PHY 405 Lecture Series 3 Matrix Mechanics

Textbook Postulates of QM
THE FORMULATION OF QUANTUM

MECHANICS IN TERMS OF STATE VECTORS
& LINEAR OPERATORS
Dr OE Oyewande
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Ibadan

eoyewande@gmail.com
First Semester, 2020/2021 Session
Dr OE Oyewande Department of Physics, University of Ibadan

Formulation of Quantum Mechanics in Terms of State Vectors & Linear Operators
Outline of this Lecture Series
1 Textbook
2 The Postulates of Quantum Mechanics & Their Mathematical

Background
3 Further Details on Matrix Mechanics & Dirac Notation
4 Solution of Eigenvalue Problem in Matrix Mechanics
5 Examples on Calculations in Matrix Mechanics

Only the basic elements/fundamentals of QM topics listed in the

syllabus or added to the course content will be provided in the
lectures, for brevity and ease of assimilation. However, the detailed
and varied calculations on these topics are equally important for an
overall knowledge and skill acquisition. Hence, you are expected to
do further studies (self-study), especially of worked examples, on
your own using, e.g., the following text.
1 Cohen-Tannoudji, C, Diu, B and Laloë,F. (2006). Quantum
mechanics. Vol.1.

A very useful advice from Prof. Albert Einstein, who

contributed theories of Photo-electric Effect, Special
Relativity, and General Relativity for the benefit of
mankind

Postulate 1: Description of QM State

Postulate 1: The state (e.g. condition) of a physical system
(e.g. a single particle or group of particles) at a fixed time t0
is defined by specifying a ket |ψ(t0 )i which belongs to the
state space E.
Superposition Principle: A linear combination of state
vectors is also a state vector.
This postulate tells us how to describe the quantum
mechanical state of a physical system.
Relevant mathematical concepts (more details after Post. 6):
a ket is an object used to represent vectors in the Dirac
notation. The state space is a vector space to which kets
belong; i.e. |ψ(t0 )i ∈ E
a vector space is a Set which is closed under the operations of
vector addition and scalar multiplication.
details of these concepts can be found in chapter 2 (page 91).
Postulate 2: Description of Measurable Physical Quantities

Postulate 2: Every measurable physical quantity A is
described by a linear Hermitian operator A acting in E.
Such an operator A which describes a measurable physical
quantity (e.g. position, velocity, momentum) is called an
observable.
This postulate tells us how to describe measurable physical
quantities in QM.
Relevant mathematical concepts (more details after Post. 6):
An operator is a rule which when applied to a function (or a
vector, in general) gives another function (vector). E.g. d/dx
is an (differential) operator which acts on a function of x (e.g.
2x 2 ) to give another function of x (4x).
An operator acts on a vector space. i.e. A maps a vector in E
to another vector in E.
details can be found in chapter 2 of the course text.
Postulate 3: Prediction of Future Measurements

Postulate 3: The only possible result of the measurement of a
physical quantity A is one of the eigenvalues of the
corresponding observable A.
This postulate tells us how to use QM to predict possible
results of future measurements of various physical quantities
in the laboratory.
Relevant mathematical concepts:
The action of Hermitian operators on some particular class of
vectors associated with the operator is of the form:
A|ψi = a|ψi (1)
i.e.A acts on a vector |ψi to give the same vector |ψi (instead
of a totally different vector) multiplied by a mere real number
a.
Eigenvalues & Eigenvectors. Degeneracy
A|ψi = a|ψi
This means, for instance, that the operation represented by A
is a mere increase or decrease of the length of |ψi. In QM, this
means A does not change the state, of system, represented by
|ψi since |ψi and a|ψi are essentially the same physical state.
Such an equation as (1) is called an eigenvalue problem and
most of the core calculations in QM are centered on the
solution of such problems.
In equation (1), |ψi is called the eigenvector that belongs to
an eigenvalue a of the operator A.
if n eigenvectors belong to the same eigenvalue a then a is
said to be n−fold degenerate.
If only one eigenvector belongs to a then a is non-degenerate.
Necessity of Real Eigenvalues in QM

The eigenvalues are said to be discrete if they are distinct; i.e.
there is some gap between their values and they can be
labelled separately as a1 , a2 , . . ..
They are said to be continuous if they are indistinct; i.e fall
within a range a and a + da.
A property of Hermitian operators is that they have real
eigenvalues. Since results of measurements must necessarily
be real (e.g. it’s impossible to get a complex result d = 2i
from a measurement of the distance between two points), and
these results can only be one of the eigenvalues of the
corresponding observable (operator), then only Hermitian
operators are allowed in QM.
See chapter 2 of the course text for details of the
mathematical concepts of eigenvalues and linear operators.
Eigenvectors Form a Basis of Subspace EN of E

