BACHELOR IN FOOD TECHNOLOGY

AND PROCESS ENGINEERING

Coffee, Tea and Spice Processing Technology Lecture
Notes

OCTOBER 10, 2019

Dr. M. Govindarajula Yadav, Lecturer
ARBAMINCH UNIVERSITY SAWLA CAMPUS

Chapter - 1
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Introduction:

Coffee is a popular beverage prepared from the roasted seeds of the coffee plant. It is usually
served hot but can also be served cold. Coffee is the second most traded commodity in the
world. as a source of foreign exchange to developing countries. In total, 169.34 million
tonnes of coffee were produced annually in 2019-2020 and the forecast is a rise to 1.9 million
tonnes annually by 2022.

Coffee is a chief source of caffeine, a stimulant. Cup of coffee contains 80-140 milligrams of
caffeine. Coffee, is one of the most ingested beverages, amounting to about a third that of tap
water. The word coffee gets its roots from the Polish word "kofinski" (1500 c.) which means
"A strong, dark substance."

History:

Coffee is originated in the highlands of Ethiopia (Caffa region) and spread to the rest of the
world via... Egypt and Europe. The word coffee is derived from the Arabic word Qah'wa over
Ottoman Turkish Kahve, meant wine (or) other intoxicating liquors. Partly due to the Islamic
prohibition on drinking wine, preparing, and drinking coffee became an important social
ceremony.

Egypt, coffeehouses, and warehouses containing coffee berries were sacked in 1511. But the
product's popularity, particularly among intellectuals, led to the reversal of this decision in
1524 by an order of the Ottoman Turkish SuItan Selim In the 15th century.

Muslims introduced coffee in Persia, Egypt, northern Africa and Turkey, where the first
cafeteria, Kiva Han, opened in 1475 in Constantinople. From the Muslim world, coffee
spread to Europe, where it became popular in the 17th century.

Dutch traders were the first to start large scale import of coffee into Europe. In 1538. Leonard
Rauwolf, a German physician was the first westerner to describe the brew: A beverage as
black substance as like ink. It is useful against numerous illnesses, particularly those of the
stomach.

Its consumers take it in the morning, quite frankly, in a porcelain cup that is passed around
and from which each one drinks a cupful. It is composed of water and the fruit from a bush
called bunnu." These remarks were noted by merchants, who were sensitive to this kind of
information through experience in the commerce of spices.

Production of coffee:
Coffee is cultivated and consumed all over the world. South America contributes over 40% of
the world production followed Africa (19.3%), Asia (16.8%) and Central America (16.5%).
Brazil and Colombia are the leading countries in both the production and consumption in the
world. Ethiopia stands 5-6th in production of coffee in the world.

Ethiopian coffee occupies 0.4% of the total land area and 4% of the total cultivated area,
which accounts for 3% of world production and 16.3% of African coffee production.
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It contributes about 5% of the gross domestic product (GDP), 50-70% of the foreign
exchange earning, 10% of the total government revenue and provides employment to 25% of
the total population. Ethiopia consumes around 57% of its coffee being produced
domestically.

 Coffee was first cultivated in Yemen by the 15th century.

 The Dutch was cultivated coffee trees in 1616 and brought these backs to Holland
where they were grown in greenhouses.
 In Asia, the Dutch were introducing coffee in Malabar in India, at 1699.
 Present day Indonesia, now the fourth largest exporter of coffee in the world.

The Coffee Plant:

The coffee plant takes approximately 3 years to develop from seed to fruit production. The
fruit of the coffee tree is known as a cherry. and the beans which develop inside the cherry
are used as the basic element for producing roast and ground coffee, soluble coffee powders,
and coffee liquor. A well-managed coffee tree can be productive for up to 80 years or more,
but the economic lifespan of a coffee plantation is rarely more than 30 years.

Coffee belongs to the botanical family Rubiaceae, native of Africa they are three types of
economic importance plants in the world.
1. Coffee Arabica (Arabica coffee)

2. Coffee Canephora (Robusta coffee)

3. Coffee liberica (Tree coffee)

Arabica is a higher quality and higher value coffee normally grown in cooler, elevated areas
of the tropical and sub-tropics at 1000 m or more above sea level.

Arabica is used in the roast and ground coffee market and is added to blends of Robusta to
improve the quality of instant coffee. Brazil and Columbia are the major producing countries.
Robusta is a lower quality coffee and prices are normally. about 30 to 40% less than Arabica.

Robusta is used mainly in instant coffee and for blending with Arabicas to add body and
crema. Robusta is normally grown in warmer areas at lower elevations unsuited to Arabica
and is considered resistant/tolerant to coffee rust or (decomposition). Robusta is grown at
higher elevations (up to nearly 1300 meters above the sea level).
Vietnam, Brazil, and Indonesia are the largest Robusta Producing countries. Compared with
Arabica, Robusta is generally more vigorous, more productive, and less vulnerable to
decomposition.

Cultivation: Coffee is a tropical plant that requires very specific environmental conditions
for commercial cultivation. Temperatures require 15 - 24oC for Arabica and 24 - 30oC for
Robusta. Temperature and rainfall of 1,500 to 3,000 mm.

Flowering and fruit formation:

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In Arabica, pollen grains drop by gravity on to the lower layers of the coffee branches.
but at higher levels the flowers are pollinated by pollen carried on the wind and, to a lesser
extent, by insects (5-10% only).

The quantity of pollen produced by an adult coffee plant is impressive, approximately 2.5
million grains per tree. Such a quantity is more than enough to fertilize the 20-30,000 flowers
of the plant.

Pollen can be wind-borne over approximately 100 m. Fertilization occurs when a pollen
grain falls on the stigma and a pollen tube that grows down the style and fuses with the ovary.
The ovary, which contains the two fertilized ovules, starts to develop immediately following
fertilization.

During the first 2 the second to third month of development, the ovary increases in size more
rapidly and the integument occupies almost the entire space in each ovule. The embryonic sac
grows and fills with endosperm from the third to the fifth month after fertilization, the fruit
increases significantly in weight and volume. Between the sixth and the eighth month after
fertilization, the fruit reaches maturity.

Maturity: coffee plant maturity takes place 3-4 years at maturity stage berries or a coffee
fruit turns in to red colour is referred to known as cherries. One coffee tree yields 2000-4000
cherries per year. About 3000 cherries yield 454g of beans only one coffee cherry yields two
coffee beans.

Coffee Harvesting:

Harvesting is takes place about 8 to 9 months after flowering. Ripened fruits are picked by
using manual or mechanical methods. Picking manual method gives very good quality than
mechanical harvesting. In mechanical harvesting green berries are contaminated into the
ripened berries that yields alter the coffee taste to acrid. Ripened berries are not mixed with
green berries which gives the poor quality or immature coffee beans.
Structure of Coffee Fruit:
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Fig. 1 - Transverse section of ripe fruit of a) Coffea arabica (arabica) and, b) Coffea canephora (robusta)
In the above figure indicates the outer layer called as epidermis. Bellow the epidermis a soft
pulpy portion called as meso carp. Meso carp is followed by an inner integument called as
parchment layer it is tightly adherence to the seed. During hulling process, the parchment
layer also removed.

Composition of coffee fruit:

1000kgs of coffee fruits contains 120 kgs of mucilage and 17 kgs of dry mass and 8.5 kgs of
sugar and 35% of pectic substances, traces of minerals.

Coffee Processing:
Coffee fruits can be processed immediately after picking from the plant. Unless it deteriorates
the quality of the coffee beans processing is done in two methods.

(a) Wet processing

(b) Dry method to prepare cherry coffee

Fresh cherries

Sorting

Wet processing dry processing

Pulping
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Mucilage removal

-biochemical
- Mechanical
-chemical
- Mechano-chemical

Washing

(Parchment coffee) Drying Drying (cherry coffee)

Parchment removal hulling

Polishing sorting & grading

Sorting & grading packing

Packing

shiping

Shiping

Methods of Coffee Processing:

Coffee processing transforms fresh coffee cherries into clean, green bean of 12% moisture
ready for export or for roasting. This process involves harvesting, pulping, fermenting,
washing, drying, hulling, cleaning, grading, sorting, storing, and transporting green beans.

The process can be broadly divided into two main components – Wet Processing (cherry to
dry parchment) and Dry Processing (dry parchment to exportable green bean). It is important
to understand that each of these steps has an influence on the final quality of coffee produced.

Processing is a chain of activities aimed at achieving a coffee of high quality. If any link in
the chain is broken (such as over-fermentation, mould contamination, taints or odours or
physical damage to the bean) then that loss in quality can never be regained. Three main
processing methods are the basis for the range of coffee processing techniques used
throughout the world - natural, semi-wash and full-wash.
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Natural Process:
This is a one-step operation where the coffee bean is dried inside the whole coffee fruit to
12% moisture. The 158 Coffee dry cherry is then hulled to produce a dry green bean. This is
the low cost, traditional system resulting in a low-quality coffee, and is not recommended. In
Lao, most Robusta coffee is currently processed this way.

1. Wet processing:
In some countries like USA, mexico, Colombia, Kenya they are producing green coffee with
higher quality. For this resin they need more sophisticated equipment’s and more water more
space etc. producing green coffee. After picking of the cherries sorting process was done.
Sorting is separation of good and bad cherries separately and separates the immature and
green cherries. Select good and ripened cherries are selected for processing.

Pulping: Pulping can be takes place by using pulpers’ machine. It contains two sieves and
nylon brushes are fitted in to the mortar soft. They are three types of sieves are used 1/8,
1/16, 1/28, 1/32 are used for removing of pulp. Brushes are rotated at certain speed by
rubbing action and friction pulp is squeezes from the machine seeds are separated. Still the
mucilage or gummy layer is attached to the seed it can be removed by fermentation process.

Fermentation:
Fermentation is carried out by natural microorganism are present in the coffee fruit or by
using yeast or lactic acid fermenting bacteria or entire bacteria are commonly used for
fermentation of coffee beans. These microorganisms Enterobacteriaceae species such as
Enterococcus and lactic acid bacteria are producing pectinolytic enzymes which loosen the
mucilage. The temperature of fermentation process is maintained is 50 oC for about 18-
64hours. This mucilage is removed by washing process.

Washing: coffee beans are washed with enough water (about 100liters of H 20 is requiring for
10 kg of coffee). It must then be dried to about 10% moisture. This can be done by solar or by
mechanical. Still some portion of mucilage is sticking into the beans that can be removed by
chemical, and machano chemical methods.
Treatment with Chemical (alkali): Removal of mucilage by treatment with alkali
NaOH about one hour for Arabica and 1.5 hour 2.0hrs for Robusta. 10% solution of caustics
soda (sodium hydroxide) is evenly applied into the furrows using water can. 10 liters of the
alkali is sufficient to 40 liters of parchment. Parchment is agitated thoroughly by the ladles to
make the alkali to meet the parchment and trampled by feet for about an hour. When the
parchment makes a rattling sound, change the water.

Mechanical removal: These factors have led to the conception of mechanical mucilage
removal. The equipment used for this purpose is the pulpers and mucilage remover. It
consists of a long, cylindrical, perforated casing with a current of water running through it
under pressure in which a fluted cylinder turns rapidly (400 to 550 turns per min). This
equipment separates the mucilage from the bean.

Mechano-chemical removal: this involves both mechanical and chemical actions for
the mucilage removal operation. The equipment name is known as Cafipro (designed in Costa
Rica of USA). It consists of a long, fixed cylinder divided into two parts. Wood ash is placed
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in the first part of the cylinder and lime is placed in the second. The supply of plentiful of
water must be assured. Mucilage removal is completed within less than an hour.

Washing: washing removes the chemicals and un-wanted substances on the beans. Water
requirements for washing are about 10 liters per kilogram of coffee.

Drying- After washing it is drained; the drained beans contain 50-60% of moisture. To lower
the moisture content of the beans to about 12 per cent for the storage. Drying is accomplished
by two techniques:

Storing: The main objective of sorting is to remove miss happened un- stable, dis colored
beans and broken beans are separated from good color and good size seeds.

Hulling: Parchment coffee is still in the poly saccharine called as pectin is attached to the
seed. This can be removed in hulling process UN -less it absorbs moisture from atmosphere
and causes microbial growth that spoil the coffee beans.
Hulling is the removal of outer layer by using pestle and mortar or Hand operated, horizontal
millstones are also used. Now mechanical hullers are also available. They consist of a ribbed
cast-iron cylinder driven by a rapid rotational movement mounted is a gear case. The coffee
circulates in the equipment, being transported by the ribbed surface of the cylinder. From the
combined action of pressure and friction, the coating of the bean is broken, fragmented, and
removed by a ventilating fan.

Hulling dry parchment is a mechanical process to remove the dry, parchment skin and silver
skin from the green bean. If the huller is set incorrectly or the coffee
is over-dry and brittle, coffee beans can be damaged. If the coffee is too wet the beans can be
crushed.

There are a range of machines that can clean and sort hulled coffee by colour, size, density
and aerodynamic shape. Ultimately the human eye is used as the final process to 'hand-sort'
coffee ready for export.

However, even with the wide range of machinery available, coffee that has picked up off-
flavors but otherwise looks normal Coffee cannot be sorted and is only identified in the cup
when it is too late.

Cleaning: cleaning is done by Winnowing machine is the simplest cleaning and dusting
equipment widely used. For larger quantities cleaner-separators equipped with vibrating and
ventilated sieves are preferred.

Sorting: The objective of sorting is to remove misshapen, unsuitable, black, discolored, or

spotted beans besides the broken ones. Sorting helps in improving the appearance and quality
of the coffee.

Storage: After grading coffee seeds are packed in jute sacks 60, 70, and 80 kgs bags and
stored in a ventilated room on pallets.
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The Dry Method: This is the oldest, simplest, and cheapest method. It produces ‘natural’
coffees and is adopted mostly in Brazil and Western Africa. First the harvested berries are
sorted and cleaned to separate the unripe, overripe, and damaged berries, and to remove dirt,
soil, twigs, and leaves. This is done by hand winnowing, using a large sieve. Unwanted
berries or other materials not winnowed away are picked out from the top of the sieve. The
Ripe berries can also be separated by flotation in washing channels close to the drying areas.

The harvested berries are then spread out, in the sun’s rays. If it rains or the temperature falls,
the berries are covered for protection. After two or three days, coffee berries are put in drying
rooms, they are dried by the heat of a burner at 45-60oC. It can take up to four weeks for
moisture content of each berry to reach an optimum 12% level. At their centres when the
outer shell will become dark brown and brittle. The berries can then be stored in large silos
where they stabilize their moisture content. Coffee that has been over dried will become
brittle and produce too many broken beans during hulling (broken beans are defective beans).

Coffee Hulling: The outer coverings of the bean are then removed. This process is known as
‘hulling’ and is usually done just before the coffee beans are sold for exporting.

Coffee Polishing: The polishing process is used to remove the outer filament or any of the
husks that remains on the bean after hulling. While polished beans are considered superior to
unpolished ones.

Coffee Grading: coffee beans are graded for the best quality. They are graded first by size
and then by density. Beans are sized into different grades by running the beans through sieves
and screens with specifically sized holes.

Coffee Sorting: coffee beans are sorted by using an air-jet to separate heavy and light beans.
Over-fermented or un-hulled beans are now removed. This is usually done by hand as the
beans move along a conveyor-belt. It can also be done by electronic sorting which can
remove beans known as ‘stinkers’ that are defective but cannot be distinguished by eye.
Discoloured beans are removed before bagging into sacks marked with grade, plantation, and
country of origin, ready to be exported.

Storage: coffee beans are stored to prevent spoiling (or) losing quality, several precautions
must be taken. If it is too humid, beans are not separated from their husk Coffee beans should
be stored in low moisture conditions, so it is not attacked by moulds. The maximum bean
moisture is 12% by weight. Raw coffee beans are often stored for years before roasting.
Shipping: shipping is a process of transportation and bagging of coffee beans for easy
storage and transportation. More than 1/3 of the world’s coffee is shipped to the USA,
followed next by Germany. The top export grade of bean is SHB (strictly hard bean) or
strictly high grown, which means that the coffee beans are produced at a minimum altitude of
1,330 m above sea level. Beans are often kept and transported in coarse hessian bags. Beans
are also shipped in bulk using bulk containers with plastic liners.
Coffee Exporting: The principal coffee markets are the New York & London
commodity Exchanges, which trade Arabica and Robusta, respectively. Naturally, the price
of coffee varies in relation to supply and demand. It is influenced not only by the quality and
quantity of the coffee produced, atmospheric factors (freezing temperatures, for example) and
changes in the political order.
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Quality Testing: Quality testing is essential to meet the market standards of coffee in the world,
prior to selling of raw and roasted coffee seeds. Quality department are vigorously checked for
foreign matter, colour, and aroma and for their liquor attributes. Quality testing is done by
Qualified and well skilled person. Thus, maintaining the quality standards ensures a premium price or
first rate.

