio scales have intrinsically physical interpretation, in absolute terms rather than being measurement
which are relative to an arbitrary zero point.

-Ratio scaled data is the strongest form of data which can be collected and lends itself to the widest range of
statistics methods.

-However, it should be noted that if ratio scaled data is grouped into categories, the data type becomes ordinal
scaled data. This then reduces the scope of statistical analysis on the random variable

QUESTION 7

 i) To demonstrate a familiarity with a body of knowledge

 ii) To show the path of prior research and how a current project is linked to it.

 iii) To integrate and summarize what is known in an area. Points out areas where prior studies agree,
disagree, and what major questions remain unanswered. Indicate the direction for future research.

 iv)To learn from others and stimulate new ideas. Reviews divulge procedures, techniques and research designs worth
copying and improving on to gain new insights.

 Assists in identifying relevant and irrelevant items or procedures which may be included or excluded from a research.

 v)To sharpen and deepen the researcher’s knowledge in the area of study

 vi)To familiarize the researcher with the research problem

 vii) Stimulate conceptual insights and provide ideas to possible approaches or techniques that can be used or avoided in
a research process.

 viii)May be sufficient to actually resolve the problem that initially require actual research

 x) To identify difficulties faced by the previous researchers and try to overcome them in the new research.

 viii) May be sufficient to actually resolve the problem that initially require actual research

 x) To identify difficulties faced by the previous researchers and try to overcome them in the new research.

(10 points x 2 marks each = 20 marks)

QUESTION 8

 i) Periodicals/Publications such as newspapers, popular magazines, TV and radio broadcasts, Internet, encyclopedias

 ii) Scholarly journals are a type of periodicals filled with peer-reviewed reports of research studies.

 Citations (details of a scholarly publication’s location that helps people to find it quickly) may be necessary

 iii) Books e.g. textbooks, short stories.

  iv) Dissertations – original research produced by students doing degrees etc

  v) Government documents

  vi) Policy reports and presented papers

QUESTION 9

1) Depth Interviews

 A depth interview is a lengthy (generally 30 minutes to an hour), nonstructured interview between a respondent and a
highly trained interviewer, who minimizes his/her own participation in the discussion after establishing the general
subject to be discussed.

 Respondents are encouraged to talk freely about their activities, attitudes, and interests, in addition to the product
category or brand under study.

 Transcripts, videotapes, or audiotape recordings of interviews are then carefully studied, together with reports of
respondents’ moods and any gestures or body language that they might have used to convey attitudes or motives.

2) Focus Groups

 A focus group consists of 8 to 10 respondents who meet with a moderator/analyst for a group discussion focused on a
particular product or product category (or any other subject of research interest)

 The respondents are encouraged to discuss their interests, attitudes, reactions, motives, lifestyles, feelings about the
product or product category, usage experience, and so forth.

 Focus group sessions are invariably taped, and sometimes videotaped, to assist in the analysis.

3) Projective Techniques

 Projective techniques are designed to tap the underlying motives of individuals despite their unconscious rationalization
or efforts at conscious concealment.

 They consist of a variety of disguised tests that contain ambiguous stimuli, such as incomplete sentences, untitled
pictures, or cartoons, word association tests, and other personal characterizations.

 The respondent is asked to complete, describe, or explain the meaning of various stimuli.

QUESTION 10

1-Address the questionnaire to a specific person not “Occupant or office” and send it first class

2-Include a carefully written, dated cover letter on letterhead stationery.

Request respondent co-operation, guarantee confidentiality, explain purpose of the survey, and give the researcher’s name
and contact details

3-Include a postage paid, addressed return envelope

4-Questionnaire should have a neat, attractive layout and reasonable page length

5-Questionnaire should be professionally printed, easy to read and with clear instructions

6-Send two follow-up reminder letters to those not responding. First should arrive about one week after sending a
questionnaire, the second a week later.

Gently ask for co-operation again and offer to send another questionnaire in case the first got lost

7-Do not send questionnaires during major holidays periods

 8-Do not put questions on the back page (on both sides of a page)

9-Leave enough blank space after each question for responses. Mostly ask the respondent for general comments

10-Sponsors that are local and seen as legitimate eg gvt, universities, get a better response

11-Include a small monetary incentive and promise more for fully completed questionnaires

12-Avoid ambiguous questions or wording

QUESTION 11

Survey method

 -Is a quantitative research in which the researcher systematically asks a large number of people the same questions and
records their answers.

 Written questionnaires or formal interviews are used to gather data/information.

 Allows collection of large amount of data from a sizeable population in a highly economic way

 -Is associated with the deductive approach

 -Used to answer questions such who, what, where, how much and how many

 -Tend to be used for exploratory and descriptive research

 -Allows collection of quantitative data which can be analyzed quantitatively using descriptive and inferential statistics

 -Data collected can be used to suggest possible reasons for particular relationships between variables and to produce
models of these researches

 -Researcher has more control over the research process but does not manipulate a situation or condition to see how
people react but only ask and record answers

 -Sample is a representative of the entire population. Sample elements are randomly sampled using random sampling
technique

 -Data is collected through questionnaires, structured observations and structured interviews and then summarized in
charts, graphs or tables and analyzed statistically

 -Surveys are mostly used in descriptive and explanatory research

 * is the collection of information on a wide range of cases, each case being investigated only on a particular aspect
under consideration

 Information or data which can be sourced through survey include - behavior - attitudes, beliefs and opinions -
characteristics -expectations – classification

QUESTION 12

 Internet Interviews are also known as web survey or email survey. Are becoming the most fast due to technological
advancement. Interviews are done through network.

Advantages of web survey

 -Are very fast and inexpensive

  -Allow flexible designs. Can use visual images, audio or video communications

 -Very efficient.

 Eg completely eliminate paper, postage, data entry costs.

 -Overcome international boundary limitations

Disadvantages of web survey

 -Coverage. Many people especially less educated, lower income and rural people do not have access to internet.

 -Privacy of respondent’s responses not 100% assured

 -Design issues- requires the researchers to check and verify compatibility of software and

hardware combination used by computers of respondents

QUESTION 13

a) Personal observation

 The researcher (observer) observes events as they occur. Does not control or manipulate the phenomenon being
observed

 The observer merely records what takes place on the observation form or schedule

 Personal observation can be participant or non-participant observation

a) Participant observation

 Participant observation is when the researcher will involve him or herself in the activity being

 observed, that is, doing the work being done by those being observed.

 This form enables the researcher to assess demands of the activities being done and also how those experienced in the
work are doing.

 Can even get data by doing the activity under investigation.