Let’s again consider equation (1) but for the possibility of
several eigenvalues an ; n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
A|ψn i = an |ψn i (2)
where each eigenvalue a1 , a2 , . . . is non-degenerate, and the

eigenvectors |ψn i are assumed to be normalised (i.e.
hψn |ψn i = 1).
Another property of Hermitian operators A (i.e. apart form
their having real eigenvalues) is that their eigenvectors form a
complete set.
That is |ψn i constitutes a basis {|ψ1 i, |ψ2 i, |ψ3 i, . . . |ψN i} of
subspace EN of state space E, where N is the dimension, or
number of basis vectors, of the subspace EN .
The Principle of Spectral Decomposition

This means (Principle of Spectral Decomposition) that any
state ket |φi can be written as their linear combination. That
is,
N
X
|φi = cn |ψn i (3)
n=1
The principle of spectral decomposition expressed in equation
(3) is also an expression of Superposition Principle.
If the eigenvalues are continuous, the above concepts remain
the same except that equations (2) and (3) become,
respectively,
Z
A|ψλ i = λ|ψλ i, |φi = dλc(λ)|ψλ i (4)

Expansion Coefficients of the Spectral Decomposition
Since the vectors |ψn i form a basis of state space E,they are
orthonormal (i.e. orthogonal and normalised).
Thus, hψm |ψn i = δmn
The kronecker delta δmn = 0 if m 6= n or δmn = 1 if m = n.
This implies if we let the bras of the basis kets act on |φi of
equation (3) in turn, we get
N
X
hψm |φi = cn hψm |ψn i = cm (5)
n=1
This equation tells us how to calculate the expansion

coefficients cn of equation (3).

The Projection Operator

Furthermore, equation (5) shows that
N
X
cm = cn hψm |ψn i
n=1
⇒ c1 hψm |ψ1 i + c2 hψm |ψ2 i + . . . + cm hψm |ψm i + · · · + cN hψm |ψN i

⇒ cm = cm hψm |ψm i = cm |ψm ihψm | ⇒ |ψm ihψm | = 0m
where 0m is an N × N square matrix with all elements zero
except the element in row m and column m which is 1.
|ψ1 ihψ1 | is a projection operator
That is, in 3D:
   
1 0 0 0 0 0
|ψ1 ihψ1 | =  0 0 0  , |ψ3 ihψ3 | =  0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 1
2D Projection Operator
Using projection operators we observe that the projection of
an arbitrary vector |v i along |ψ1 i direction is
|ψ1 ihψ1 | (|v i) = |ψ1 ihψ1 |v i = hψ1 |v i|ψ1 i
where hψ1 |v i is the component of |v i along |ψ1 i
The projection of |v i onto a two-dimensional |ψ1 i × |ψ2 i
plane is
(|ψ1 ihψ1 | + |ψ2 ihψ2 |) |v i = |ψ1 ihψ1 |v i + |ψ2 ihψ2 |v i
= hψ1 |v i|ψ1 i + hψ2 |v i|ψ2 i
Matrix form of this two-dimensional projector is
     
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
|ψ1 ihψ1 |+|ψ2 ihψ2 | =  0 0 0 + 0 1 0  =  0 1 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3D & N-D Projectors. The Closure Relation
A 3D projection operator acting on a 3D vector space is

 
1 0 0
|ψ1 ihψ1 | + |ψ2 ihψ2 | + |ψ3 ihψ3 | =  0 1 0 =I
0 0 1
where I is the identity operator.

In general, for an N-dimensional vector space,
n=N
X
|ψn ihψn | = I (6)
n=1
Equation (6) is called the Closure Relation.

Identity Operator
Note that I of equation (6) is the identity operator, which is

a N × N square matrix:
 
1 0 ... 0
 0 1 ... 0 
 
 .. .. 
 . . ... 0 
0 0 ... 1

Eigenvalue Equation for Degenerate Spectrum

Where an eigenvalue has more than one eigenvector, Equation
(2) becomes:
A|ψni i = an |ψni i (7)
where i = 1, 2, · · · gn and each eigenvalue an is gn -fold
degenerate.
E.g. if a1 and a2 are 3-fold and 2-fold degenerate,
respectively, then g1 = 3 and g2 = 2.
j ij
The eigenvectors |ψni i are orthonormal (i.e. hψni |ψm i = δnm ).
2 3 2 1 2 2
E.g. hψ1 |ψ1 i = 0; hψ1 |ψ2 i = 0; hψ1 |ψ2 i = 0;hψ2 |ψ2 i = 1. 2 2
In this case, the basis of the eigensubspace En , of state space

E, associated with an , becomes {|ψni i}; i.e.
g 0
{|ψ11 i, |ψ12 i|, |ψ13 i, |ψ21 i, |ψ22 i, |ψ31 i, |ψ32 i, . . . |ψNN0 i}, where N 0
is the number of distinct eigenvalues.
Principle of Spectral Decomposition for a Degenerate

Spectrum
This means (Principle of Spectral Decomposition) that any
state ket |φi can be written as their linear combination. That
is,
N0 X
X gn
|φi = cni |ψni i (8)
n=1 i=1
If the eigenvalues are continuous, the above concepts remain

the same except that equations (7) and (8) become,
respectively,
Z Z
A|ψλ i = λ|ψλ i, |φi = dλ dµ c(µ, λ)|ψλµ i
µ µ
(9)

Postulate 4 (a): Likelihood of Non-Deg. Discrete Results
Refer to equations (2) and (3) in this case of postulate 4.