Different testing methods are used to determine the quality of the seed.

1. Physical testing-

Seed colour test:

Black beans: coffee beans which has least half black on the outside or inside is called a black been. It
makes the beverage taste bitter, disagreeable and render or makes it undrinkable. They are less weight
than the normal beans when roasted (13 percent compared to 18 to 20 per cent) and are easily
distinguished by their sooty or dirty dull appearance.

The reason for this defect is prolonged fermentation of fruits picked from the ground, a poor drying
process. The presence of black beans is rare in wet processing, poorly cleaned washing channels.

Dark gray beans: This is caused by harvesting before the beans are ripe, initial fermentation of
fruits in the heap or stack, poor drying, stored under poor conditions etc.

Foxy bean: The red colouring could be due to over artificial drying, it may affect the tissues to
varying depths, over fermentation, in some cases adherence of a thin film of red soil from the drying
area hulling area.

Coloured beans: This colour is imparted to the bean by the presence wholly or partial skin.

Glassy beans: These are generally caused by insufficiently dried or reabsorbed some moisture
leading to internal enzyme reactions. These beans are less density than the healthy beans. Glassy
beans are the result of artificial drying using too high temperature.

Spotted beans: Blotchy beans have spots of various colours due to incomplete or irregular
desiccation or drying. Spots appear on the beans due to the effect of oxidizing agents, which are
present on the surface tissues of injured fruit, pest or disease infections beans.

Poor fermentation, high iron content, (formation of black precipitates with the tannin from the beans)
during wet processing can also give rise to spots, whitish spots reveals poor drying or the initiation of
germination resulting in enzymatic reactions.

2. Aroma and taste:

Stinkers: purified, repelling odour, these bad odours become apparent during roasting process a
single stinker in a cylinder is enough to contaminate its entire content. The taste of beverage and
makes it undrinkable. Stinkers are caused by excessively long fermentation, use of unclean water,
poorly cleaned washing channel and fermentation tank.
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fermentation tanks or washing channels have been poorly cleaned and all the beans from the
preceding operation were not removed. One of the reasons for the occurrence of stinkers was believed
to be the poor organization of mechanical pulping operations in local installations while wet
processing Arabica beans, or alternatively inadequate equipment

Rancid or acid beans: These beans have a dark brown colour and gives off, disagreeable odour when
cut. This is the result of poor management; excessively long fermentation.

Musty beans: These beans are either partially or totally covered with mould. They give off a
characteristic’s odour. After roasting and is transmitted to the beverage. This is the result of
incomplete drying or the re absorption of moisture or during transportation and storage.

Rio flavoured coffee: A slightly medicinal aroma is characteristic of certain coffees from the
regions of Rio and Victoria in Brazil; this is due to the metabolic activity of bacteria in the soil, which
produce an iodized substance which is absorbed by the coffee tree and transmitted to beans. This
flavour is very appreciated by some consumers, mainly in regions of northern France.

3. Liquor test:
Sour: sour is caused by faulty fermentation and faulty drying.

Foul: This is slightly sour, this could be causes bad processing or polluted water.

Faulty: This is caused by faulty fermentation with many skins and over ripe cherry.

Earthy: Tastes and smells of moist earth.

Woody: Thin and lacking of flavour is caused by badly preparation.

Onion flavour: Fermenting period is too long; contact with water is too long in the pre-fermentation
washing channel.

4. Other abnormalities:

Draughter beans: This is due to the unripe beans; these can be distinguished from the others by
their smaller size, dull grey-green colour and strong adherence of the skin. In extreme cases, there
may even be a complete absence of aroma and a poor flavour.

Broken beans: Any piece of bean which is smaller in size than an average half been is called a
broken been. This is due to inadequate adjustment of the pulping equipment, excessively rapid
rotation of the pulping equipment, excessively rapid rotation of the cylinders causes the Breakage.
Dry Broken beans are considered to be defective. They adversely affect the appearance they roast
faster than whole beans and tend to be become charred, and causes negative effect in the quality of the
beverage.
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Pelted beans: the surface of coffee beans is infected by insects and causes small, round holes
produced by the berry borer. Cutting and opens reveals that galleries bored by the insect when there
are a great many perforations.

Elephant beans: These types of unusual to finding of beans are seen in Robusta verities, found of
reversal embryos enveloping the endosperm. This upset the uniformity of the bean and also causes
problem during roasting.

Wrinkled, aborted beans: These beans are smaller than normal beans. They are flat, wrinkled,
dull-coloured surface. These is the result of fruit that is harvested before it is ripening stage, pest
attacks, wrinkled beans may result from artificial drying which is initiated at high temperature.

Chemical composition- Coffee consists of various chemicals including caffeine, a compound that is
responsible for stimulation.

Table- Chemical composition of the seed (% dry matter)

Compound C Arabica C. canephora (%)

(%)

Water 10-13 10-13

Proteins 9-13.5 9-13

Carbohydrates 16.5-21 17-20

Ash (K, Na, Ca, Ag, P,S, Fe, Al, Cl, Fl) 3-4 3-4

Lipids (oils) 12-18 9-14

Caffeine 0.6-1.5 2.2-2.7

The
caffeine (1, 3, and 7- tri methyl xanthenes C8H10O2 N4H2O) is an alkaloid. It is white in colour and
silky crystals occur in almost all parts of the plant. As compared to the other species, the Arabica is
said to be lower in its caffeine content. C. Arabica is having nearly 50% of caffeine than the C.
canephora.

About 700 different chemical compounds affect the aroma and flavour, which are important attribute
in the quality coffee.

COFFEE ROASTING TECHNOLOGY

The aromatic qualities of coffee only become apparent once the beans have been exposed to high
temperature during pyrolysis, which is still referred to as ‘roasting’ or grilling. In addition to
changes in its external appearance (colour, size and texture) during the course of this operation, the
product is the centre of complex chemical changes, some of which generate the particular aroma and
taste of coffee.
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The moisture content of green coffee needs to be maintained at 10% to 12%. Coffee that has not
breathed properly will tend to have a grassy or grainy profile after roasting. Micro-lots of green coffee
that have been vacuum packed for shipping should be allowed to breath for twenty-four hours before
roasting occurs. Before roasting, the green coffee needs to be passed through equipment to remove
any foreign objects.

During classic roasting, green coffee beans are usually subjected to temperatures ranging between
180oC-190oC and 220oC -230°C for 12-15 minutes. Tissue structure of coffee beans starts changing at
ca. 50 °C, and with a continued temperature elevation protein denaturation and water evaporation
increase.

Above 100 °C, beans undergo browning related to a series of reactions (Maillard and Strecker
mechanisms) giving rise to various substances, including melanoidins.

Around 150 °C, gaseous substances (water vapour, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide) are
released, and the bean volume increases.

At 180°C -200 °C, with the disruption of the endosperm, bean cracking occurs, bluish smoke and
aroma appears, and caramelization develops.

Thereafter, to prevent excessive browning and aroma lost, coffee beans are removed from the roasting
chamber and rapidly cooled with a stream of cold air or water spray.

During the roasting process, weight loss usually varies between 14-23% coffee moisture, Weight loss
results mainly from water and volatile substances release from the beans as well as of silver skin
detachment. Roasting of bean increases volume is related to the release gases expansion in the
endosperm (which implies cell swelling)

Destruction of polyoses, cellulose, and lignin. chemical transformations, namely, Maillard and
Strecker reactions. To evaluate the quality of roasted coffee, classic standard methods have usually
been used, namely volume, mass, apparent density, moisture, total ash, ash insoluble in hydrochloric
acid, and ether extract.

Roasting equipment and techniques

There are two roasting techniques

1. Heating by convection in which the coffee, is in contact with hot gases.

2. Heating by conduction There is in direct contact between coffee beans and a hot surface.

During the industrial roasting process, a small quantity of sugar molasses, or various other products
is sometimes added, to ‘coat’ the berries. This coating, which is permissible by law, gives the berries a
better color and more shiny appearance, prevents the loss of aroma and has the further advantage for
the merchant of increasing the weight.

The two most common roasting methods are drum and hot-air roasting. Drum Roasting Drum-type
roasting machines roast the coffee beans as they tumble in a rotating drum that is typically heated by
gas or wood. When the desired roast is achieved, the beans are poured into a cooling hopper to keep
them from overcooking. There are three main parts in a traditional drum roasting machine: a heat
generator, a vessel, where coffee is continuously agitated by rotation of the vessel or by forced
heated air, and a cooler where the coffee temperature is reduced.
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Hot Air Roasting The hot-air roaster, also known as a fluid bed roaster, roasts the coffee beans as
they lift and tumble on a current of hot air. Most green coffee is roasted at approximately 400 oC. The
roasting process causes the coffee beans to swell and increase in size by over 50%, while at the same
time greatly reducing their weight. Once the beans have left the roasting machines, they must be
cooled immediately to prevent auto combustion from modifying the proper grade of toasting that has
been achieved. There are three ways of cooling roasted beans: 1. Water cooling: a shower of water
chills the hot roasted beans. Coffee absorbs water so this process increases the specific weight. 2.
Cooling in normal air. 3. Cooling in forced air. A lightly roasted bean may range in color from
cinnamon to a light chocolate tan. Lighter roasts are generally not used for espresso since they
produce a sharper, more acidic taste than do darker roasts. Darker roasts, in contrast, have a fuller
flavour approaching a bittersweet tang. As the roast darkens, caffeine and acidity decrease
proportionately. Dark roasts can range in color from a medium-chocolate brown with a satin like, to
an almost black bean with an oily appearance.

As a result of this, extremely dark roasts will tend to have a smoky flavour and are better suited for
brewed coffee rather than espresso. The amount of oil drawn to the surface of the bean increase
proportionately to the length of roasting time. After roasting, coffee does not keep its aroma for long;
it is, therefore, better not to roast or not to buy coffee exceeding current needs. It is advisable to keep
it in airtight pack-aging to prevent light, heat and moisture ingress. The following is a general
guideline for roasting with tips to point you in the right direction. You should always start with a pre-
heated roaster. Allow the roaster and burner to idle for 20

Colour Change: As the green coffee loses its moisture, you’ll notice the color changing from green
to a pale yellow. As the roasting process continues the yellow will develop into a tan or light brown.

First Crack: When the coffee has reached a temperature of 390 oF to 400 oF the coffee beans will
increase in size significantly. Soon thereafter, a loud cracking noise will be heard as the remaining
moisture bursts out of the coffee beans. At this point, the sugars in the coffee have begun to
caramelize. This would generally be the lightest roast anyone would use.

Caramelizing: After the first crack, the coffee begins to roast more quickly. During this phase, the
color darkens rapidly and requires a close eye and quick timing to achieve precise roast levels.

Second Crack: Many roasters stop the roast before the second crack, however excellent coffee can
be found at or beyond this level, if so desired. The second crack may be harder to identify than the
first crack, if it occurs at all. If you have reached this stage, you should remain focused on the roast, as
the color may change in a fraction of a second.

Ending the Roast: Stopping the roast is critical. Once the desired color has been reached, whether it
is at the first or second crack, the coffee must be removed from the heat. It may be evacuated to a
cooling pan or quenched with water to stop the roasting process. If the latter is chosen, care must be
taken that the coffee is not moistened to the point it will stale or mold.

Stalling: After the coffee is roasted, the beans should rest for 24 hours to allow carbon dioxide
(CO2) to dissipate from the coffee before being brewed. This can be done as whole bean or ground.

GREEN COFFEE STORAGE:

Coffee is the second most important commodity in the world; as a result, it is important to develop
storage strategies to preserve its value. Losses caused by inadequate storage could seriously impact
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many sectors of the world economy, not to mention national economies which depend on coffee for a
considerable part of their GDP.

Adequate coffee storage needs to take the following points into consideration:

1. Coffee beans are living entities with their own physiological activity.

2. When used as seeds, their viability depends to a great extent on storage conditions.

3. Food safety has now become an extremely important issue since the effects of toxic substances,
which could develop during storage, can cause significant harm to human health.

4. Although coffee does not have a great nutritional value, its price is based on its sensorial value.
This is a delicate aspect which can easily be affected if storage is not adequate. Coffee aroma and
taste are highly sensitive to contamination. As a result, storage in the proximity of fragrant spices or
chemicals with a pervading odour should be avoided at all costs.

5. Due to the inherent imbalance between supply and demand in the coffee market, it is sometimes
necessary to store coffee for long periods of time.

The length of storage impacts on the quality of coffee. This fact is fully acknowledged by the
discounts negotiated in contracts for the sale of coffee which has been stored for certain length of
time. Reasons for the need entrain long-term storage: Coffee production is seasonal, whereas
consumption takes place year-round.

This means that producers, exporters, importers and traders alike tend to keep coffee in the
expectation of obtaining better prices.

Due to the schemes under which the coffee commodity markets are organized, these institutions often
have to store certified coffee stocks for months or years before they can be delivered to the holders of
the commodity contracts. In addition to the above, as in the case of any grain, there are environmental
factors, such as relative humidity (RH), moisture content, temperature and gas composition, which
directly affect the stability and quality of the coffee beans. As the control of these essential factors
improves and develops, storage conditions, in general and storage conditions for coffee, in particular,
will improve accordingly. These conditions are not necessarily the same for an importing, as for an
exporting country, since each of them has its particular requirements. Consequently, the type of
storage will depend on environmental factors, market requirements and the type of coffee, as well as
the infrastructure and available financing.

Bean Physiology and Environmental Influences:

Intrinsic Physiology:

Coffee beans or seeds, just like leaves, stems and roots, are vegetative productions. They
retain all the characteristics and activities of a living being, including respiration and

transpiration, among other elements, regardless of whether they are stored as dry cherry,
parchment or green coffee. Respiration is a process by which the oxygen available from the
environment is used and the materials available within the bean (starches, carbohydrates, fats
and proteins) are consumed by an enzymatic unfolding to produce CO2, and water in an
exothermic reaction. Under field conditions, this activity provides the necessary energy for
 15

the bean to germinate. Once the coffee has been picked and processed, however, with the
exception of the seeds for sowing, the beans need to remain in their dormant state for as long
as possible so as to maintain their commercial value.

The impact of respiration on the bean deterioration can be highlighted by the fact that every
24 h, an average of 4.4mg of CO2, are produced by 100 g of coffee beans and, the 96 cal of
heat produced by 44 mg of CO2, will raise the temperature by 0.25 °C. Consequently, during
storage, the temperature will increase sequentially. As shown in Fig. 6.1, the deterioration
caused by this effect is incrementally cyclic, which means that, with the combination of
moisture and temperature increase, the rate of respiration will accelerate and affect the beans.

A high respiration rate, combined with the generation of heat, causes a loss of weight and dry
material in the bean as well as the decomposition of components, like fats, which play an
important role in the aroma. The environmental factors which have a direct influence on this
process are temperature, RH, moisture content and air composition.

Viability: bean that can germinate is known as a viable bean. Viability depends on the
condition of the bean itself as well as on storage conditions. In general, viability remains
stable during a certain period of time after which it diminishes at an accelerated speed until
none of the beans germinate. This aspect is highly relevant in the case of beans stored for use
as seeds for propagation as it has been noted that plants produced from seeds with a low
germination rate often present abnormalities, deformations or growth delays. Physical
damage caused during harvesting or processing has a considerable effect on the viability of
the bean. A high metabolic or respiratory activity may also significantly affect seed viability.

Robusta coffee, in particular, presents a more accelerated viability loss than Arabica. The
germination capacity is better maintained if the seed is stored as parchment or cherry, with a
total moisture content of 15-18%. Under adequate conditions, viability is than
maintained for 5 months, with temperatures of 5-15°C and a RH of 35-55%. There are
different methods for determining seed viability. The most common being the traditional
method, which consists of placing the seeds in germination chambers and counting the
number of germinated grains, in order to obtain a percentage with respect to the total. This
method is very slow, but it is relatively sure. Tests using indicators like tetrazolium (which
indicates the hydrogenase level of activity) or carboxylase are not widely used since they are
subject to failure.

Moisture Content and RH:

Humidity is the factor which has the highest impact on the speed at which coffee beans
deteriorate. Even if beans have been stored with a low moisture content the humidity factor is
still very active because they are hygroscopic and tend to balance their moisture content with
 16

their immediate surroundings. This phenomenon, generally known as “moisture balance” has
been widely studied in cereals and also in coffee by numerous scientists. It has been
ascertained that it enables us to assess the impact of RH, the moisture content and the levels
that should be sought to optimize storage conditions. Other more specific factors like the
direct influence of temperature, the type of coffee, its origin and the form under which it is
stored (parchment, cherry or green bean) should also be taken into account, but their impact
on the speed of deterioration of the coffee bean is relatively minor (Fig. 6.2).

It is generally recognized that the ideal coffee moisture content for the preservation of coffee
is 12% for Arabica and 13% for Robusta. Beans with a moisture content lower than 9% may
be irreversibly damaged in color, as well as in their cup taste and consistency, which means
that it is not worth reducing the moisture content to such a low level when drying.
 17

A RH level of 75% corresponds to a moisture content in the bean of 15-16%. According to

the Henderson balance, this is the critical level for fungi formation. As a result, the RH level
should be kept below 60% because one of the most obvious effects of a high RH level, in
combination with temperature variations, is the condensation of water which, in turn,
contributes to the proliferation of fungi and insects.

Arabica coffee absorbs moisture faster than Robusta.

 18

There is a genuine concern on the part of carriers, exporters and importers with respect to the
loss of moisture and weight, since the loss of humidity during storage or transportation also
results in a loss of weight of the coffee and consequently in the profit margin, whether it is
due to the commercial weight franchise negotiation, which represents 0.5-1.0%, or to the
storage losses, which are reflected on the total manufacturing losses of any roaster or
solubilizer. Under ideal conditions, the storage losses, in general, should not exceed 1% on an
annual basis.

Figure 6.2 Equilibrium moisture content of coffee versus RH of air.

Temperature

Temperature is the second most important element which affects coffee bean quality. The
higher the temperature, the higher the metabolic activity of the seed. It has been shown that
even coffees with a moisture content as low as 11% lose their quality after G months under a
temperature of 35 °C. On the other hand, a coffee with a moisture content above 15% will
maintain its quality at temperatures as low as 10°C.

Coffee needs to be maintained at low temperatures to reduce its metabolism and respiration.
This not only refers to the environmental temperature, which we usually take into account,
but also to the intrinsic temperature of the coffee. Calculations, reveal that 8000 stored bags
of coffee generate a heat of 210400 BTU. This highlights the obvious need for ventilation in
coffee warehouses and storage premises.

This factor is particularly important in the case of producing countries where average
temperatures fluctuate between 20 and 35 °C, and where coffee is normally stored for long
periods. A general recommendation is to keep the temperatures below 20°C, in order to
preserve the quality of coffee.

Atmospheric Composition:

Although this is an element that normally remains unchanged during storage, we cannot
underrate its importance. A high content of molecular O2, influences the metabolic activity of
 19

the seed by accelerating its rate of respiration. As a result, systems for decreasing O2 and
increasing CO2 have been developed in order to reduce the rate of respiration and,
consequently, increase the shelf-life of the coffee beans.

Altitude:

The altitude factor in storage is related to the combination of the most important factors
mentioned above. Generally speaking, storage life will be shorter at lower altitudes, i.e.
approximately 3 months at 600 m. Whereas at altitudes above 1400 m natural shelf-life can
be of 8 months. Inevitably, this means that exporters and industrialists prefer high altitude
locations for coffee storage.

Duration:

The longer the storage time, the less the preservation of the product characteristics. The
generally accepted time for green coffee storage is, under normal conditions, 1 year. In some
countries, coffee is stored for more than 1 year but this affects its quality.

Countries like Brazil have been known to store coffee lots for more than 4 years. Coffee
commodity markets, such as the CSCE of New York and LIFFE of London, store coffee for
years but they grant a discount when selling coffee that has been in storage for a long time. In
some cases, however, storage can be beneficial. Robusta, for example, should be stored for a
period of 6 months in order to diminish the harsh and woody flavours that are inherent to this
species.

Other Factors:

Species of coffee react differently to storage conditions and processing also influences their
reactions. Arabica coffee, for example, is more sensitive to adverse conditions, whereas

Robusta is more resistant. Similarly, wet-processed coffee may be more easily affected than a
dry-processed (natural) coffee.

Coffee may be stored at different stages and under different forms:

1). Fresh cherry coffee. Due to its high moisture content, cherry coffee cannot be stored for more
than 48 h because of fermentation as well as the production of mycotoxins.

2) Dry parchment coffee. Washed coffee can be preserved in this form for a longer period of
time because the parchment protects it from the environment. On the other hand, it requires more
space. To store 540 quintals of washed coffee, a net space of 60 m 3 or 9 quintals/m3 is required. It
can be stored in silos, boxes or bags but it is essential that its moisture content remains
homogeneous. Coffee in parchment should be stored 10 days before processing it to homogenize
its MC.
 20

3) Dry or ball cherry coffee. This is the best form of storage for coffee for long periods since the
pericarp fully protects the bean. Obviously, it only applies to natural coffee types. The major
drawback of this form of storage is the fact that it is more likely to suffer damage by insects.
Under this form storage has a low volumetric efficiency. It is usually made in silos or in jute or
propylene bags.

4) Green or clean coffee. This is the most usual form for storing commercial coffee. It is also the
most vulnerable to environmental factors, since it is ready to be roasted.

Main Storage Problems

Coffee is mainly susceptible to attacks by pests (Coffee Berry Borer, Khapra Beetle, and
Coffee Bean Weevil) and fungi (Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium ver wosum. The damage
caused to coffee by these two parasites can be extremely serious both from a financial point
of view and with regard to the incidence on consumer health. This does not only involve the
pesticide residue level in the bean, but also the level of toxins which may affect human
beings. To diminish this risk, adequate controls must be set up during the stages prior to
storage because coffee beans have natural physical barriers which can protect them from
damage.

The development of these fungi is favoured when the moisture content of the beans is higher
than 15% and the RH above 75 %.

There are other storage pests, like the Tobacco-moth Ephestia elutella, the lepidopterous
Oryzaephillus surinameus L. and Laemophloeus ferruginesus Steph. which affect all beans
whether they are whole, damaged or split. There have also been reports of Lophocateres
pusillus in Africa and Sitodrepa panicea in Colombia.

Bacteria

No significant damage to coffee by bacteria is known, since they require a RH higher than
90% to survive and a medium with a neutral or basic pH. Damage is only incurred in cases
where the coffee beans are already considerably deteriorated.

Rats, Mice and Birds: Even though rats, mice and birds are not considered important coffee
pests, they often consume the beans if they have nothing else to eat and, through their faces,
they can spread diseases which affect the safety and quality of coffee.

Green Coffee Storage

The most common storage methods are described below.

a) Bags: Bags are the most commonly used means for coffee storage around the world, even
for the London and New York commodity markets. Most of the warehouses in producing and
importing countries use bags because they are adapted to the basic requirements throughout
the supply chain.

b) Silos: Silos are non-ventilated structures built with different materials which allow the
bulk storage of green coffee beans. This system is connected with automated ventilation and
 21

transporting lines. In this system, air ventilation, initial moisture content, RH and temperature
are more relevant than in bag storage.

c) Containers: Containers are not, strictly speaking, storage facilities but they should be
mentioned as large quantities of coffee are transported and stored in containers for periods
longer than 15 days.

Packaging

Packing of green coffee shall be in suitable packaging materials capable of protecting the
products from damage and deterioration, and which do not impart any foreign odours or
harmful effects to the products.

Shipping:

When ready to be shipped, they are moved by conventional transportation to the docks.
There, stevedores experienced in the careful handling of coffee see that the bags are properly
stowed aboard the ship ready for their journey. More than 1/3 of the world’s coffee is shipped
to the USA, followed next by Germany. The top export grade of bean is SHB (strictly hard
bean) or strictly high grown, which means that the coffee beans are produced at a minimum
altitude of 1,330 m above sea level. Between five and six million tons of unroasted or ‘green’
coffee are produced each year. Beans are often kept and transported in coarse hessian bags.
Beans are also shipped in bulk using bulk containers with plastic liners. On arrival in the
destination country, the shipments are sent to warehouses or direct to the roaster.

Chemistry of coffee:

Mention coffee, and caffeine is the chemical compound name that immediately springs to
mind. However, whilst caffeine’s effects on the brain are well documented – it binds to
adenosine receptors in the brain – it has relatively little impact when it comes to the taste of
coffee. Coffee, as it turns out, is a cornucopia of chemical compounds that influence its taste;
whilst some of these compounds are poorly characterised, one group of compounds about
which plenty is known are the chlorogenic acids.
 22

Chlorogenic acid.
These compounds account for up to 8% of the composition of unroasted coffee beans.
Deceptively enough, despite the name their structure doesn’t contain any chlorine atoms –
rather, it refers to the light green colour produced when these acids are oxidised. When coffee
beans are roasted, these chlorogenic acids react to form a variety of different products, which
can all affect the taste of the coffee.

In medium to light coffee brews, the main source of bitterness is from chlorogenic acid
lactones; the two dominant members of this family of compounds in coffee are shown below.

3-caffeoylquinic-1,5-lactone & 4-caffeoylquinic-1,5-lactone

in a dark roasted coffee, the breakdown products of these chlorogenic acid lactones have an
increasing effect on the bitterness of the flavour. These products are called phenylindoles,
and their bitterness is harsher than that of the chlorogenic acid lactones – explaining, for
example, the bitterness of espresso coffee.

A final class of compounds, melanoidins, are also formed as by-products of the roasting of
coffee beans. They are formed during the Maillard reaction, a chemical reaction between
proteins and sugars responsible for flavouring in many types of cooked foods. The
melanoidins are very poorly characterised due to their complexity, and their chemical
structures remain largely unknown, despite it being estimated that roasted coffee bean
composition may contain up to 30% of these compounds. Very little is known about this class
of compounds, but it is suspected that they could also have an impact upon the flavour of
coffee.
 23

Phenylindanes

Coffee Products:
Decaffeinated coffee: Because of the stimulating effect of caffeine, coffee is undesirable as a
beverage at night so decaffeination of the coffee is done. The green beans are steamed until they
contain 21% moisture. The beans are then treated with water, and if necessary, with ammonia or acid
and then solvent extracted with trichloroethylene, chloroform or benzene. The extracted beans are
steamed to get rid of the excess solvent and then dried. Many patents for the decaffeination of coffee
have been issued. Decaffeinated beans are roasted in the usual fashion. The caffeine is recovered and
sold as a by-product.

Instant coffee: It is also known as soluble coffee and is made up of coffee solids that are completely
soluble in water. It is prepared by a process involving the use of percolation with water to extract the
ground coffee and the solution is then dried by one of several methods:

1. Spray Drying- The extracted liquid is forced through nozzles into a stream of hot air or inert gas,
the result of which is instantaneous drying. The dried material is collected in a chamber.

2. Vacuum drying on a moving belt yields a dried product in the form of flakes, which are highly
soluble, even in cold water.

3. Freeze drying also known as lyophilization involves the removal of water by evaporation in a high
vacuum and at very low temperature. This method yields a product, which is closer to brewed coffee
than the others, but it is expensive to produce. Most instant coffee is produced by spray drying.

CHAPTER-II

TEA

Introduction:
 24

Tea is cultivated in china, Japan, Ceylon, and India. Tea is a beverage prepared by pouring
the boiling water in to the dry processed leaves. It is most popular refreshing drink in many
countries. India is the largest tea producing country in the world. Tea comes from the tropical
plant camellia and its belongings to the family thecae. There are 45 species of plant in the
camellia among that camellia synensis is an important species among the camellia species.

Tea is the oldest beverage native of China. It was first known to the Chinese as early 2,737
years BC. But the status of tea consumption is advanced by England. 10 countries are
growing tea cultivation. India is the largest producers, consumer and exporter in tea industry.

Tea belongs too genus Camellia, the original species which produced tea were C. assamica
(Assam jats), C. sine sis (China jats)
Assam type: Susceptible to tolerate drought condition, frost, and gives high yield but
Medium quality.

China type: small leathery leaves Low yield but good quality.

Importance of tea and its status in Ethiopian economy

Ethiopian tea is some of the best quality tea in the world. Ethiopia’s current annual tea
production from three private estates is approximately 7000 tons of black tea per annum. The
total area covered by tea plantation is 2700 ha and the country only produce black tea but has
potential to grow all types of tea.
Investment potential exists in large-scale commercial tea production and modern tea blending
and packing industries. The tea industry in Ethiopia has been lacking investment. The
Government has been proactive to increase private investment in tea plantations. As part of
its privatization program me for state owned enterprises, in 2000, two estates covering
2,109ha for $27milliom USD were sold to private investors. Moreover, an Indian company
that owns and runs the Tata Tea Estate has signed an agreement with a domestic owned
private company to manage the tea estate. The company will transfer the latest technology of
tea planting, growing, harvesting and manufacturing of black tea, assist in planting tea in
5,000 hectares of land and also have the option of investing in the equity of the company at a
future date.

Tea plant:

 Tea plant is usually grown in to 2-5feet highest and it is grown like a bush.
 The harvesting of tea leaves involves the collection of terminal buds containing two
or three leaves pick immediately.
 The fresh leaf of tea contains carotene, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid and
ascorbic acid.
 During the manufacturing of black tea, the above nutrients are getting losses by
fermentation.
 Where as in green tea the above nutrients are retained.
 Tea is consumed with the addition of milk and sugar. The important constituent of tea
flavour is caffeine, poly phenols and essential oils.
 25

Chemical Composition of tea leaf- Freshly plucked tea leaf contains 75-80% water, 2.5%
polyphenols, 2.0% protein, 2.5-4.5% caffeine, 2.7% crude fiber, 4% carbohydrate and 6%
pectin. It also contains various minerals which include aluminum, iron, manganese, copper,
potassium, zinc, calcium, phosphorous and magnesium. The caffeine and tannin
(polyphenols) are very important compounds for they stimulate and give grime, respectively
they occur in higher quantity in the first one or two leaves.

Types of tea: There are three types of tea are as follows

1. Black tea
2. Green tea
3. Oolong tea

Black tea: various steps involved in the preparation of black tea are as follows

Withering, rolling, fermentation, drying, grinding, and packing.

Withering: in this method the tea leaves are placed in a thin layer on racks of tray. Air is
circulated for about 16-24hrs. In this method moisture of tea leaves are losses to 40% and tea
leaves become soft and flexible.

Rolling: This operation is carried on by a series of machines or in a single roller, during

which the cells in the leaves are broken to release the juices, enzymes. The Cell Sap
containing the polyphenol oxidase, an enzyme. Oxidizes the polyphenol to thioflavins.
Rolling takes place for 30-40 minutes.

Fermentation: after rolling the leaves are spread in a thin layer on a plat form and it is
allowed to ferment 2-6hrs at 21-27oC. During fermentation the tannins are oxidised to give
new poly- phenolic compounds catechin, and Gallo catechin are also oxidised to give brown
colour. Black tea is less bitter and astringent.

Drying: Fermented tea leaves are passed through the dryer. The tea leaves are dried to 88-
93oC for about 30-40minutes.the dried product contains3-4%moisture.

Grading- Before grading, the dried tea is removed of the stalky fibres, which affects the quality, by
passing through fibre separator machines. The bulk tea is passed through different sized meshes
which aid in separation into different grades.

Grades:

No Orthodox grades Mesh size CTC Grades Mesh size

1 Pekoe >8mesh-sieve Flowery Pekoe (FP) >8mesh

2 Tippy golden orange 8-12 Pekoe 8-10

pekoe (TGOP)
 26

3 Broken orange pekoe 12-16 BOP 10-12

(BOP)

4 BOP-Fanning 16-18 Pekoe of fanning 12-16

5 BOP-dust 18-24 BOP-fanning 16-20

6 Dust-I 25-30 Pekoe dust (PD) 20-30

7 Dust-II Below 30 Red Dust (RD) 30-40

8 Super Reddest (SRD) 40-50

9 Fine dust (FD) 50-60

10 Superfine dust (SD) Below 60.

Sorting and grinding: sorting the good tea leaves and removes chaff, dust etc. and graded
the leaves according to the size, colour of the tea leaves.

Blending: Different teas are blended to produce uniform character of tea product.

Packing: Blended tea is packed in plywood boxes lined with aluminium foil and parchment
paper.

2. Green tea: Here withering and fermentation are completely omitted. The leaves are
subjected to steaming process to inactivate the enzymes. Steaming is followed by rolling and
during. the tea leaves are must retains the original green colour. It has a little aroma. Because
flavour producing enzymes are in activated by steaming process.

3. Oolong tea: this tea has a special market in America. and exclusively produced in Borneo.
It is partially fermented the fermentation period is too short to change the colour of the tea
leaves. And it is partially blackened.

Preparation of tea: Good cups of tea are prepared by steeping the tea powder in a hot water
for about three minutes and extract the tea which gives stimulant beverage.

Factors affecting the quality of tea:

 Polyphones and enzyme content in the tea leaves.

 Buds with tea leaves two or three desirable.
 It is depending on soil and climatic condition.
 Best tea comes from plant grows in low temperature.
 Processing technique used and largest leaves gives best quality.

Instant tea: instant tea is made at home is made by adding water to the tea powder and
extract the decoction. By add sugar and milk consume instantly.
 27

Spiced tea: spiced tea is made by adding cardamom, ginger, cloves, pepper, mint, Basil,
cinnamon.

Bio-tea: this has been developed by university of agricultural sciences of Bangalore; India. It
is prepared by aerobic fermentation of tea decoction containing two selected microorganisms
‘yeast (candida), bacterium (acetobacter) for about 3-5days. These two microorganisms are
grown symbiotically. And forming the slimy, gelatinous sheet on the surface of the decoction.
The fermented decoction is removed and it is pasteurized, stored in to a bottle. This tea
consumed in cold condition without milk on regular practices.