Postulate 4 (a): When the physical quantity A is measured
on a system in the normalized state |φi, the probability P(an )
of obtaining the non-degenerate eigenvalue an of the
corresponding observable A is:
P(an ) = |cn |2 = |hψn |φi|2 (10)
where |ψn i is the normalised eigenvector, of observable A,

associated with (or which belongs to) the eigenvalue an .
While postulate 3 helps us predict the possible results of a
future experiment, this postulate helps us to know the
likelihood of obtaining each of the possible results.
Postulate 4 (b): Likelihood of Degenerate Discrete Results

Refer to eqns. (7), (8) and (10) in this case of postulate 4.
Postulate 4 (b): When the physical quantity A is measured
on a system in the normalized state |φi, the probability P(an )
of obtaining the degenerate eigenvalue an of the
i=g
Xn i=g
Xn
P(an ) = |cni |2 = |hψni |φi|2 (11)
i=1 i=1
Note: For each case of Postulate 4, total probability equals 1.
An important consequence of postulate 4 is that two
proportional state vectors represent the same physical state.
E.g. |φi, e iθ |φi and ze iθ |φi represent the same physical state.
But |βi = z1 e iθ1 |φ1 i + z2 e iθ2 |φ2 i does not describe the same
state as |φi = z1 |φ1 i + z2 |φ2 i
Postulate 4 (c): Likelihood of Non-Degenerate Continuous

Results
Refer to equations (4) and (10) in this case of postulate 4.
The possible results of measurement of A form a continuous
set in this case, and what corresponds to |hψn |φi|2 is
|hψλ |φi|2 , which is the modulus of a continuous function [e.g.
like square modulus ψ(r)∗ ψ(r) of wave function ψ(r)].
Born interpretation of ψ(r) implies this equivalent of (10) is
not a probability but, instead, a probability density
ρ(λ) = dP(λ)/dλ in this case of continuous eigenvalues;
where dP is probability.
Postulate 4 (c): The probability dP(λ) of obtaining a result
included between λ and λ + dλ is:
dP(λ) = |cλ |2 = |hψλ |φi|2 dλ (12)
Summarized Postulate 4 for All Cases

Postulate 4: When the physical quantity A is measured on a
system in the normalized state |φi, the probability P(an ) of
obtaining the discrete eigenvalue an or the probability
dP(λ) of obtaining the continuous eigenvalue λ of the
i=g
Xn
P(an ) = |cni |2 or dP(λ) = |cλ |2 (13)
i=1
That is,
i=g
Xn
P(an ) = |hψni |φi|2 or dP(λ) = |hψλ |φi|2 (14)
i=1
where the sum is irrelevant if the discrete eigenvalue is
non-degenerate.
Collapse/Reduction of Wavefunction (Non-Degenerate

Spectrum): State Function Before and After Measurement
Before the measurement the state |φ(x, t)i of the system

evolved from |φ(x, 0)i to |φ(x, t0 )i according to the TDSE.
After the measurement of quantity A yielded a result an of
the eigenvector |ψn i of A associated with A, the previous
state of the system suddenly collapsed to |ψn i. The new state
then evolves according to TDSE.
Collapse of Wavefunction (Degenerate Spectrum)

For non-degenerate spectrum, the process of measurement
changed the state of the system from the normalised state
|φ(x, t0 )i = c1 |ψ1 (x)i + c2 |ψ2 (x)i + c3 |ψ3 (x)i + · · ·
[where |ψn (x)i is the eigenvector of eigenvalue an which can
turn up, as a result of measurement, with probability, e.g.,
P(a1 ) = |c1 |2 ] to (assuming the measurement yielded a1
instead of the other eigenvalues) the normalised eigenstate
|ψ1 (x)i.
For degenerate spectrum, the process changes the state from
|φ(x, t0 )i = c11 |ψ11 (x)i + c12 |ψ12 (x)i + c13 |ψ13 (x)i + c2 |ψ2 (x)i
+c3 |ψ3 (x)i + · · · (i.e. assuming the eigenvalue a1 is
three-fold degenerate while the others are non-degenerate) to
c11 |ψ11 (x)i + c12 |ψ12 (x)i + c13 |ψ13 (x)i [where, in this case,
P(a1 ) = |c11 |2 + |c12 |2 + |c13 |2 ]
New State After Measurement (Normalisation Procedure)