Adulteration of tea: the common adulteration of tea is as follows

 Spent leaves, grit, and sand.

 Limes some times are added for increase the colour of the tea.
 Agathe, husk of black grams is used as adulterants.

SPICES

Introduction Spices are used for flavour, colour, aroma and preservation of food or
beverages. Spices may be derived from many parts of the plant: bark (cinnamon), root
(ginger, onion, garlic), buds (cloves, saffron), seeds (yellow mustard, poppy, sesame), berry
(black pepper), or the fruit (allspice, paprika), flowers, leaves, rhizomes, stigmas and styles or
the entire plant of tropical plants and trees. Spices are often dried and used in a processed but
complete state. Another option is to prepare extracts such as essential oils by distilling the
raw spice material (wet or dry), or to use solvents to extract oleoresins and other standardized
products. They can be marketed whole, ground to a powder or in the form of essential oils
and oleoresins. Many spices are also used for other purposes.

Plants such as turmeric (Curcuma longa) are increasingly in demand for natural therapies,
while others such as peppers (Capsicum spp.) serve as substitutes for chemical dyes or
pesticides. The term ‘herb’ is used as a subset of spice and refers to the dried leaves of
aromatic plants used to impart flavour and odour to foods with, sometimes, the addition of
colour. The leaves are commonly traded separately from the plant stems and leaf stalks.
Examples are parsley, chives, marjoram, thyme, basil, caraway, dill, oregano, rosemary,
 28

savoury, sage and celery leaves. These can be used fresh or dried. Dried forms may be whole,
crushed, or ground. A conventional classification of spices is based on degree of taste as:

• hot spices • mild spices

• aromatic spices • herbs and aromatic vegetables

Table 8.1 Conventional classification of spices

Organic spices:

The organic method of farming is the best option to ensure that the air, water and soil around
us remain unpolluted, leaving the environment safe for present and future generations.
In many countries exploitative agriculture using industrial inputs has been the norm since the
1960s, in order to cater for an increasing population and to combat the occurrence of famine
and natural calamities. Such a system of farming has been causing imbalances in the
constituents of biosphere, bioforces, bioforms and biosources. As a result, the health of
‘Mother Earth’ has been deteriorating. Organic agriculture aims to tackle the above concern,
and also aims at protecting the environment from continuous decline.

The concept of organic farming is based on a holistic approach where nature is perceived to
be more than just an individual element. In this farming system there is dynamic interaction
between soil, humus, plant, animal, eco-system and environment. Hence organic farming
differs from industrial agriculture as in the latter, biological systems are replaced by technical
production systems with liberal use of chemicals.
Organic farming improves the structure and fertility of the soil through balanced choice of
crops and implementation of diversified crop rotation systems.

Biological processes are strengthened without recoursing to chemical remedies, such as

synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. In this farming system control of pests, diseases and
weeds is primarily preventative, and if required, adopting organic products, which will not
adversely affect the environment. Genetically modified organisms are not normally
acceptable because of the manipulations made in their natural set up. Organic matter of
various kinds, nitrogen fixing plants, pests and disease resistant varieties, soil improvement
 29

practices such as mulching and fallowing, crop rotation, multiple cropping, mixed farming,
etc., are freely adopted. In brief, organic farming merges traditional and respectable views on
nature with modern insights.

Quality:
To sell organic spices, quality considerations are most important. Since no chemicals are used
for fertilization, control of pest and diseases, elimination of weeds and growth acceleration,
some buyers fear that the microbial population in the end products could be on the higher side
than those prepared conventionally using these inputs. As there is no opportunity for the use
of chemicals in crop production, the products should be absolutely free from their residues
including pesticides and fungicides.
In brief, three important parameters to market organic food are the following:

1.Quality – certified organic, which has to be proved by inspection report and issued
by authorized inspection and certification agency following approved standards.
2. Quality – microbiologically clean, based on results from recognized laboratory.
3. Quality – absolutely residue free, authenticated with analytical data on residues from
approved laboratory.
8.3 Quality specifications for herbs and spices:

There are various types of test which make up the range of international standards:
• Cleanliness: This is a measure of the amount of foreign and extraneous matter, for
example insect contamination, excreta or foreign bodies. Measurement is by physical
determination (using microscopic analysis (x 30)) of contamination within aliquots (samples)
of the product.
• Ash level: This is a measure of the level of impurities in a product, obtained by burning off
the organic matter and measuring the residue of ash. This measurement is carried out by
incinerating the herb or spice at 550ºC to constant weight. Characteristic maximum figures
exist for most herbs and spices.

• Acid insoluble ash (AIA) (or sand content): This is a classic determination of the
cleanliness of the herb or spice. The measure is usually made in conjunction with the ash
content by boiling the ash in 2N HCl and incinerating the residue (again at 550ºC) to a
constant weight. Again, maximum figures exist for most herbs and spices. Prosecutions have
in the past been based on high acid insoluble ash (AIA) levels within Europe, which are seen
as indicating an unacceptably dirty product.

• Volatile oil (V/O) determination: This measure helps to identify whether the herb or spice
has been adulterated, perhaps by addition of foreign materials, low quality or spent amounts
of the herb or spice in question. The herb or spice is boiled under reflux conditions with water
where the oil separates on top of the water and can be read off in a volume proportional to the
mass of the product under test. Minimum percentage levels of oil exist for most major herbs
and spices.

• Moisture content: This measure of the amount of moisture is important since moisture
content determines weight, and weight is used in pricing. With highly priced commodities
traded on weight, a 1% moisture increase in the product as shipped can result in increased
weight and increased profits for the original exporter. Maximum moisture contents are set for
all herbs and spices, based on the maximum allowable amount of moisture for the product to
 30

remain stable. Moisture content is generally determined within the herb and spice industry
using the Dean & Stark methodology. This involves re-fluxing a known weight of the herb or
spice in petroleum spirit and measuring the water that condenses at the bottom of the reflux
chamber from the known weight of herb or spice. Generally, the level is 12% max.

• Water availability: In recent years moisture content has been related to the Aw or the
water availability of the herb or spice. The level of 0.6 Aw is generally accepted as a figure at
and below which mould or microbial growth cannot occur. However, this figure is increased
in several herbs and spices without problem due to the preservative effect of the oils
contained within the spices. Examples are cinnamon, oregano and cloves where the oils have
very strong anti-microbial effects.

• Microbiological measures: There is a range of techniques available for counting the

numbers of a pathogen in a sample

Pesticide levels: Pesticide levels are not seen as a major problem given the (low) average
daily intakes of these products by consumers. As a result, in the EU limited legislation exists
for herbs whilst, for spices, the EU has determined there is no risk and no legislation is
planned. Legislation is in a state of flux in the USA and limits may be introduced. In the
interim, Codex limits for the nearest equivalent commodity may be a useful guide. Pesticide
levels are assessed by either gas chromatography (GC) or high-performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC), depending on the pesticide in question.

• Mycotoxin levels: Mycotoxins, specifically aflatoxin and ochratoxin A, have been of

concern within the last few years in the industry. Legislation governing the aflatoxin content
of capsicum species, piper species, nutmeg, ginger and turmeric will be enacted in 2001
within the European Union at 10ppb total, 5ppb B1. With the USA the limit is currently
20ppb. HPLC is likely to be the reference methodology employed for these determinations.

• Bulk density/bulk index: This is an important measure, particularly in filling retail

containers of herbs and spices. The herb or spices must be sifted or ground to give a certain
density so that retail units appear satisfactorily full and comply with the declared weight.
Densities may be measured packed down, e.g. after tapping the product so that it assumes a
minimum density, or untapped: as it falls into the container without compression. This
measure is usually defined as grams/litre or mls/100g.

• Mesh/particle size: Many spices and herbs are ground to give easier dispersion in the final
food product. This process also aids the dispersion of flavour. Particle size is generally
specified and is carried out using standardised sieves. Aperture sizes give a particle size, the
products being ground to pass a certain sieve, and coarse matter recycled through the mill
until it finally passes through the sieve. Sieves are characterised in micron sizes and typical
requirements will be a 95% pass on a specified size of sieve. The older method of measuring
sieve (hole) sizes was that of mesh which related to the number of holes per inch. However,
confusing differences exist between American and British mesh sizes.

The mesh size (number of holes per inch) depends on the diameter of the wire making up the
sieves and this differs between nations. Thus a 25 mesh US sieve is equivalent to a 30 mesh
BS (UK) sieve and both are equivalent to a 500-micron aperture size. Tables are available
giving the relationships between national sieve sizes and micron sizes.
 31

There are a number of internationally-approved standards for testing procedures, established

by the International Standards Organisation (ISO). These include the following ISO

Functional properties:

Edible spices serve many functions in food products. Their primary functions are to flavour
food and to provide aroma, texture, and colour. Spices also provide secondary effects, such as
preservative, nutritional, and health functions.

Spices are composed of fibre, carbohydrate, fat, sugar, protein, gum, ash, volatile (essential
oils), and other non-volatile components. All of these components impart each spice’s
particular flavour, colour, nutritional, health, or preservative effects. The flavour components
(volatile and non-volatile) are protected within a matrix of carbohydrate, protein, fibre, and
other cell components. When the spice is ground, cut, or crushed, this cell matrix breaks
down and releases the volatile components.
Extraction of essential oils:

Essential oils are liquid products of steam or water distillation of plant parts (leaves, stems,
bark, seeds, fruits, roots and plant exudates). An essential oil may contain up to several
hundred chemical compounds and this complex mixture of compounds gives the oil its
characteristic fragrance and flavour. An essential oil may also be fractioned and sold as
individual natural components. Other processing options can also produce further products
that can be sold alongside essential oils.

The extraction of essential oils from plant material can be achieved by a number of different
methods. There are five main methods of extraction:
• Expression
• Hydro- or water-distillation.
• Water and steam distillation
• Steam distillation
• Solvent extraction
For each method there may be many variations and refinements and the extraction may be
conducted under reduced pressure (vacuum), ambient pressure or excess pressure. The choice
of extraction method will depend on the nature of the material, the stability of the chemical
components and the specification of the targeted product
Quality indices for spice essential oils
Determining the quality and purity of essential oils faces similar difficulties to establishing
the quality of raw spices, given the accepted variations in and mixing of varieties within a
particular spice. There are, however, a number of properties that can be used to set quality
standards. These include physical characteristics such as:
• specific gravity
• molecular refractive index
• optical rotation
• solubility.
It is also possible to use chemical properties to benchmark quality. These include
determination of acids, esters, alcohols, aldehydes and ketones, phenols and iodine number.
Some specific flavour tests for halogens can also be used to set standards.
 32

Vanilla

Introduction:

Vanilla is first in vented by Corella of USA (1953). Vanilla was introduced to the World in
1520. A drink facilitates from powdered cacao and flavoured with ground vanilla beans
called ‘tlilxochitl’ (black pod). After the discovery of the secret ingredient, vanilla was
brought to Spain, as flavouring for the manufacture of chocolate. Subsequently, vanilla was
introduced to, Java in 1819, India in 1835. Vanilla – ice cream is blended with vanilla
flavour.

Fig. 20.1 Vanilla, a vine, is a member of the orchid family. Fig. 20.2 Vanilla flowers are yellowish, wholly green
or white within
Cultivate vanilla outside its native Mexican home failed because of one major constraint: lack
of natural vectors to pollinate the flowers. The solution to this problem came in 1836 when
Charles Moran of Liège was able to produce vanilla beans by hand pollination.
Plant description:

Vanilla, a member of the orchid family, is a climbing monocot, possessing a heavy, succulent
stem and short-petioles; oblong-lance late leaves about 20 cm long (Fig. 20.1). The
inflorescence is characteristically raceme with more flowers. The flowers are about 6 cm long
and 2.5 cm wide, are yellowish, wholly green or white within sepals and petals (Fig. 20.2).
The fruit, popularly termed as ‘beans’ or ‘pod’ in the vanilla market, is botanically a capsule,
nearly cylindrical and about 20 cm long (Fig. 20.3) (Bailey and Bailey, 1976). Other species
of vanilla of secondary importance in the vanilla trade include the West Indian vanilla, V.
pompona Schiede (synonym: V. grandiflora Lindl.).

West Indian vanilla is a native of Central America. It differs from V. planifolia by having
larger leaves, fleshier and larger flowers and the presence of a tuft of imbricate scales, instead
of hairs, in the centre of the lip disc. Both minor species yield shorter and thicker capsules
and an inferior bean product. A comprehensive comparative anatomical study of the stem,
leaves and roots

Fig. 20.3 The fruit of vanilla is botanically a capsule, but is called a ‘bean’ or ‘pod’ in the
international market.
 33

Production and trade:

In the year 1990 to 2000, average world production of vanilla beans amounted to 4466 Mt
harvested over a total of 38 485 ha (FAO, 2003). Indonesia contributed about 38% of this
World produce, slightly higher than Madagascar at around 34%, while Mexico and Comoro
Islands had less than 10% share. vanilla extract was largely used by the industrial sector (75%
of the total supply), followed by the retail sector (20%) and the food service sector (5%) total
industrial application, 30% was utilized in ice cream preparations, 17% in soft beverages,
11% in alcoholic beverages, 10% in yoghurt and the remaining 7% in bakery items,
confectioneries, cereals and tobacco products.
Cultivation
Climate and soil requirements
Vanilla is a tropical crop that requires warm and moist climate. Natural growth is obtained at
latitudes 15º and 20º north and south of the equator (Lionnet, 1958). The optimum
temperature ranges from 21 to 32ºC, with a mean value of 27ºC, rain fall is 2000 and 2500
mm annually. (Purseglove et al., 1981). Vanilla established on gently sloping terrain with
good drainage is reputed to produce better crops and to be more resistant to fungal infection
(Lionnet, 1958). It grows best in light, porous and friable soils, preferably of volcanic origin,
with a pH of 6 to 7 (Correll, 1953; Straver, 1999).
20.3.2 Propagation
Use of cuttings
Vanilla is commercially propagated by stem cuttings. cuttings 2–3.5 m long are preferred
since they will flower in one to two years, as opposed to 30 cm cuttings which will bear
flowers and fruit in three to four years. The latter, however, is known to produce more
vigorous crops that will last longer (Lionnet, 1958). Long cuttings are planted directly in the
field, while short cuttings are usually started in a nursery. Cuttings for storage or transport
can be carefully wrapped in banana or abaca leafs heaths and will root in 20 days under shade
(David, 1950).

Use of in vitro techniques

Vanilla is also successfully propagated using in vitro techniques. Shoot proliferation with
aerial root formation can be induced using nodal stem segments (Kononowicz and Janick,
1984).

Use of seeds
Propagation by seeds is confined to breeding work. Under natural conditions vanilla seeds,
which contain a limited amount of food reserve, do not germinate unless in association witha
mycorrhizal fungus (Purseglove, 1985). They can, however, germinate in vitro in a well-
defined culture medium formulated by Knudson (1950). The specific his to chemical changes
during the in vitro germination and seedling growth of vanilla have been described by
Philip.and Nainar (1988).

20.3.4 Field establishment

In establishing a vanilla plantation, areas that are level to stagnation of water (e.g. flat lands
with poor drainage) or subject to soil erosion (e.g. steep contours) should be avoided. An
ideal site is a gently sloping hill with sufficient drainage (Correll, 1953).

Field operations are also more difficult. A moderate spacing of 1.5 m × 2 m or 2 m × 2 m

giving 3300 or 2500 vines to a hectare, respectively, is recommended to overcome these
 34

problems (Sen, 1985). Planting holes are dug about 30 cm from the support tree and the basal
three nodes (without leaves) of the cuttings are buried into the soil and then covered with rich
humus or well-decayed leaves.
Fertilizer application
Chemical analysis reveals considerable amount of inorganic nutrients taken up by the
different organs of vanilla (Tjahjadi, 1987). The highest amount of nutrient found in the stem
is calcium, in the leaf, magnesium, and in the fruit, potassium. The fruit contains the highest
level of all the nutrients examined, except for calcium and magnesium. This result suggests
the need to consider proper nutrition in this crop. It is recommended that 40–60 g , 20–30 g
P2O5 and 60–100 g K2O be supplied to each vanilla vine per year (Anandaraj etal., 2001).
Spraying of 1% solution of complete fertilizer (17 : 17 : 17) once a month enhances growth
and flowering.

20.3.8 Diseases and pests

Correll (1953) and Purseglove et al. (1981) identified and described the various diseases of
vanilla in several producing countries. The most serious and widespread is anthracnose,
It is characterized by browning and death of underground roots with a concomitant
shrivelling and drying out of the shoot. excessive moisture, insufficient drainage, too much
shade and high-density planting. Other debilitating diseases of vanilla which have recently
been observed are viral diseases. Several types have been identified. The cucumber mosaic
virus (CMV) was first reported by Farreyrol et al. (2001) in vanilla.