Since we require all state functions/vectors to be normalised
the new state after measurement (in the degenerate case)
must be the normalised version of
|βi = c11 |ψ11 (x)i + c12 |ψ12 (x)i + c13 |ψ13 (x)i.
The normalised version, |β̂i, of a vector |βi is
|βi |βi
|β̂i = =p
||βi| hβ|βi
k=3
! ∗ k=3 !
X X
hβ|βi = c1k |ψ1k (x)i c1k |ψ1k (x)i
k=1 k=1
k 0 =3 k=3
! !
k0 k0
X X
⇒ hβ|βi = (c1 )∗ hψ1 (x)| c1k |ψ1k (x)i
k 0 =1 k=1
Normalised New State After Measurement (Deg. Case)
XX 0 0
XX 0
⇒ hβ|βi = (c1k )∗ c1k hψ1k (x)|ψ1k (x)i = (c1k )∗ c1k δk 0 k
k0 k k0 k
X X 1
⇒ hβ|βi = (c1k )∗ c1k = |c1k |2 ⇒ |β̂i = qP |βi
k 2
k k k |c1 |
Thus, in general, the process of a measurement that yielded a

gn -fold degenerate eigenvalue an changes the state of the
system from |φ(x, t0 )i to
gn
1 1 X
|β̂i = qP |βi = qP cni |ψni (x)i (15)
gn gn
i |cni |2 i |cni |2 i

Relation of New State to Old via Subspace Projector

The projector of any arbitrary vector to the subspace En of the
state space E, where En is spanned by the gn basis vectors
(eigenvectors of an ) |ψni (x)i, is:
gn
X
P(an ) = |ψni (x)ihψni (x)|
i
g1
X g1
X
Consider: P(a1 )|φi = |ψ1i (x)ihψ1i (x)|φi = hψ1i (x)|φi|ψ1i (x)i
i i
g1
X
= hψ1i (x)| (|βi + c2 |ψ2 i + c3 |ψ3 i) |ψ1i (x)i = hψ11 |βi|ψ11 i
i
+c2 hψ11 |ψ2 i|ψ11 i+c3 hψ11 |ψ3 i|ψ11 i+hψ12 |βi|ψ12 i+c2 hψ12 |ψ2 i|ψ12 i+· · ·
⇒ P(a1 )|φi = hψ11 |βi|ψ11 i+0+0+hψ12 |βi|ψ12 i+0+0+hψ13 |βi|ψ13 i+0+0

gX
1 =3
⇒ P(a1 )|φi = c11 |ψ11 i + c12 |ψ12 i + c13 |ψ13 i = c1i |ψ1i (x)i
i
gn
X
In general, P(an )|φi = cni |ψni (x)i
i
gn
X gn
X gn
X
And hφ|P(an )|φi = cni hφ|ψni (x)i = cni (cni )∗ = |cni |2
i i i
Thus, the new state, |βi, given by (15) is expressible as:
1
|βi = p P(an )|φi (16)
hφ|P(an )|φi

Postulate 5: State Immediately After Measurement

Postulate 5: If the measurement of the physical quantity A
on the system in the state |φi gives the result an , the state of
the system immediately after the measurement is the
normalised projection, √ Pn |φi , of |φi onto the
hφ|Pn |φi
eigensubspace associated with an .
Note that for the degenerate case, the state of the system
after the measurement is a sum of the eigenvectors belonging
to the degenerate eigenvalue of A. But by the superposition
principle, the sum of state vectors is also a statevector.
Hence, this sum is also an eigenvector of A.
Thus, the state of the system immediately after the
measurement is always an eigenvector of A with the
eigenvalue an ; for both cases.
State After Second Successive Measurement
Since the process of first measurement already changed the

state of the system to an eigenstate, of the measured value an
of the operator A associated with the measured physical
quantity A, and the eigenstates are basis vectors of
eigensubspace En , any of such can not undergo spectral
decomposition. Since basis vectors are linearly independent.
Hence, if another measurement (a second one) is carried out
immediately after the first one (i.e while the system had not
evolved, from the eigenstate it collapsed to, according to
TDSE) the same measured eigenvalue an would be found.

Postulate 6: Dynamics/Evolution of States
Postulate 6: The time evolution of the state vector |φ(t)i is

governed by the time-dependent Schrödinger equation
(TDSE):
d
i~ |φ(t)i = H(t)|φ(t)i
dt
where H(t) is the observable associated with the total energy
of the system.

Syllabus Highlights Vector Spaces & Scalar Fields Matrix Representations Dirac Notation Solution of Eigenvalue Problem
Introduction to Matrix Mechanics: Vector Space

Matrix mechanics is the formal and more general form of
quantum mechanics, which abstracts and generalises the
concepts of quantum mechanics by using matrices and the
mathematics of linear algebra
A function has the same properties as the concept of a vector,
which is an element of a vector space
A vector space is a set, defined on a scalar field, of elements
(called vectors) which is closed under the two operations of
vector addition and scalar multiplication, in the sense that the
results of these operations are also elements of the set (i.e.
are vectors).
Operation of vector addition: a + b=c.
It is commutative, i.e. a + b=b+a=c.
It is associative, i.e. a + (b+c)= (a + b)+c
Dr OE Oyewande Department of Physics, College of Science & Technology, Covenant University
Lecture 6 - Introduction to Matrix Mechanics: State Vectors, Operators, Solution of Eigenvalue Problem
Vector Space, Scalar Fields

There exists a zero, or null, vector 0 with the property that,
for every vector a: a + 0=0+a=a
A scalar field is a set of numbers (i.e. elements of this set are
numbers); e.g. set of real numbers (real field, R), set of
integers (integer field, Z), etc., all of which are subsets of the
more general set of complex numbers (complex field, C).
The elements (i.e. numbers) of a scalar field are called scalars.
Operation of scalar multiplication, za=az=b, has ffg
properties. It is
distributive with respect to (wrt) vector addition; i.e. z(a +
b)=za+zb
distributive wrt scalar addition; i.e. (z1 +z2 )a=z1 a+z2 a
associative; i.e. z1 (z2 a) = (z1 z2 )a
Scalar multiplication by 0 and 1: 0a=0; 1a=a
Linear Combination, Span, Basis, Dimension
A linear combination of vectors a, b, c, · · · , is an expression

k1 a + k2 b + k3 c + · · ·
The vectors a, b, c are said to be linearly independent if none
of them is expressible as a linear combination of the other two.
A set of vectors is said to span a vector space if every vector
in the space can be written as a linear combination of the
members of this set. E.g. the set i, j, k of unit vectors in
three dimensional Cartesian space.
A set of linearly independent vectors that span a vector space
is called a basis of the space.
The number of vectors in any basis set is called the
dimension, n, of the vector space.
Matrix Representation of Vectors

Thus, given a basis {e1 , e2 , e3 , · · · , en } of a vector space, any
vector v = k1 e1 + k2 e2 + k3 e3 + · · · + kn en is uniquely
represented by the (ordered) n-tuple of its components
k1 , k2 , k3 , · · · , kn as a column matrix:
 
k1
 k2 
 
v =  k3 
 
 .. 
 . 
kn
In this way it is easy to see, and perform, vector operations
(e.g. addition, subtraction, etc) that are defined, and those
that are not defined (e.g. addition of a vector and a scalar).
Dual Vector Space, Inner Product, Dirac Notation
To every vector, v, element of a vector space V, corresponds a

vector, v† = (v∗ )T , element of a dual vector space V† of V,
√
such that the length or norm, |v| = v · v, of v is a real and
finite number.
Thus, while v (normal) is represented with a column matrix,
v† , or any dual vector (abstract) is represented with a row
matrix, so that the dot (or inner) product v1 · v2 = (v1 )† v2 of
two vectors is the product of a 1 × n row matrix [dual
(abstract) vector] and an n × 1 column matrix (normal vector)
to give a number (real or complex).
The Dirac notation is a compact notation for representing and
manipulating vectors and operators in quantum physics.

Dirac Notation for Vectors & Operators

In Dirac notation, a number, e.g. result of a dot product, is
represented by a full bracket; i.e. v1 · v2 = (v1 )† v2 = hv1 |v2 i
The left half of the bracket h|i is called bra, h| (representing a
1 × n row matrix), while its right half is called ket, |i
(representing a n × 1 column matrix).
Thus, normal vectors are represented by kets (i.e. v ≡ |v i)
and dual (abstract) vectors by bras (i.e. v† ≡ hv |)
Recall, the projection operator |ih| which represents the
matrix product (n × 1) × (1 × n) = (n × n) matrix.
Thus, square matrices represent operators.
In Dirac notation, |ih| (n × n matrix) represents an operator.
A matrix element (a number) Ôij of the matrix representing
operator Ô (a matrix) is denoted by Ôij = hi|Ô|ji.
Solving the Eigenvalue Problem (TISE) in Matrix

Mechanics
The Time-independent Schrödinger equation is given in

operator form by Ĥ|ψi = E |ψi.
This is the eigenvalue problem.
E are the eigenvalues (or spectrum) of Ĥ and ψ are the
eigenvectors (or possible states) corresponding to each
eigenvalue E .
In a matrix representation, Ĥ is a square matrix while |ψi is a
non-trivial column vector (i.e. |ψi =6 0.
Re-writing: (Ĥ − IE )|ψi = 0
(Ĥ − IE ) is a matrix which, if invertible (if it has an inverse),
would give |ψi = (Ĥ − IE )−1 0 = 0; a trivial solution.
The Characteristic Equation: Spectrum & States

But we seek non-trivial solutions, hence we only consider the
case for which (Ĥ − IE ) has no inverse.
Considering Crammer’s rule for the solution of a system of
simultaneous equations by matrix methods, we find that a
matrix has no inverse if its determinant vanishes.
Hence, we seek solutions of det(Ĥ − IE ) = |Ĥ − IE | = 0
This condition, |Ĥ − IE | = 0, leads to a polynomial equation
called the characteristic equation.
The roots of the characteristic equation are the eigenvalues,
i.e. they constitute the (e.g. energy) spectrum, of the
correspinding operator (e.g. Hamiltonian).
The eigenvectors (i.e. the possible states) belonging to each
eigenvalue (root) is obtained from (Ĥ − IE )|ψi = 0 by
substituting the root and solving for |ψi in the equation.
Syllabus Highlights Examples-Matrix Mechanics
Example
Example: Given
   
2 2 0 −2
|v i =  1−i  ; Ô =  −2i i 2i 
−3i 1 0 −1
1. (a) Find the norm of |v i (i.e. ||v i|; (b) normalise |v i;

(c) evaluate Ô|v i; (d) Is Ô acceptable as an operator in quantum
physics?
2. Solve the Eigenvalue problem Ôψi = oi ψi for the complete
spectrum of Ô and the corresponding states. Comment on your
results with respect to your answer in 1(d).