Other potyviruses that react with neither VNV or VaMV antisera and rhabdovirus-like
particles have also been detected in Fiji and Vanuatu. Symptoms of potyvirus infection
include leaf distortion, sunken chlorotic patches, stem necrosis and vine die-back. Control
measures include rouging and avoiding the use of cuttings from plantings where the
symptoms are present.
Flowering and pollination
Vanilla flowers only once a year spread out over an average of two to three months,
depending upon the variation in local climate. In Mexico flowering is observed from April to
May; in Madagascar and the Comoro Islands, between November and January (Correll,
1953). In Indonesia, this occurs between July and August (Sen, 1985); in India from
December to February (Anandaraj et al., 2001),

In artificial pollination the stamen cap is removed and the rostellum is pushed up with the aid
of a bamboo stick or any similar object the size of a toothpick. The pollinia and stigma are
then brought into contact with each other by hand manipulation. A simple description,
complete with illustrations, of four different types of hand-pollinating vanilla flowers is
provided by Fouche and Coumans (1992). If pollination is successful, the flowers remain and
wither on the rachis; otherwise, they abscise in two or three days. Under expert hands, from
1000 to 2000 flowers can be pollinated per day (Purseglove et al., 1981). Vanilla flowers last
only for a day.

Fruiting
It takes about six months for the fruits to mature; in Mexico, Indonesia and the Philippines,
about nine months about 50–150 fruits are allowed to develop and mature per vine
(Purseglove, 1985).

20.4 Harvesting, yield and post-production activities

 35

Vanilla fruits are gathered when they are fully mature. When harvested at the over-ripe stage,
the fruits tend to split and lose some of their aroma. One kilogram of cured beans is derived
from about 6 kg of green pods. Yield of cured beans ranges from 300 to 800 kg ha–1 yr–1
Post-production activities
Curing:
After harvesting, the pods of vanilla need to be cured to develop the characteristic natural
Vanilla 331 flavour associated with the product. The main flavouring chemical of vanilla, is
present only in trace amounts in the green mature beans; upon curing, however, vanillin
content increases (Arana, 1943). The chemical compound from which vanillin is derived
occurs in the uncured pods in the form of a glucoside called glucovanillin (Arana, 1945).
During the curing process, this glucoside is hydrolysed to form vanillin and glucose through
the action of a β-glucosidase. Other flavour constituents such as p-hydroxybenzoic acid, p-
hydroxybenzaldehyde and vanillic acid (Fig. 20.4b–d)

Balls and Arana (1941) suggested the possible role of a peroxidise system in the oxidation of
vanillin to quinine compounds. These substances possess more complex structure with
presumably different aroma that can add to the total flavour of the cured product.

Wild-Altamirano (1969) reported that proteinase activity declines with pod growth while the
activities of glucosidase, peroxidase and poly phenol oxidase increase with pod age, being
maximum near or at ripening. In general, vanilla curing follows four successive steps: (1)
killing or wilting, (2) ‘sweating’, (3) drying and (4) conditioning.

Killing or wilting: it is the initial step in inhibiting the natural changes in vanilla beans. In
Mexico and Indonesia, the most popular method is sun wilting. In this method the beans,
which are contained on racks covered with dark woollen blankets, are simply heated under
the sun. Wilting with the use of an oven maintained at 60ºC beans is killed by dipping in hot
water for a few minutes (scalding technique) (Fig. 20.5). beans are gently scratched on the
surface with the use of a pin embedded in a cork ring prior to sun exposure.
 36

with the beans covered with woollen blankets for the remainder of the day (Fig. 20.6) or (2)
incubation in ovens at 45ºC at high relative humidity (Arana, 1944, 1945). The significant
change in colour of the bean to chocolate brown is manifested at this stage (Balls and Arana,
1941). Sweating is terminated when beans become pliable. The next step is slow drying.

Which is normally carried out at room temperature (Fig. 20.7). Drying is needed to lower the
moisture content of the beans to a desirable level, usually 15–30% Finally, conditioning the
product is kept in closed containers at room temperature for several months to allow the
 37

complete development of aroma (Fig. 20.8). In this last stage beans are frequently examined
for the presence of moulds. At the minimum, conditioning lasts for three months. An
improved curing process using drying tunnels has been developed in Madagascar instead of
heating by the sun. The nature of curing procedures adopted affects the quality of cured
beans. Aside from the influence of method of wilting, Arana (1945) pointed out that non-
uniformity in drying, sweating and drying under the sun, use of dirty blankets and improper
ventilation in curing rooms, all contribute to the susceptibility of beans to mould infection,
which in turn lowers the quality of the product.

While those with 31–34% moisture, just desirable. Factors other than those related to curing
protocol are also known to influence the quality of the final product. The best cured material
comes from pods harvested when the blossom-end section is yellow. When picked prior to
this stage, beans give an undeveloped vanilla flavour.
Commercial innovations in curing methods

Artificially dried whole beans (Madagascar)

On arrival at the factory, the fresh beans are weighed and then stored in 3 tonne heaps under
cover. The heaps should be no more than 1m deep and storage should not last longer than 48
hours to avoid fermentation. The beans are next sorted on a conveyor belt (5m long and
manned by 10 workers) into splits, small beans (less than 12 cm), first and second grade, and
immature beans; the last type is rejected. Output is of the order of 600-700 kg/hr.

After sorting, the beans are loaded according to the grade into 0.6m diameter open-work
cylindrical baskets taking 50 kg. The loaded baskets are plunged into metal containers full of
water heated to 63-650C, for a period of 2-3 minutes. The hot-water containers are 0.8m deep
and three-quarters full of water, installed in a stone base and heated by a wood-fire. Two
containers enable 3 tons of beans to be scalded in 4-5 hours. The scalded beans are allowed to
drain for one minute and are then placed in blanket-lined sweating boxes. Beans at the bottom
of the box receive a three-minute scalding and those at the top only two minutes. With good
insulation, a temperature of about 500C is maintained for the 48-hour sweating period.

The chests are unloaded and the beans are placed on trays (1.25mx0.9m) with a wire-mesh
base, each taking 11-12kg, fitted into a trolley. Each trolley is fitted with pivoting wheels and
22 trays separated by 6cm spacing, and takes a total load of around 250kg. The plant is
equipped with two hot-air drying tunnels, each capable of taking 6 trolleys or 1.5 tons of
killed beans, One trolley enters the tunnel every 30 minutes and the transit time is 3 hours.
The thermostat is set at 650C at the exit-end of the heat exchanger and the temperature
decreases by 60C on transit through the tunnel. Each batch of beans spends 3 hours daily in
the drier for 8 days, except split and small beans which are treated for only 4 to 5 days.

After completion of artificial drying, the supple and oily beans are slowly dried on racks in a
well-ventilated room for one two months. Sorting is carried out during this period and beans
are removed for conditioning when sufficiently dry.

Artificially dried cut vanilla

A system for the preparation of artificially dried cut vanilla has been developed. The process
involves cutting fresh beans into 1cm lengths, killing and sweating on trays in an oven at
600C for 70-78 hours and then drying in a rotary hot-air drier at 60 0C to reduce the moisture
content to 35-40per cent. Finally, the cuts are air-dried in layers about 10cm deep on
 38

performed trays at ambient temperature with the aid of a fan to achieve a 20-25 per cent
moisture content. All parts of the equipment in contact with beans are made of stainless steel
and the oven is heated by a hot-water jacket.

Grading
The grading of vanilla beans are classification from the highest to the lowest quality product
as ‘prime’, ‘good , ‘fair’ and ‘ poor or ordinary’, while Bourbon beans are graded as ‘prime’,
‘firsts’, ‘seconds’, ‘thirds’, ’fourths’ and ‘foxy splits’ (Merory, 1960). Classification is
commonly based on: bean integrity (either whole, broken or split), bean length, appearance
(particularly colour and surface blemishes), moisture content and aroma quality (Arana,
1945; Heath and Reineccius, 1986).

Packaging
After sorting, the beans are tied into bundles, usually 70 to 130, weighing between 150 and
500 g (Heath and Reineccius, 1986). These are then packed into cardboard or tin boxes lined
with waxed paper. The beans are now ready for shipment.

Flavour constituents:

The flavour Vanillin serves as the major flavour backbone, occurring in levels from 1.52 to
2.42% of bean dry weight other major components are p-hydroxybenzoic acid, p-
hydroxybenzaldehyde, vanillic acid, p-hydroxybenzyl alcohol (Fig. 20.4e) and vanillyl
alcohol
p-anisaldehyde and p-anisyl alcohol (Fig.20.4j), but not piperonal

Uses
The use of vanilla is generally grouped into three flavouring material, as a critical
intermediary in a host of pharmaceutical products, and as a subtle component of perfumes. As
a flavouring agent, vanilla is a popular and most referred ingredient in the preparation of ice
cream, milk, beverages, candies, confectioneries and various bakery items.

In the pharmaceutical and chemical industries, vanillin serves as an important intermediate in

the manufacture of: L-dopa (the anti-Parkinson an drug), methyl dopa (a compound with anti-
hypertensive and tranquilizing properties), palavering (treatment of heart problem),
trimethoprim (anti-bacterial agent), hydrazones (2,4-D-like herbicide), and anti-foaming
agent (in lubricating oils).
Vanilla products
The cured beans are further processed to produce the various vanilla products. This is
commonly accomplished in the importing countries. The different products developed from
Vanilla is described below.

Vanilla extract:
The major product derived from cured vanilla is an alcoholic essence, which is commercially
 39

Known as vanilla extract. The extract is filtered or centrifuged and the alcohol content is
justed to meet market specifications. Vanilla extract is then stored in stainless steel or glass.

Vanilla oleoresin
Vanilla oleoresin is a dark brown, semi-fluid extract produced from solvent extraction of
macerated beans. It differs from vanilla extract in that the solvent used is completely removed
by evaporation under vacuum. Vanilla oleoresin can also be obtained using CO2 under
supercritical conditions, producing products considerably more superior than those obtained
by conventional extraction with organic solvents. Yield of oleoresin is from 29.9% to 64.8%
of bean dry weight.

Vanilla sugar
Also known as powdered vanilla, vanilla sugar is prepared by mixing ground cured beans or
Their oleoresin with sugar (Arana, 1945). Minimum sugar content is 30%.
20.6.4 Vanilla absolute
Preferred in perfumery products, absolute vanilla is obtained by selective solvent extraction,
Using initially a non-polar solvent such as benzene followed by a polar solvent such as
ethanol.

CHAPTER -III

Turmeric
Introduction:

The rhizomes of Curcuma domestica (syn. C. longa) are used as a spice and are best known in
Europe and America for this purpose. Turmeric is an important spice among the rice-eating people of
India, south East Asia and Indonesia and is indispensable in the preparation of curry powder. Its main
use in the Western world is now for this purpose, and it gives the musky flavour and yellow colour to
curries. Turmeric is used in curry powder, chicken ,sauces, gravies, dry seasonings, backing
mixes, processed cheese pickles, relishes, breading soups, beverages, and confections, it is
 40

use in medicine, religious functions and as bio-pesticide. The genus Curcuma originated in
the Indo-Malayan region.

According to Marco Polo (1280) the spread of turmeric from India to China took place in
AD 700 and it spread to West Africa in the thirteenth and to East Africa in the seventeenth
centuries, respectively.

Production
India is the major producer and exporter of turmeric in the world. Annual production is 5.43
lakh tonnes. India exported 23 000 tonnes of turmeric during 1996–97 to 67 countries
Turmeric is exported as turmeric dry, turmeric fresh, turmeric powder, turmeric oleoresin and
turmeric oil. The major turmeric importing countries from India are Iran, Japan, South Africa,
Singapore, Sri Lanka, USA, UAE, Malaysia, Germany and Bangladesh.

Post-harvest processing:

Harvested turmeric rhizome is washed well to remove the adhering soil; roots removed, the
fingers and mothers are separated. Mother and finger rhizomes are boiled separately for about
40–60 minutes. Under slightly alkaline condition (100 g of sodium bicarbonate or sodium
carbonate in 100 l of water) in copper, galvanized iron or earthen vessels and sun dried on
bamboo mat or clean drying floor for 10–15 days so as to bring down the moisture content to
10%.

Another method of curing is by taking cleaned mother and finger rhizomes (approx.50 kg)
separately in perforated trough of convenient size made of GI or MS sheet with extended
parallel handle. The trough containing the fingers is immersed in water using a paddle. The
alkaline solution is then poured into the pan so as to immerse the rhizome, which are then
boiled until they become soft and dried. Dried turmeric is subjected to polishing either
manually or mechanically in power operated drums.
 41

A weight loss of about 5–8% is expected due to full polishing. Polished rhizomes are made
attractive by artificially colouring them with turmeric powder. During polishing itself
turmeric is added to the drum either as powder or as emulsion. The cured product is stored in
suitable pits dug on a raised site. The bottom and sides of the pits are lined thickly with dried
grass or similar material. After filling up the pits with the cured turmeric they are covered
with mat or grass and finally with earth. The produce can be stored for one year or 12
months.

Yield
The yield of polished turmeric from the raw material varies from 15 to 25 per cent. It is usually
packed in bags of about 140 lbs net (64 kg).

Grading: Usually clean, dry, stone-hard fingers are powdered through the use of hammer
mills followed by disc-type attrition mills to obtain 60–80 mesh powder. Accessory
equipment for pre-cleaning includes an aspiration system (which removes the light
extraneous matter), destoners and magnetic separators for fine iron contamination, vacuum
fumigators, and the noise reducing fixtures, dust collection systems, mechanical or closed
circuit pneumatic conveying system, blending and automatic packaging system.

Turmeric powder is packed in bulk in containers such as fibre hard drums, multi-wall bags
and tin containers suitably lined or coated to prevent moisture absorption, loss of flavour and
colour. For the retail trade the unit packages are in flexible packaging such as low and high
density polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, and glassine or in glass packages. aluminium foil
laminate or double pouch of glassine or low density polyethylene offered good protection for
the stored product for about six months without
loss of quality and colour

Apart from separating the fingers from the bulbs, sometimes splitting the latter, the Indian growers do
not grade the turmeric. From the many local forms available in the internal markets, the dealers
prepare uniform mixtures of fingers or bulbs (or splits) for export, according to the purposes for
which they are to be used, with due regard to the Indian standard specifications and those, if any, of
the importing countries. These, known by various local trade names, are of different qualities,
depending on botanical identity, appearance, maturity, hardness, weight, length and thickness, shade
and intensity of internal colour, pungency and bitterness, odour and flavour, and other considerations.

Most of the turmeric exported from India, consists of mixtures of regional cultivars. Allepy turmeric
has the highest curcumin content (about 5.0-6.5 per cent), Madras turmeric, which has a lower
curcumin content, may be comprised of as many as nine cultivars.

Storage

The cured product is stored in suitable pits dug on a raised site. The bottom and sides of these pits are
thickly lined with ‘Rellu’ grass twists (Saccharum spontaneum) and palmyrah mats. After filling up
 42

the pits with cured produce, they are covered with mats and grass and finally with earth. The produce
can thus be stored for a year.

After the turmeric has been sold to the dealers and cleaned and graded, it is packed in new jute bags,
in common with most of the Indian spices, or in sound, clean and dry, heat-sealed polythene bags. The
jute bags may be treated with fumigants or insecticides to ward off mold or insect infestations. The
turmeric should be stored in a dry, cool warehouse, or in a godown, which should be provided with
means of fumigation.

Ground turmeric:
Usually clean, dry, stone-hard fingers are grinded by using hammer mills followed by disc-type filter
through 60–80 mesh powder. This equipment facilitates for pre-cleaning includes an aspiration system
(which removes the light extraneous matter), destoners removes stones and magnetic separators
seperates for fine iron contamination, and automatic packaging system,

Turmeric powder is packed in bulk in containers such as fibre hard drums, multi-wall bags and tin
containers suitably lined or coated to prevent moisture absorption, loss of flavour and colour. For the
retail trade the unit packages are in flexible packaging such as low and high density polyethylene,
polyvinyl chloride and in glass packages. Storage studies conducted on turmeric powder using
different packaging materials have shown that aluminium foil laminate or double pouch of glassine
or low density polyethylene offered good protection for the stored product for about six months
without loss of quality and colour.

Turmeric oleoresin:
Turmeric oleoresin is obtained by solvent extraction of ground spice. Acetone is a good
solvent for oleoresin extraction. Soxhlet apparatus hot or cold percolation is used for
extraction. Oleoresin is a mixture of compounds, namely curcumin, volatile oil and other
active ingredients, non-volatile fatty acid residues.

These materials are extractable by solvents. Turmeric oleoresin is orange-red in colour and
consists of an upper oily layer and a lower crystalline layer. For commercial use, it is usually
mixed with a non-volatile edible solvent such as vegetable oil, propylene glycol or polyoxy
ethylene sorbital fatty acid esters. Curcumin, the principal colouring matter forms about one
third of a good quality oleoresin. Yield of oleoresin varies from 7–15% depending on
varieties.