Lecture 7: Examples on Matrix Mechanics
Example: Finding the Norm & Normalising

1. (a)p Recall, for a √
complex number z = x + iy , the
p length of z,
|z| = p x + y = z z. For vector |v i, ||v i| = (|v i)† |v i. I.e.,
2 2 ∗
||v i| = hv |v i
 
2
|v i† = (2 1 + i 3i) ⇒ hv |v i = (2 1 + i 3i)  1 − i 
−3i
√
= 4 + (12 − i 2 ) + 9 = 4 + 2 + 9 = 15 ∴ ||v i| = 15
(b) Let |v̂ i be a unit vector along the same direction as |v i; i.e. let
|v i
it be the normalised version of |v i. Obviously, |v̂ i = ||v i| . That is,
 
2
1
|v̂ i = √  1 − i 
15 −3i
Example: Action of Operator on Vector Gives Vector

Check that |v̂ i is normalised, i.e. check that ||v̂ i| = 1:
   
2 2
1 1 1
hv̂ |v̂ i = √ (2 1+i 3i) √  1 − i  = (2 1+i 3i)  1 − i 
15 15 15
−3i −3i
1 1 p √
= [4 + 2 + 9] = 15 = 1. Now, ||v̂ i| = hv̂ |v̂ i = 1 = 1
15 15
Therefore, |v̂ i is normalised whereas |v i is not normalised.
    
2 0 −2 2 4 + 0 + 6i
(c) Ô|v i =  −2i i 2i   1 − i  =  −4i + (1 + i) + 6 
1 0 −1 −3i 2 + 0 + 3i
 
4 + 6i
∴ Ô|v i =  7 − 3i  ; which is another vector).
Dr OE Oyewande
2 + 3i
Department of Physics, College of Science & Technology, Covenant University
Example: Operator is Acceptable in QP if Hermitian

Note that |v iÔ [(3 × 1) × (3 × 3) matrix] is undefined.
(d) Check whether Ô is hermitian, i.e. whether Ô = Ô † .
 †  
2 0 −2 2 2i 1
Ô † =  −2i i 2i  =  0 −i 0  6= Ô
1 0 −1 −2 −2i −1
Thus, this operator is not acceptable in quantum mechanics
because it could have eigenvalues that are complex numbers.
2. We first generate the characteristic equation from |Ô − Ioi | = 0,

where oi (i = 1, 2, 3), = o for simplicity, are the eigenvalues of Ô.
   

2 0 −2 o 0 0
|Ô − Io| = 0 ⇒  −2i i 2i  −  0 o 0  = 0
1 0 −1 0 0 o
Determinants

2−o 0 −2

⇒ −2i i − o 2i =0

1 0 −1 − o
A property of determinants is that we get the same result
irrespective of which row or column we choose for the expansion.
Hence, choose a row or column with most zeros (e.g. column 2).

−2i 2i 2−o −2
⇒ −0 + (i − o)
1 −1 − o 1 −1 − o

2 − o −2 2−o −2
−0
= 0 ⇒ (i − o) =0
−2i 2i 1 −1 − o
Note that the 2x2 determinants need not be shown for the zeros,
they are only shown here as an example for non-zeros.
Characteristic Equation

2−o −2
(i−o) = 0 ⇒ (i−o)[(2−o)(−1−o)−(−2)(1)] = 0
1 −1 − o
⇒ (i − o)[(−2 − 2o − o(−1) − o(−o) + 2] = 0
⇒ (i − o)(−2 − 2o + o + o 2 + 2) = 0 ⇒ (i − o)(o 2 − o) = 0
⇒ io 2 −io−o 3 +o 2 = 0 ∴ Characteristic equation: −o 3 +(1+i)o 2 −io = 0
Obviously, since there is no constant term, o = 0 is a root

(solution) of this polynomial equation of degree 3.
We need two additional roots. Trial of o = 1 is successful.
Since the polynomial equation is complex, we can guess o = i
as the third root. Indeed it is, since we get
−o 3 +(1+i)o 2 −io = −i 3 +(1+i)i 2 −i 2 = −i 3 +i 2 +i 3 −i 2 = 0
Eigenvalues. Reduction of Polynomial with Long Division

Thus, the eigenvalues of Ô are o1 = 0, o2 = 1, o3 = i
If the simple guesses (i.e. 0 if there is no constant term, 1,
−1, i, −i) work only for a root or two in a cubic equation,
long division is the alternative. E.g. if only o = i worked, then
(o − i) is a factor of the polynomial expression
−o 3 + (1 + i)o 2 − io.
−o 3 + (1 + i)o 2 − io ÷ (o − i) reduces its order/degree from 3
to 2 (i.e. we get a quadratic expression) as follows:
−o 2 + o
o − i −o 3 + (1 + i)o 2 − io
−o 3 + io 2
o 2 − io
o 2 − io
That is, −o 3 + (1 + i)o 2 − io = (o − i)(−o 2 + o) = 0
Eigenvectors
⇒ o = i or −o 2 + o = −o(o − 1) = 0 ⇒ o = 0 or 1 as earlier
found by trial & error.
Note that Ô has a complex eigenvalue o = i, which confirms
that it is not admissible in quantum physics.
The eigenvectors ψ of each eigenvalue are found by
substituting the eigenvalue in the equation (Ô − Io)ψ = 0 to
get a system of simultaneous equations to solve for the
components of ψ. Starting with o = 0:
    
2 0 −2 ψx 0
(Ô − 0I)ψ = 0 ⇒  −2i i 2i   ψy  =  0 
1 0 −1 ψz 0

Eigenvectors
   
2ψx + 0ψy − 2ψz 0 2ψx − 2ψz = 0(a)
 −2iψx + iψy + 2iψz  =  0  ⇒ −2iψx + iψy + 2iψz = 0(b)
1ψx + 0ψy − 1ψz 0 1ψx − 1ψz = 0(c)
(a) & (c) both imply ψz = ψx , hence, one of them is

redundant. (b) then imply ψy = 0. Hence,
   
ψx ψx
ψ =  ψy  =  0 
ψz ψx
which is fine for any arbitrary choice of ψx but leads to diverse
answers (all correct, provided ψz = ψx and ψy = 0). It is
common to choose ψx = 1.
ψ2
Thus, the eigenvector belonging to the eigenvalue o1 = 0 is
 
1
ψ1 =  0 
1
For o2 = 1
    
1 0 −2 ψx 0
(Ô−1I)ψ = 0 ⇒  −2i i − 1 2i   ψy  =  0 
1 0 −2 ψz 0
ψx − 2ψz = 0 (a)
(a) ⇒ ψz = 12 ψx
−2iψx + (i − 1)ψy + 2iψz = 0(b) i
(b) ⇒ ψy = i−1 ψx = 1−i
2 ψx
ψx − 2ψz = 0 (c)

The Free Variable May Not be 1 to Avoid Fractions

Thus, the eigenvector belonging to the eigenvalue o2 = 1 is
     
1 2 2
ψ2 =  1−i  = 1  1 − i  OR ψ2 =  1 − i 
2 2
1
2 1 1
That is, a choice of ψx = 2 is more expedient here to avoid
the fractions.
Note that throwing away the 1/2, above, is permissible since
multiplying an eigenvector by a constant has no effect on the
eigenvalue.
For o3 = i
    
2−i 0 −2 ψx 0
(Ô − iI)ψ = 0 ⇒  −2i 0 2i   ψy  =  0 
1 0 −1 − i ψz 0
ψ3
(2 − i)ψx − 2ψz = 0 (a) (a) ⇒ ψz = 2−i

2 ψx
−2iψx + 2iψz = 0 (b) (b) ⇒ ψz = ψx
1
ψx − (1 + i)ψz = 0 (c) (c) ⇒ ψz = 1+i ψx = 1−i
2 ψx
That is, the three equations give conflicting relationship

between ψz and ψx which is only reconciled if ψx = 0 = ψz .
None of the equations said anything about ψy , showing that
ψy is indeterminate. Choose ψy = 1
Finally,  
0
ψ3 =  1 
0
Worked Examples on Matrix Representation of Operator

Recall that an operator is defined by its action on basis
vectors of a vector space.
Note, basis vectors are orthonormal.
And that the matrix element in row i, column j, in the matrix
representation of an operator Ô is given in terms of its action
on the basis vectors, for example, |ii, |ji, |ki, by
Ôij = hi|Ô|ji. Where |ii, |ji, |ki are unit vectors along x-, y -,
and z-axis, respectively.
Examples:
1 Calculate the matrix elements of a rotation operator, R̂z ( π2 ),
which rotates an arbitrary vector by 90◦ anticlockwise about
the positive z-axis.
2 Calculate the matrix representation of a reflection operator,
F̂ x−z , which reflects an arbitrary vector in the x-z plane.
1. Matrix Representation of Rotation Operator R̂z ( π2 )

R̂ijz ( π2 ) = hi|R̂z |ji. By definition R̂z ( π2 ) rotates any vector by
90◦ anticlockwise about positive z-axis.
⇒ R̂|ii = |ji; R̂|ji = −|ii; R̂|ki = |ki.Recall, ha|bi = δab = 1(a = b) or 0
I.e., hi|R̂|ii = hi|ji = 0; hi|R̂|ji = −hi|ii = −1; hi|R̂|ki = hi|ki = 0;
hj|R̂|ii = hj|ji = 1; hj|R̂|ji = −hj|ii = 0; hj|R̂|ki = hj|ki = 0;
hk|R̂|ii = hk|ji = 0; hk|R̂|ji = −hk|ii = 0; hk|R̂|ki = hk|ki = 1
  
R̂iiz R̂ijz R̂ikz

hi|R̂z |ii hi|R̂z |ji hi|R̂z |ki
π
R̂z ( ) =  R̂jiz R̂jjz R̂jkz 
 =  hj|R̂z |ii hj|R̂z |ji hj|R̂z |ki 