Turmeric oil:
Turmeric contains 3–5% volatile oil, which is obtained by steam distillation of turmeric
powder, for about 8–10 hours. Turmeric oil is pale yellow in colour with peppery and
aromatic odour. The oil contains about 60% turmeron, 25% zingiberene and small quantities
of d-_-phellandrene, d-sabinene, cineole and forneol.

Curry powder:
Turmeric powder is the major component (about 40–50%) of curry powder. Curry powder is
a spice mixture used for seasoning dishes containing vegetables, meat, fish, eggs or vegetable
plus meat or fish (i.e. curry) in the orient. In the West also curry powder is used for seasoning
dishes. India has been the principal exporter of curry powder to many countries like the UK,
 43

Australia, Fiji, etc. Turmeric powder provides colour and background aroma to the curry
powder.
 44

Use in the food industry:

Turmeric powder is used in mustard paste and curry powder as both colour and aroma are
Important in these products. Turmeric oleoresin is used mainly in the brine pickles and to
some extent in mayonnaise and non-alcoholic beverages such as orangeades and lemonades;
gelatins; in breading of frozen fish sticks; potato croquettes; butter and cheese in the form of
powder or granules for garnishing and even in ice creams Turmeric powder mixed with
seasame, coconut or groundnut oil is used for pickling mango, lime, gooseberry, garlic, etc.
 45

Pepper

Pepper from Piper nigrum is one of the oldest and the world’s most important spice crop. Black
pepper is the whole dried fruit; white pepper is the fruit from which the mesocarp has been removed.
Pepper is in more frequent and regular use in Europe and America than any other spice. It is most
widely used as a condiment, the flavour and pungency blending well with most savoury dishes. Its
stimulating action on the digestive organs produces an increased flow of saliva and gastric juice. It has
extensive culinary uses, and is used in meats, soups, fish, pickles, ketchup and sauces, for seasoning
dishes, and in sausages and other products.

Cultivation

Pepper is essentially a tropical plant requiring a hot humid climate; it requires high rainfall, uniform
temperature and high relative humidity, rainfall of 2000–4000 mm together with a mean temperature
of 25–32ºC and RH of 65–95%. Pepper grows successfully between latitudes 20ºN and 20ºS, from sea
level up to an altitude of about 1200m above MSL. In May–June initiates the flushing and flowering
process, Pepper grows in a wide range of soils with a pH of 4.5 to 6.9.
 46

Pepper fruits mature in about 6–8 months after flowering. Harvesting is carried out when one or
more berries in some spikes turn orange to red colour. Entire spikes are picked when fruits
are fully mature but still green (see Fig. 7.4). Pepper quality depends on maturity,
processing and post-harvest handling.

Processing of Black pepper:

Preparation method:

Black pepper is produced from whole, unripe fully developed berries. Harvesting the green
berries commence to acquire a yellow coloration, the harvested spikes are kept in bags for
12–24 hours or heaped and covered overnight for a brief fermentation Which makes
despiking easyincluding those in India, frequently delay harvesting for color development.
Sometimes a blanching process is carried out before drying, by dipping fruits (in a wire
basket) in boiling water for two minutes. Sun-drying is the traditional method of dried.

After harvesting, the initial step is to initiate by picking the berry clusters in a heap and
exposing them to the sun for several hours. The next stage involves spreading the berries out
on a suitable drying floor in the sun. But in India the berries are detached at the outset.
Bamboo mats are commonly used for the drying operation. During the sun-drying process,
ensures a uniform coloration sun drying takes place between 7 and 10 days, the final moisture
content is 10-15 per cent. The yield of dried black pepper is around 36 kg from 100kg of the
fresh berries. Below 15% moisture to avoided the mould growth.

Artificial drying has been introduced in Brazil because the end of the harvesting period
coincides with the start of the wet season. Drum driers with a capacity for 9 tons of fresh
green berries are used, and the process involves heating the berries by a hot-air flow at about
80 0C for two periods of 4½ hours with a 6 hour delay in between

In India, Indonesia and Sarawak, pepper production is predominantly a small-holder’s crop

and the final cleaning, grading and bagging of the dried spice is carried out by exporting
firms. Debris and light (immature) berries are removed by garbling, which involves the use of
winnowing machines or wide-mesh sieves. If the black pepper is noticeably contaminated by
mould and /or insects, it may be washed and re-dried in the sun. Grading is normally done
 47

according to overseas buyers’ requirements, and double-lined gunny bags are used for
packing. In Asian producing countries, the bagged pepper is usually stored in warehouses
prior to shipment.

Quality requirements

White pepper is evaluated on its appearance (colour and size), pungency and its aroma/flavor
properties. Its main outlet is in domestic culinary applications in the ground form and a good
uniform colour, ease of grinding and mild flavor are the most important quality attributes.
Freedom from insect infestation, mould and low levels of microorganisms are also of great
importance.

White pepper:
Preparation method:

White pepper is an important product mainly used in food items where the dark particles are
undesirable, such as salad dressings, soups, mayonnaise, light coloured sauces, etc. White
pepper is prepared from fully ripe fruits by removing the outer pericarp before drying.

The traditional method of preparing the spice was devised in Indonesia. After harvesting, the
ripe berries are detached from the spikes and are tightly packed into gunny bags. The bags are
then allowed to soak in slow-running water, usually a stream, for between one and two
weeks. During this operation, a bacterial retting process occurs which loosens the pericarp
from the core of the fruit. The time required for retting is largely dependent upon the state of
ripeness of the fruit: fully ripe fruit require a shorter period than fruit harvested when just
commencing to turn red. The water used in this operation should be as clear as possible to
prevent discoloration of the cores. After removal of the bags from the water, the berries are
placed in a tank of water and are trampled to remove any remaining adhering pericarp.
Excessive pressure should not be used in this operation as it can damage the surface of the
cores and result in subsequent volatile-oil loss and aroma/flavour deterioration. Finally, the
smooth buff-coloured cores are thoroughly washed in running water.

Sun-drying is carried out on bamboo mats in a similar manner to black pepper with regular
raking. Sun-drying can take several days to reduce the moisture content to 10-15% .A simple
test for the completion of drying involves applying pressure to the pepper if insufficiently
dry, it will split into two, whereas when thoroughly dry it will crumble into small pieces.
Approximately 25kg of dried pepper is obtained from 100kg of ripe, fresh fruits.

Mechanical drying:
Artificial drying of freshly decorticated white peppercorns is undertaken in Brazil in the same
machines used for drying black pepper. Drying is carried out at 40 0C for two periods of 4½
hors separated by a 6 hour interval .As in the case of black pepper, white pepper is gabled,
sorted and packed into gunny bags by exporting firms prior to shipment.
 48

Storage: After drying it is packed in suitable packaging materials gunny bags or plastic
material and stored in suitable temperature and humidity conditions. The final moisture
content is 11% is suitable for shipping.

Ground pepper

In Western countries the most common form of black pepper available to the consumer is
ground pepper. Ground pepper is produced by grinding dried, cleaned and sterilized white or
black pepper in a hammer mill having copper tipped hammers. The ground pepper is then
sieved in sieves of required mesh size and packed in airtight containers.

Pepper oil

Pepper oil can be recovered by hydro distillation (or) steam distillation. The essential oil
contains monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes and their oxygenated derivatives having boiling points
in the range of 80–200ºC. Industrial production of pepper essential oil is by steam distillation,
by passing steam through pepper powder contained in a distillation chamber. The volatile oil
that comes out along with the steam is collected in the condenser and later recovered, dried
and stored in airtight containers.

Oleoresin

Oleoresin is produced by solvent extraction of pepper powder using a suitable organic solvent
such as acetone, ethanol, ethyl acetate or ethylene dichloride. Either a one-stage or a two-
stage process is employed for this. In the first case the oil is recovered along with the resins
by solvent extraction. In the second process the oil is recovered by steam distillation followed
by solvent extraction for recovering the oleoresin. Later the oleoresin and oil are blended to
meet the required specifications. The organic solvent should be recovered completely from
the oleoresin.
 49

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE)

Supercritical CO2 is an ideal solvent for extraction of pepper, because it is cheap, abundant,
inert, non-toxic, non-corrosive, and non-inflammable and does not pollute the environment.
Separation can be carried out at low temperature, high pressures of 80– 350 bar, at
temperatures of -35–70ºC.

Microencapsulated pepper

Microencapsulation is a recent development in which the flavour material is entrapped in a

solid matrix, but releases the flavour when the product comes into contact with water or on
heating. Methods such as spray drying, co-acervation, polymerization, etc., are made use of
in microencapsulation. The process involves homogenization of the oil/water mixture in
presence of the wall material followed by spray drying under controlled conditions.

Use of pepper in food

A spice is used in cooking for the following purposes: • flavouring, • masking/deodorizing, •

pungency, • colorant.
 50

Ginger

Introduction:

The spice ginger is obtained from the underground stems or rhizomes of Zingiber officinale
(Rosc.), an herbaceous tropical perennial belonging to the family Zingiberaceae. In
cultivation, it is usually grown as an annual. Ginger originated in South-East Asia, probably
in India. Ginger is a slender perennial herb, 30–100 cm tall with palmate branched rhizome
bearing leafy shoots. The leafy shoot is the pseudo stem formed by leaf sheath and a bear 8–
12 distichously leaves.

Production:

Ginger is cultivated in several parts of the world, the most important producing regions being
India, China, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Australia, Fiji, Jamaica and
Nepal. Among them India and China are the dominant suppliers to the world market. mainly
exported as preserves in sugar syrup or as sugar candy. There is demand for them for oil
distillation and oleoresin extraction. Primary products of ginger rhizomes for flavouring
purposes are fresh ginger, preserved ginger in syrup or brine and the dried ginger. Secondary
products are ginger powder, oils and oleoresins from dry ginger.

Fresh ginger:

Fresh rhizomes with low fibre content but rich in aroma, pungency, fat and protein are
preferred for green ginger purposes. The crop for this purpose can be harvested from 180 to
195 days after planting. Further maturity causes a progressive increase in crude fibre and
decrease in protein and fat content.

Preserved ginger:
 51

Immature green ginger is preserved in brine or sugar syrup. Crystallized ginger is also made
from the ginger in sugar syrup by further processing. Crystallized ginger is the peeled ginger
impregnated with sugar syrup, dried and coated with crystalline sugar.

Dry ginger

Dry ginger is prepared from clean peeled or partially peeled whole rhizomes by treating with
lime or sulphurous acid to achieve white colour. Dried ginger is prepared from mature
rhizomes which have developed full aroma, flavour and pungency, and harvesting is usually
carried out at between 8 to 9 months after planting. The processing of dry ginger involves the
following steps:

1. Removal of roots and thorough washing of rhizomes.

2. Preparation of rhizome for drying, which involves peeling, splitting or slicing. When
whole-coated rhizomes are to be dried, preparation is by immersing in boiling Water for
about 10 minutes.

3. Sun drying: during drying, a rhizome loses moisture, about 60–70% of their weight, and
achieves final moisture of 7–12%.

Ginger powder:

Ginger powder is made by pulverizing dry ginger to a mesh size of 50 to 60. Ginger is ground
to release the flavour, the finer the powder, the more readily available the flavour and readily
dispensable in the matrix. Some flavour may be lost during grinding. This can be minimized
by adopting cryo- milling and freeze grinding.

Ginger oil:

Ginger oil is produced commercially by steam distillation of freshly ground dry ginger. The
yield of oil varies from 1.5 to 3.0% with an average of 2.0%. The oil obtained is a green or
yellow mobile liquid which becomes viscous on ageing (Ginger oil can also be recovered by
steam distilling fresh ginger peelings and the yield is 1.5 to 2.8%.

Ginger oleoresin:

Ginger oleoresin is obtained by extraction of powdered dry ginger with suitable organic
solvents like alcohol, acetone and ethylene dichloride, etc. The yield, flavour and pungency
of extracted oleoresin vary with cultivars, maturity of rhizome, choice of solvent and the
method of extraction employed. Generally a yield of 3.9–9.3% with an average of 6.5% on
dry weight of ginger is obtained. Commercial ginger oleoresin usually has a volatile oil
content of 25–30% and replacement strength of 1 kg oleoresin for 28 kg good quality ground
spice. They are offered to the consumer in liquid form or dispensed on sugar or salt.
52
53
 54

CHAPTER-IV

Cardamom

Introduction:
A cardamom is the dried fruits of a perennial herb, Elettaria cardamomum, belonging to the
ginger family, Zingiberaceae. The fruits are picked when they are almost matured, but not
quite ripe. The origin of the plant is indigenous to southern India and Sri Lanka; the seeds
have a pleasant aroma and a characteristic warm, slightly pungent taste. The spice is used for
flavoring curries, cakes and bread and for other culinary purposes. Arab countries are used
for flavoring coffee. Another important market is Sweden and Finland, where they are widely
used in confectionery.

Cultivation:
It is recognised as forest tree but now a day’s farmers are cultivated in the farms. The shelf
life of the cardamom tree is 20 years. It is a tropical plant it requires Temperature ranges 14–
33oC and rain fall is 1500-4000mm/Annam. The plant is mature 5-6 years and it grows the
altitude 600-1200 meters above the sea leval.

Harvesting:
Harvesting is done by collecting panicles containing ripe fruits with the help of a special
narrow knife called as ‘Elaichi Chhuri’. They made locally which is specially made for this
purpose. Harvesting is done once a year, and because of this there will be some immature
fruits in the harvested lot after harvesting, the individual capsules are Cardamom from spikes
by hand. The yield of dry fruits is negligible (25 kg per hectare).

Yield at this stage varies greatly from 0.3 to 1.0 tonnes of dry cardamom per hectare. For one
or two years the maximum yield is maintained and then it starts declining to a considerably
lower level by the 12th year. The capsules are fleshy while harvesting with 72 to 85% of
moisture content and the outer layer of the capsules also enchanted that can be removed by
rubbing after curing.

Processing: First capsules are separated from the spike then washed with water to remove
foreign particles. Then it is again soaking with washing soda for about 10 minutes then it is
subjected to curing process.

Curing process: Curing process is carried out in three methods such as traditional
drying, electrical drying, and Flue pipe drying.

Traditional curing methods: Harvested Capsules are dried on a mud-plastered

threshing floor for 7 to 10 days, and sold in markets. This contains about 50% moisture and
dried again by traders to avoid fungal contamination.
 55

Traditional bhatti’ system: In this system, a load of about 200–250 kg capsules are
heaped in a 25–70 cm thick bed, and heated directly over a fire by firewood. The bhatti
temperature during drying is 100ºC and the drying operation stretches from two to three days.
The capsules dried in this system are dark and have a smoky flavour because of direct
exposure to heat and smoke. The volatile losses are as high as 35%. The original colour of the
capsules is also lost and they cannot be stored for a long time

Flue pipe curing houses:

In this method curing house is connected to a furnace with flue pipe furnace is installed
outside. Furnace is heated by using air, saw dust and wood. Fresh cardamom is spread over
wire meshes fixed above the flue pipes. This is an indirect system of drying and smoke does
not come into contact with the produce at any stage. Fresh air is continuously heated by
smoke house and maintained temperature of smoke house during the period of drying is 40-
45oCThis type of drier resulted in early drying and gave better quality capsules, including a
better colour.

CFTRI system: The Central Food Technological Research Institute, (CFTRI), Mysore
INDIA, has designed and developed a low cost natural convection dryer. The husk of fresh
capsules was found to contain 0.49% to 1.16% of anthocyanins. Treatment with diluted HCl
solution (0.025%) of the freshly harvested capsules, improved the colour after drying. The
moisture content of capsules has to be brought down to 12–14% to achieve a longer shelf-life.
Below the 14% moisture increases the shelf life from insect infestiation but it losess the
volatile oils. Insect infestation also reduced the volatile oil content from 2.99% to 1.00%,
particularly as a moisture content of 13–15% was found conducive for insect breeding.
CFTRI has recommended the use of fumigants like methyl bromide (16 g/m3), phosphine
(1.5 g/m3), ethyl formate (300 g/m3) to control all the stages of insect infestation without
affecting the quality.