2 z z z
R̂ki R̂kj R̂kk hk|R̂z |ii hk|R̂z |ji hk|R̂z |ki
 
0 −1 0
π
That is, R̂z ( ) =  1 0 0 
2
0 0 1
2. Matrix Representation of Reflection Operator Fˆx−z

F̂ijx−z = hi|F̂ x−z |ji. By definition F̂ x−z reflects an arbitrary
vector in the x-z plane.
⇒ F̂ x−z |ii = |ii; F̂ x−z |ji = −|ji; F̂ x−z |ki = |ki.
I.e., hi|F̂ x−z |ii = hi|ii = 1; hi|F̂ x−z |ji = −hi|ji = −0;
hi|F̂ x−z |ki = hi|ki = 0; hj|F̂ x−z |ii = hj|ii = 0;
hj|F̂ x−z |ji = −hj|ji = −1; hj|F̂ x−z |ki = hj|ki = 0;
hk|F̂ x−z |ii = hk|ii = 0; hk|F̂ x−z |ji = −hk|ji = −0;
hk|F̂ x−z |ki = hk|ki = 1;
  
F̂iix−z F̂ijx−z F̂ikx−z

1 0 0
 x−z
F̂ x−z
=  F̂ji F̂jjx−z F̂jkx−z  =  0 −1 0 

F̂kix−z F̂kjx−z x−z
F̂kk 0 0 1

PHY 405 Lecture Series 3 Matrix Mechanics

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Textbook Postulates of QM

THE FORMULATION OF QUANTUM

Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Ibadan

First Semester, 2020/2021 Session

Dr OE Oyewande Department of Physics, University of Ibadan

Outline of this Lecture Series

2 The Postulates of Quantum Mechanics & Their Mathematical

3 Further Details on Matrix Mechanics & Dirac Notation

4 Solution of Eigenvalue Problem in Matrix Mechanics

5 Examples on Calculations in Matrix Mechanics

Dr OE Oyewande Department of Physics, University of Ibadan

Only the basic elements/fundamentals of QM topics listed in the

Dr OE Oyewande Department of Physics, University of Ibadan

A very useful advice from Prof. Albert Einstein, who

Dr OE Oyewande Department of Physics, University of Ibadan

Postulate 1: Description of QM State

Postulate 2: Description of Measurable Physical Quantities

Postulate 3: Prediction of Future Measurements

Eigenvalues & Eigenvectors. Degeneracy

Necessity of Real Eigenvalues in QM

Eigenvectors Form a Basis of Subspace EN of E

A|ψn i = an |ψn i (2)

where each eigenvalue a1 , a2 , . . . is non-degenerate, and the

The Principle of Spectral Decomposition

Dr OE Oyewande Department of Physics, University of Ibadan

Expansion Coefficients of the Spectral Decomposition

This equation tells us how to calculate the expansion

Dr OE Oyewande Department of Physics, University of Ibadan

The Projection Operator

⇒ c1 hψm |ψ1 i + c2 hψm |ψ2 i + . . . + cm hψm |ψm i + · · · + cN hψm |ψN i

3D & N-D Projectors. The Closure Relation

A 3D projection operator acting on a 3D vector space is

where I is the identity operator.

Equation (6) is called the Closure Relation.

Dr OE Oyewande Department of Physics, University of Ibadan

Note that I of equation (6) is the identity operator, which is

Dr OE Oyewande Department of Physics, University of Ibadan

Eigenvalue Equation for Degenerate Spectrum

In this case, the basis of the eigensubspace En , of state space

Principle of Spectral Decomposition for a Degenerate

If the eigenvalues are continuous, the above concepts remain

Dr OE Oyewande Department of Physics, University of Ibadan

Postulate 4 (a): Likelihood of Non-Deg. Discrete Results

Refer to equations (2) and (3) in this case of postulate 4.

P(an ) = |cn |2 = |hψn |φi|2 (10)

where |ψn i is the normalised eigenvector, of observable A,

Postulate 4 (b): Likelihood of Degenerate Discrete Results

Postulate 4 (c): Likelihood of Non-Degenerate Continuous

Summarized Postulate 4 for All Cases

Collapse/Reduction of Wavefunction (Non-Degenerate

Before the measurement the state |φ(x, t)i of the system

Collapse of Wavefunction (Degenerate Spectrum)

New State After Measurement (Normalisation Procedure)

Normalised New State After Measurement (Deg. Case)

Thus, in general, the process of a measurement that yielded a

Dr OE Oyewande Department of Physics, University of Ibadan

Relation of New State to Old via Subspace Projector

⇒ P(a1 )|φi = hψ11 |βi|ψ11 i+0+0+hψ12 |βi|ψ12 i+0+0+hψ13 |βi|ψ13 i+0+0

Dr OE Oyewande Department of Physics, University of Ibadan

Postulate 5: State Immediately After Measurement

State After Second Successive Measurement

Since the process of first measurement already changed the

Dr OE Oyewande Department of Physics, University of Ibadan