Quality issues:
The quality of cardamom depends mainly on external appearance, which provides visual
perception of quality as influenced by colour, uniformity of size, shape, consistency and
texture.
 56

Grade Trade name Empty and Immature and Size (diameter of Weight
Designation malformed shriveled holes in mm of g/l
capsules, Percent capsules, per cent the sieve on which minimum
By count, by weight, retained)
Maximum Maximum Tolerance ± 5 per
cent
AGS Cardamom 4.0 0.0 5.0 385
Superior
AGS 1 Shipment 3.0 7.0 4.0 350
Green 1
AGS 2 Shipment 5.0 7.0 4.0 320
Green 2
AGL Light … … … 260

Requirements of the Sri Lankan Standard

Grade Colour Empty Capsules, Immature, shrivelled Splits, Numerical value of sum
per cent by count, or Malformed capsules percent, by of ‘defective capsules’
max. per cent by count, count max. mentioned in preceding
max. columns

LGS Green Nil 1 1 2 max

LG Green 1 1.5 2 4 max

LLG1 Light green 2 3 5 8 max

LLG2 Light green 3 5 6 13 max

LB Pale buff 4 7 8 18 max

LNS Off colour not specified 25 min

 57

Products:

Bleached cardamom: Bleached cardamom is white or golden yellow colour.bleachig

action by sulphur dioxide gas or KMS 25%, 1%HCL and then it is reduced by hydrogen
peroxide at Ph 4.0

Ground cardamom: cardamom is volatile it is grinded in harmer mill at -70oC because

the volatile oils of cardamom are evaporated when it was grind at higher temperatures. Then
it is packed at vacuume packing and then stored at -18oC for 12months.

Cardamom oil: cardamom oil is extracted by seed powder is subjected to steam distillation
the range of oil is contains 5-11% this contains chemicals such as cenols and terpenols they
are acting as flavouring agent in food and liquors and perfume industry.

Uses:

 Flavouring of meat and vegetable dishes

 Flavouring of confectionary, sweets, pickles, beverages etc
 It is also used for the preparation of spice mixes
 The cardamom oil is used for the encapsulated techniques by using gum Arabica then
finally spray dried
 Coriander powder used for the flavouring of biscuits.

Coriander

Introduction:

Coriander Coriandrum sativum L. is an important spice crop and occupies a prime position in
flavouring substances. It was one of the first spices to be used as a common flavouring
substance. The stem leaves and fruits all have a pleasant aromatic odour. The entire plant
when young is used in preparing chutneys and sauces, and the leaves are used for flavouring
continental curries and soups. The fruits are extensively employed as a condiment in the
preparations of curry powder, pickling spices, sausages and seasonings. They are also used
for flavouring pastry, biscuits, buns and cakes, and in flavouring liquors, particularly gin.
Coriander seeds are also known for their medicinal properties and are considered
carminative, diuretic tonic, stomachic

Botanical description:

Coriandrum sativum L, family Umbelliferae, Order Umbellales, Species Umbelliferae

 58

Cultivation: The optimum temperature for germination and early growth of coriander is
20–25°C. The plants grow heights from 30 to 100 cmlength; crop comes to bloom in 45–60
days after sowing and matures in 65–120 days. Each branch as well as the main shoot
terminates in a compound umbel (determinate growth) bearing 3–10 umbels, each umbel
containing 10–50 penta merous flowers. India has the prime position in the cultivation and
production of coriander it is cultivated over an approximate area of 5.25 × 105 hectares with
an annual production of 3.10 × 105 tonnes.

Harvesting:
Harvesting should be done as soon as the colour of seeds starts turning from green to yellow.
To obtain good lustre of seed with maximum yield, the harvesting should be done when 50%
seeds are yellow. The harvested material should be dried in the shade to retain seed colour
and quality; after drying the harvested material, the seeds are separated by light beating with
sticks and winnowing. Average yield of 1200–1500 kg/ha

Drying:

The traditional procedure for preparing the spice involves drying in two steps. After cutting
the plants, they are piled into small stacks in the field to wither for two or three days. The
fruits are then threshed out from the plant and are dried in partial shade. If the fruits are still
rather moist after winnowing, they may be exposed to the sun for a period before final drying
under cover. When judged thoroughly dry, the spice is cleaned by sieving.

Artificial drying: Artificial drying of coriander fruits is practiced in artificial drying are the
temperature and the initial moisture content of the fruit. The optimum air temperature for drying was
found to be 80-900C. And the final moisture content is 18 per cent.

Storage:

The whole, dried fruits are usually packed into sacks and stored in a cool, dry room.
Although some loss of volatile oil is inevitable during prolonged storage, the extent of
deterioration is slight if the spice has not been damaged and the air temperature is moderate.
It is recommended that the spice should be placed in hermetically sealed cans immediately
after drying in order to ensure that quality deterioration during storage is minimal. In the case
of the crushed or ground spice, fairly rapid volatile-oil losses are encountered if the material
left exposed to the air, and storage in air-tight containers is a necessity.

Quality and marketing:

 59

The seed may contain damaged seed, shrivelled seed and other foreign matter. This foreign
matter may be a stalk, dirt, cereals, etc. Adulteration of superior grade with inferior grade is
common. This unhealthy practice spoils the quality. The quality of the produce depends upon
the quality of the raw material and the practices adopted in processing, packaging, storing and
transportation. Free of pesticide residue, aflatoxin, other mycotoxin and unfavourable
microbial contamination.
 60

Uses:

 The stem leaves and fruits have a pleasant aromatic odour the entire plant, when
young, is used in preparing chutneys and the leaves are used for flavouring curries,
sauces and soups.
 The dried fruits are extensively used in preparation of curry powder, pickling spices,
sausage and seasoning.
 The seeds are used in medicine as a carminative, refrigerant, diuretic and aphrodisiac.
It is used in the preparation of many household medicines to cure bed cold, seasonal
fever, nausea, vomiting and stomach disorders.
 Coriander oil and oleoresin are primarily used in seasonings for sausage and other
meat products. They find application in baked goods, condiments, chewing gums and
alcoholic/non-alcoholic beverages and also function as essential ingredients in curry
mixes.

Pimento
 61

Pimento

The dried unripe fruits of Pimenta dioica, a small, evergreen tree, provides the culinary spice
pimento of commerce. It belongs to the Myrtaceae, the same family as the clove. Pimento is
also called allspice, as the flavor is said to resemble a mixture of cinnamon, clove and
nutmeg. It is sometimes known as Jamaica pepper. The tree is indigenous in the West Indies
and central America, being most abundant in Jamaica, which is the major producer, and
where much of the produce comes from semi-wild trees.

Processing

The quality of the spice is primarily assessed on the basis of its appearance, the volatile-oil
content and its aroma and flavor quality. The relative importance of these quality attributes
are dependent upon the intended end-use of the spice.
The procedures employed for the preparation of the spice in the principal producing countries
are described in the following paragraphs.

Jamaica

After harvesting, the fresh green berries are carried to a central point and, after their weights
have been recorded, are heaped either loosely in piles of about 0.6 m high or bags, overnight
under cover. Some ‘fermentation’ or ‘sweating’ starts in the heaps, and some farmers allow it
to proceed for four to five full days before commencing drying, claiming that the spice dries
in less time to a brighter color. The berries are then spread out in thin layers on concrete
barbecues to dry in the sun. The berries are turned several times by raking each day so as to
obtain an even browning. During the night or during rain, the berries are either taken indoors
or are swept up into heaps and covered with a tarpaulin. Sun drying takes up to five days
during dry weather or up to ten days during unsettled weather. On completion of drying, the
berries attain a medium to dark brown coloration and have moisture content of about 12 per
cent. A yield of 52-62kg of the spices is obtained from 100 kg of green berries.

Artificial drying, is a simple, satisfactory and economical method in which fresh pimento is
introduced into an open-tray drier through which is passed a slow fan driven steam of air,
heated indirectly by an oil-fired heater. In a pilot-scale version of the drier, 270 kg of fresh
berries heated by air at 70-750C and with a linear flow rate of 25 cm per second, is dried
down to a moisture content of under 12 per cent in about 8 hours, without significant loss of
the volatile oil and to a satisfactory color.

After the spice has been dried, Jamaican pimento is winnowed to removed dirt, grit and
pieces of stem. The spice is given a final winnowing and grading for size at the Government
pimento Clearing House prior to bagging and shipping. Jamaican pimento is marketed in
sacks containing 150 lbs (68 kg).

Central America

By contrast to Jamaica, the bulk of Central American pimento is harvested from wild trees,
either by individuals working independently or by hired labour organized by produce dealers.
 62

Owing to the dependence on the wild crop and the problems in its collection and drying, the
quality of the Central American products is generally inferior to that of Jamaica. Immature
and ripe berries are often collected together with the desired fully developed unripe, green
berries and they frequently remain in collector’s sacks for a considerable period before a
suitable drying site is reached or the weather is sufficiently dry. This can result in ‘over-
sweating’, mould formation, development of a musty odour and a product with a poor
appearance.

The berries are mainly dried in the sun but with some local modifications to the procedure
followed in Jamaica. In Guatemala, some producers blanch ‘unfermented’ fresh berries in
boiling water foe ten minutes before drying and this yields a product which is rather paler in
color than the Jamaican spice.

Chemical composition

Berry:

The dried, mature but not ripe, berries are the pimento spice of commerce. Pimento is also
Sold as ground spice. The berries of international standard should be between 6.5 and 9.5 mm
in diameter, medium to dark brown in colour, with an uneven surface and with a pleasant
odour, characteristic of the spice and with approximately 13 fruits/g. The dried berry contains
aromatic steam volatile oil, fixed (fatty) oil, resin, protein, starch, pigments, minerals,
vitamins (Table 7.4), etc. The constituents present in the oil influence the quality and aroma
of the spice. The phenolic compound eugenol and isoeugenol and the sesquiterpene
 63

hydrocarbon, β-caryophyllene are the major compounds present in allspice (Table 7.5).
Several other compounds have been identified in allspice, which is present in lesser quantities
(Table 7.6). The geographical variation, cultivar differences, stage of maturity, etc. also
influence the quality of the berry. The quality of the berries from Jamaica are superior to
those from other islands and are preferred for trade. Prolonged storage of allspice is
detrimental to both oil content and flavour of the spice

Berry oil:

Extraction of berry oil can be carried out by different methods. Berry oil is generally obtained
by hydro distillation or steam distillation of dried immature berries. When supercritical CO2
extraction techniques are employed for extraction of berry oil, the oil obtained is of superior
quality and flavour, compared with steam distilled or hydro distilled oil.

The yield of berry oil ranges from 3.0 to 4.5%. The oil is yellow to brownish yellow with a
warm spicy About 60 constituents have been detected, including phenols, monoterpene
hydrocarbons, oxygenated hydrocarbons, The principal components are usually eugenol,
methyl eugenol, β-caryophyllene, humulene, terpinen-4-ol and 4,5-cineole Allspice contains
various essential oils , phenolic acids, flavanoids, catechins and phenyl propanoids. The
flavonol content of allspice is low and consists mainly of quercetin glycosides. Three new
galloylglucosides, (4S)-alphaterpineol 8-o-beta-D-(6-o-galloyl) glucopyranoside; (4R)-alpha-
terpineol 8-o-beta-D-(6-ogalloyl) glucopyranoside and 3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)
propane-1, 2-diol 2-o-beta-
 64

Allspice berry oil extracted by supercritical CO2 extraction procedure is light red brown with
the full sweetness and fresh natural odour and flavour of the freshly ground spice. The
sensory character of the pimento berry oil obtained by steam distillation and liquid CO2
extraction is represented in Fig 7.2 (Charalambous, 199.

Oleoresin:
 65

Oleoresin is prepared by extraction of the crushed spice with organic solvents followed by
evaporation of the solvent. The composition of the oleoresin depends upon the raw materials
and the solvents used for extraction of oleoresin. The oleoresin is a brownish to dark green
oily liquid and two grades are normally available, based on the volatile oil content namely,
40–50 and 60–66 ml per 100 g. An US specification requires a minimum of 60 ml per 100 g.

Leaf oil
Pimento leaf oil is produced by distilling fresh or dry leaves. Leaves used for distillation may
be fresh, withered or dried and stored for two or three months prior to distilling. Yield from
dried and fresh leaves is 0.5–3.0% and 0.3–1.25%, respectively. The leaf oil is a brownish ©
2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd

Uses
Whole spice, ground spice, berry oil, leaf oil and oleoresin are the major products obtained
from pimento. In olden days Mayans used allspice to embalm and preserve the bodies of heir
leaders. Allspice was more popular in the early 20th century than it is today. It is reported
that during World War II a shortage of the spice occurred in Europe and its popularity was
never regained (Tainter and Grenis, 1993). The major use of allspice is in the food industry
(65– 70%). A small quantity is used for domestic use (5–10%), for production of pimento
berry oil (20–25%), for extraction of oleoresin (1–2%) and in pharmaceutical and perfume
industry.

Food industry

Allspice is mostly used in Western cooking and is less suitable for Eastern cooking. It is most
used in British, American and German cooking. © 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd Whole
spice The dried mature fruits are mainly used as a flavouring and curing agent in processed
meats and bakery products and as a flavouring ingredient for domestic and culinary purposes.
Whole fruits are preferred in prepared soups, gravies and sauces. Whole ripe berries are an
essential component of the local Jamaican drink Pimento dram and as an ingredient of the
liqueurs Chartreuse and Benedictine. Ground spice The major use of allspice in the ground
form is for flavouring processed meats, baking products, desserts, fruit cakes, pies, desserts,
pickles, sauces, salads, vegetables, soups, fish, poultry, sausages, meats, marinades, mulled
wine and preserves. For domestic culinary use, pimento is often mixed with other ground
spices.
Oleoresin
Oleoresin is also used in the meat processing and canning industries in the same way as
ground spice is used. Allspice oleoresin is prepared in very small quantities and has not
become a substitute for ground spice in the food industry. However, it has an advantage over
ground spice in that it avoids the risk of bacterial contamination and its strength and quality
are more consistent.
Essential oil
The berry oil contains all the odour principles of the ground spice and oleoresin but lacks
some of the flavour principles. Essential oils from leaf oil and berry oil are used as a
flavouring agent in meat products and confectioneries. The maximum permitted level of
berry oil in food products is about 0.025%.
 66

Perfumery
The oil is used in perfumery, notably for oriental fragrances. It is used as a fragrance
component in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps and after-shaves.

Functional properties
Allspice is not only valued as a spice to add flavour to food but has medicinal, antimicrobial,
insecticidal, nematicidal, antioxidant and deodorizing properties.

Medicine

The powdered fruit of allspice is used in traditional medicine to treat flatulence, dyspepsia,
diarrhoea and as a remedy for depression, nervous exhaustion, tension, neuralgia and stress.
In small doses it can also help to cure rheumatism, arthritis, stiffness, chills, congested
coughs, bronchitis, neuralgia and rheumatism. It has anaesthetic, analgesic, antioxidant,
antiseptic, carminative, muscle relaxant, rubefacient, stimulant and purgative properties
(Rema and Krishnamoorthy, 1989). It is also useful for oral hygiene and in cases of halitosis.
An aqueous suspension of allspice is reported to have anti-ulcer and cytoprotective activity
by protecting gastric mucosa against indomethacin and various other necrotizing agents in
rats (Rehaily et al., 2002).

Fungicide
The antifungal potential of extracts of allspice was tested in vitro against the field fungus
(Fusarium oxysporum) and six storage fungi (Aspergillus candidus, A. versicolor, Penicillium
© 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd.

Bactericide
Allspice had a strong bactericidal effect against Yersinia enterocolitica (Bara and Vanetti,
1995). The minimum inhibitory concentrations (%) of hexane extracts of allspice for several
pathogenic bacteria are given in Table 7.14. (Hirasa and Takemasa, 1998). A study testing
thymol (thyme and oregano), eugenol (clove, pimento and cinnamon), menthol and anathole
(anise and fennel) on three pathogenic bacteria, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus
aureus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus, showed that all these spice components inhibited the
bacteria to different extents. Eugenol was more active than thymol, which was more active
than anethole. Eugenol is also sporostatic to Bacillus subtilis at 0.05–0.06% level (Tainter
and Grenis, 1993). Allspice was also reported to suppress Escherichia coli, Salmonella
enterica and Listeria monocytogenes (Friedman et al., 2002).

Insecticide
Allspice is reported to have insecticidal properties. The effect of 103 plant powders on the
mortality and emergence of adults of Sitophilus zeamais and Zabrotes subfasciatus was
evaluated in the laboratory. Powdered allspice caused >20% mortality of S. zeamais. Allspice
oils at all concentrations inhibited egg hatch of Corcyra cephalonica compared with the
control (Bhargava and Meena, 2001).

Nematicide

The nematicidal activity of the essential oil of allspice (Pimenta dioica L. Merr.) leaves and
its
 67

major constituent eugenol was tested against Meloidogyne incognita. The essential oil and
eugenol exhibited promising nematicidal activity at 660 μg/ml (Leela and Ramana, 2000).

Antioxidant
Antioxidants help to preserve food from oxidation and deterioration and to increase their
shelf life. They can also be used as a natural preservative. Spices and herbs are recognized as
sources of natural antioxidants and thus play an important role in the chemoprevention of
diseases resulting from lipid peroxidation (Chung et al., 1997). Allspice has a strong
hydroxyl radical-scavenging activity (Nakatani, 2000). Compounds that markedly inhibit the
formation of malondialdehyde from 2-deoxyribose and the hydroxylation of benzoate ©
2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd with the hydroxyl radical were isolated from methanol
extracts of allspice. These compounds were identified as pimentol and had a strong
antioxidant activity as hydroxyl radical scavengers at 2.0 μm (Oya et al., 1997). A
phenylpropanoid, threo-3-chloro-1-(4-hydroxyl- 3-methoxyphenyl)propane-1,2-diol isolated
from berries of P. dioica inhibited autoxidation of linoleic acid in a water–alcohol system
(Kikuzaki et al., 1999). The effect of different allspice extracts (ethanol, chloroform,
diethylether, benzene and hexane) on the stability of rapeseed oil was examined. The ethanol
extract exhibited a remarkable antioxidant effect and the antioxidant effectiveness of various
extracts was in the order ethanol extract > chloroform extract > diethylether extract >
benzene extract > hexane extract (Vinh et al., 2000).

Deodorizing effect
The major function of allspice is to flavour food but it has a subfunction of deodorizing or
masking unpleasant odours. The concentration of methyl mercaptan is a major cause of bad
breath and it was observed that allspice has a deodorizing rate of 61% (deodorizing rate is the
percentage of methyl mercaptan (500 ng) captured by methanol extract).

Toxicity
Allspice oil should only be used in low dilutions since it is found to irritate the mucous
membrane, owing to the presence of eugenol in allspice oil. It is also reported to cause dermal
irritation. At low doses it is non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing and nonphototoxic.

Market structure

Although Jamaica by means holds a monopoly position in the pimento market, her long-
established position as the traditional supplier and her well-organized export system ensure
that she has a dominant influence on the state of the world market. The usual route from
exporter to user involves the services of an agent-broker and subsequently a dealer, although
there are many instances of the dealer being bypassed. The streamlining of Jamaica’s
marketing organization through the formation of the pimento clearing house and its recent
successor has been reflected in the importing countries insofar as, in the first place, entrepot
trade has been very drastically reduced and, in the second place, the number of agent-brokers
handling pimento has been reduced. The trend in the importing countries has been towards
sole agencies for Jamaican pimento. It is possible that this trend might be reversed if the
quantity-and quality-of pimento exported from Central America were to increase
substantially in proportion to Jamaican exports, but there is as yet no sign of this happening,
 68

and it is certain that for the time being, trade in pimento will be conducted on a fairly narrow
front under conditions of highly imperfect competition.

The import agent more often takes a commission from the seller alone rather than from both
seller and purchaser and therefore not a broker in the usual sense, but there are some
exceptions to this rule. Market quotations for the spice are twofold as is the case with most
spices, namely, ‘spot’ for consignments already in the hands of the agents or dealers or
‘forward’ for consignments due to be shipped at an agreed future date, which may be many
months ahead.

The import agents can and usually do act on behalf of more than one dealer, and there is
normally a reasonable choice of pimento dealers in Western importing countries. The largest
end-users, however, can afford to buy in bulk and are therefore usually in a position to bypass
the dealers and there are even one or two instances of users reaching direct agreement with
the exporters, thus bypassing the only remaining link in the marketing chain, namely the
agent. These are uncommon instances and the agent remains the kingpin of the international
pimento marketing system, the price normally being settled in the first instance between him
and the exporter.
 69

Clove
Introduction:

Clove is Syzygium aromaticum (L.). Belongs to the family Myrtaceae. The species is
indigenous to certain volcanic islands such as eastern part of Indonesia. The tree is of
medium size, fine, evergreen, reaching up to 20m in height and varies in its canopy shape
from cylindrical to pyramidal, depending on the variety. The tree can live up to 100 years and
there are individual records of trees over 350 years old in Ternate. The trunk diameter can
reach 30 cm in mature plants. Varying in flower numbers from 15 to 50, depending on variety
and cultural practices.

The colour of unopened buds at the young stage is usually green, turning to flushed pink
when they reach their full size, at which time they are ready for harvest. At that stage the
stamens are still inside and covered by the petals which form the head of the dried cloves.
Early picking or overripe buds will produce lower quality clove bud (Table 12.1). The tree is
grown primarily for the unopened flower buds which are dried to produce the familiar spice
of commerce.

Production: Indonesia became the world’s largest producer of cloves in 1996 with total
production 90 000 tonnes,

The world annual demand stays at 4000–5000 tonnes, with the USA consuming 1850 metric
tonnes in 1990. Mostly consumed by the Indonesian kretek cigarette manufacturers, with
exports of 9000 t. Despite a rapid increase in Indonesian clove production, Zanzibar and
Madagascar remain the main sources for international markets.
 70

With 15 000 t in Madagascar and 6 000 t in Zanzibar (Verheij and Snijders 1999). Several
thousand tonnes are produced by other Asian countries such as Sri Lanka, India and
Malaysia, and smaller amounts by other African countries.

Dried clove bud:

Clove buds are harvested when they have reached their full size and the colour has turned
Reddish. After being harvested, the buds are separated from the stems, by hand or thresher
Machine. Immediately after separation, the buds are dried under the sun or using an artificial
dryer. The colour and oil content of artificially dried cloves are not significantly different
from sun dried.

Storage

Dried whole clove bud is usually packed in gunny bags and should be stored in a clean, dry
room with good ventilation. This way of storing should not cause any significant changes
except loss of sheen. The essential oil and eugenol acetate content of whole clove decreased
slightly after storing for six months, while eugenol content increased. Storage can also
change the composition of carbon dioxide extracted clove bud. Reduction in caryophyllene
content is 11% Moreover eugenol content increased after storage, whereas eugenol acetate
remained fairly constant.

Ground clove:

Ground clove is produced by milling and/or grinding of the dried clove buds. The process is
usually conducted at low temperature (25º–35ºC) to prevent the loss of valuable volatile
constituents during processing. The results are powder with several degrees of fineness,
depending on the nature of the spice, to obtain a very fine clove powder a two step procedure
is usually conducted; the buds are firstly reduced to a very coarse powder by passage through
a slow speed breaker or cutter mill, and then they are ground to the desired fineness. The
United States requires finer powder than the United Kingdom.
 71

Clove oil:

Depending on the raw material, three kinds of oil are produced. The yield and quality of the
oils are influenced by origin, variety, quality of raw materials, Clove buds and stem are
commented before distillation to break the oil cell and widen the surface so that the oil can be
released more easily from the cells. The materials are distilled using water and steam or
steam distillation for between 8 and 24 hours. The yield is 17%. In the United Kingdom, the
finest oil is obtained by water distillation containing 85–89% eugenol To prevent
evaporation, distillation of commented material should be done immediately.

Clove stem oil of Indonesian clove, using water and steam distillation, yield 5–6% with
eugenol content 90–98%, variation in yield and eugenol content which hold 680 kg of steam
for 16 hours yielded 5–7% of almost water white oil. The oil may vary considerably in
composition but eugenol content is usually 80–88%, with low eugenyl acetate and high
content of caryophyllene.

Oleoresin

Clove oleoresin prepared by solvent extraction of clove bud, yielded about 18–22% oleoresin
(90–92% volatile components) using benzene and 22–31% using alcohol (Weiss 1997).
Ground clove is extracted by suitable solvent(s) then evaporated or distilled to obtain
oleoresin. According to Somaatmadja (1981) ethanol is a very safe solvent because it is not
toxic. Oleoresin is an extremely concentrated product, containing all the flavouring
ingredients soluble in the particular solvent used, so that much closer to the original clove
odour and flavour (Heat 1973). Oleoresin can also be produced by supercritical CO2
extraction, which is conducted at 200–300 bar pressure at 50–80ºC. In situ fractionation is
possible at 80–100 bar and temperature 0–50ºC. This could extract all the soluble
components of oleoresin in a similar way to organic solvent extraction. The product is free of
solvent residue(s), and can be further fractionated to produce oil. Solvent(s) extraction is,
however, more cost effective than supercritical extraction (Moyler 1977).

Main uses in food processing:

The use of clove in whole or ground form is mainly for domestic culinary purposes and as a
flavouring agent in the food industry. Clove can also be used as food. Whole cloves are
seldom used in food processing as they are not a ready source of flavour. In some cases,
whole clove is inserted into ham and baked apples, and for pickles. Usually only small
amounts, perhaps as many as five whole cloves are used for pickling sauce blend, for meat
such as corned beef and stews. In the food industry, cloves are often used in the form of
ground, extracted essential oils or oleoresin in a small amount because of their intense
flavour. The advantages of using ground cloves is that they retain a considerable degree of
their original stability during storage and are better able to withstand high-temperature
processing (e.g. baking) 158 Handbook of herbs and spices than many of the extracted
processed products. Oleoresin is preferred over other clove products, because it contains both
volatile essential oil as well as non-volatile resinous material, which accounts for the flavour
mimicking the original ground spice. Oleoresin also has low risk of bacterial contamination.

Food products which use clove are mainly curry powder, sauces and baked foods. According
to Farrell (1990) curry powder uses 2% (mild) to 3% (sweet) by weight of ground clove buds,
meat sauces 0.37% clove ground or 0.111% clove oil, food seasonings such as Bologna
 72

seasoning A, B and C use 0.39% ground clove, 0.07% clove oil, and 0.45% clove oil,
respectively. Chili sauce uses 0.025% oil, mustard 0.111% and 0.222% ground clove in Dijon
and Dusseldorf, respectively, tomato ketchup uses 0.139% clove oil, whereas sausages
(Sweet Italian) use 0.111% ground clove (Farrell 1990). The highest average maximum use
level reported for cloves is 0.236% in condiments and relishes, and 0.06% clove stem oil and
0.078% clove bud oleoresin in alcoholic beverages (Leung 1980). Clove leaf oil is not
suitable for food flavouring because of its harsher note, and does not reproduce the genuine
clove flavour. It is mainly produced for production of eugenol and caryophyllene (Weiss
1997). Eugenols have flavour and antiseptic properties, therefore they have been used in
soaps, detergents, toothpaste, perfumery and pharmaceutical products. Maximum use levels
of bud and stem oils are 0.15% and 0.25% in soaps, 0.7% and 1.0% in perfumery. The major
use of clove is, however, in the manufacture of kretek cigarettes in Indonesia which accounts
for more than 90% of Indonesian clove production.
The main products of cloves:
• Whole or ground clove buds
• Essential oils, produced from clove buds, stem and leaf
• clove oleoresins.
Whole or ground clove contains 15 to 20% by weight of volatile oil. The major components
of clove bud oil are eugenol 70–95%, eugenol acetate up to 17% and 12–15%
For clove stem oil (the flower stem contains 5–7% oil by weight), the principal component is
still eugenol 90–95%, others being eugenol acetate and caryophyllene at lower amounts.

Capsicum or chillies

Introduction:

Chillies are consumed fresh, cooked, dried powder, in a sauce, oleoresin. There are three
major products traded on the world market for use in food processing: paprika, oleoresin, and
dried chilli (both whole and in powdered form). The genus Capsicum belongs to the family
Solanaceae. Within the genus Capsicum, five species are commonly recognized as
domesticated: Capsicum annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens, and C. pubescens.
in the USA, ‘pimiento’ or pimento’ refers only to thick-walled, heart-shaped, non-pungent
fruits from the species C. annuum. The Hungarians call all C. annuum fruits ‘paprika’, In
Asia, the spelling ‘chilli’ is more common and is always associated with highly pungent
varieties of C. annuum and C. frutescens, while the non-pungent sweet bell peppers are
referred to as ‘Capsicums’.

Chemical structure and stability:

The main source of pungency in peppers is the chemical group of alkaloid compounds called
capsicinoids.(CAPS), The atomic structure of CAPS is similar to piperine Capsaicin
(C18H27NO3, trans-8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide),Capsaicin is a white crystalline, fat-
soluble compound formed from homo vanillic acid that is insoluble in water, odourless, and
tasteless. Varieties of chilli differ widely in CAPS content. The amount of CAPS in a given
 73

variety can vary depending on the light intensity and temperature at which the plant is grown,
the age of the fruit, and the position of the fruit on the plant.

The first test developed to measure pungency was the Scoville test, first developed in 1912 it
measures ‘heat’ as Scoville heat units (SHU) in a given dry weight of fruit tissue. Sweet
peppers have 0 SHU, chillies with a slight bite may have 100 to 500 SHU, and the blistering
habaneros have between 200,000 and 300,000. apsorubin, cryptoxanthin, and zeaxanthin,
which are present as fatty acid esters. The most important pigments are apsanthin and its
isomer capsorubin, which make up 30–60% and 6–18%, respectively, of the total carotenoids
in the fruit.7 The intensity of the red colour is primarily a function of the amount of these two
pigments; the Hungarian and Spanish varieties used for paprika have very high amounts of
capsanthin and capso

CAPS in oleoresins are very stable compounds and generally do not break down, even during
processing at high temperatures and during long storage periods. CAPS in dry products
(fruits, powder, etc.) are not as stable as in oleoresins. The temperature at which the fruits are
dried affects the CAPS content. For example, drying ripe fruits at 60ºC to a final moisture
content of 8% decreases CAPS content approximately 10%. If the fruits are held for extended
periods of time at 60ºC after reaching 8% moisture content as much as 50% of the CAPS may
be lost.8 Once the fruits are dried, they typically lose 1–2% CAPS/month under cold (_16ºC)
storage, and even more when stored under ambient conditions. Ground powder can lose as
much as 5% CAPS/month depending on the fineness

Paprika production

Paprika is produced commercially in Spain, Portugal, Central Europe, Southern Africa, and
the US, but Hungary is by far the most famous paprika-producing country, with
approximately 8,000 ha the moisture content will be too high, and both the flavour and colour
will be affected. Optimum moisture content is 8%.
 74

Oleoresin production

Oleoresin is a viscous liquid or semi-solid material derived by extraction from finely ground
powder; three types of oleoresin are produced. High-pungency Capsicum oleoresin is
produced in India, Africa and China A volatile non-aqueous solvent such as hexane, ether, or
ethylene dichloride is added and allowed to thoroughly wet the material. The oleoresin enters
into solution with the solvent, forming micelle. After a period of time, the micelle is
removed, and the solvent replaced with fresh solvent to continue the extraction. first stage
removes approximately 95% in a standard film evaporator, and then the concentrated micella
passes through a partial vacuum that removes the rest of the solvent and reduces the micella
to oleoresin. The remaining solvent held in the mass of the extracted powder is recovered by
very high vacuum. Typical yield of oleoresin depends on the solvent used and ranges from
11.5– 16.5%.

Dry chilli production:

The largest producer is India, with an estimated 894,000 ha devoted to the crop annually.
India is the largest exporter of dried chilli in the world. The second-largest producer is China,
which grows an estimated 216,000 ha annually and also exports sizeable quantities of dried
chilli. Sun drying can result in bleached fruits, especially if rainfall is received during the
drying period, and the fruits may have extraneous matter adhering to them. In more advanced
regions, the use of controlled drying improves the quality of the dried fruits. The best drying
temperature is 60–70ºC; this gives maximum colour values and longest colour retention time.
Higher temperatures tend to caramelize the sugars present in the fruits and give them a dark
colour. The optimum moisture content is approximately 10%. 15-17%.

Colour

starches, such as rice or maize, use peppers to add colour to their bland, achromatic diets.
Paprika, paprika oleoresin, red pepper oleoresin, and dried chilli may all serve as a source of
red colour in various processed products, but the primary sources of red colour are paprika
and paprika oleoresin. Paprika is used in many products where no pungency is desired, but
the colour, flavour, and texture of a finely ground powder is desired. These include processed
lunchmeats, sausages, cheeses and other dairy products, soups, sauces, and snacks such as
potato chips.

Pungency
Red pepper oleoresin is used as a source of both colour and pungency in canned meats,
sausages, smoked pork, sandwich spreads, soups, and in dispersed form in some drinks such
 75

as ginger ale. Capsicum oleoresin is used as a source of pungency in many products,

especially chilli sauces with extremely high SHU ratings. Oleoresin has considerable
advantages over dried chilli including more stable colour retention, easier to handle compared
to the rather bulky dried chilli, and the ability to mix and dilute oleoresin with other
substances to produce a range of colour and/or pungency values. Dried chilli is also used as a
source of both colour and pungency, particularly in the production of crushed red peppers,
chilli powder and chilli sauces.

Flavour
Paprika is valued for its flavour in many products in addition to its colour. Dried chilli is also
valued for its contribution to flavour in chilli sauces and chilli powders. The flavouring
principle is associated with volatile aromatic compounds and colour. As a general rule, when
the colour of paprika or chilli powder fades, the flavour also disappears.

Pharmaceutical
Capsicum oleoresin is the primary form of peppers used for pharmaceutical purposes. Further
refinement of the oleoresin may be performed to produce pure capsaicin. At least two types
of pain relief products are currently being marketed, including creams containing 0.75%
capsaicin (for example, ZostrixTM), and plasters containing 3% oleoresin (for example,
VorwerkTM). Several types of capsules containing chilli powder (cayenne powder) with a
range of capsaicin levels are currently being marketed.