ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER

& GENERAL ENERGY

ANALYSIS

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CHAPTER 2a
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 CONTENTS

 Forms of Energy
 Energy Transfer by Heat
 Energy Transfer by Work
 Mechanical Forms of Work
 The First Law of Thermodynamics
 Energy Conversion Efficiencies
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 LESSON OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, you should be able

to:
State the various forms of energy
Describe the nature of internal energy
Describe the energy transfer by heat and work
Define the concept of work and several forms of
mechanical work

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 FORMS OF ENERGY

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 FORMS OF ENERGY
 Energy exists in numerous forms (thermal, mechanical, chemical, kinetic,
potential, electric, magnetic & nuclear)
 The sum of the energies is the total energy, E (kJ)
 Or for a unit mass, E
e (kJ/kg)
m
Grouping of
Energy forms
energy of a system as a whole with respect to some
macroscopic outside reference frames, e.g. KE, PE

• related to molecular structure of a system and the

microscopic degree of molecular activity
• independent of outside reference frames
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• The sum is the Internal Energy, U 5
 FORMS OF ENERGY (cont’d)
Macroscopic forms of energy

Kinetic energy (KE) Potential energy (PE)

- result of motion relative to some - due to elevation in a gravitational
field (unit J)
reference frame (unit J)
1 PE  mgz
KE  m 2
2 PE  PE2  PE1  mg z 2  z1 
1
KE  KE2  KE1 
2

m  22  12 
where
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2
where h = elevation of center of gravity of a
 = velocity of the system relative to system relative to some arbitrarily
some fixed reference frame (m/s) plane (m)
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 FORMS OF ENERGY (cont’d)
Microscopic forms of energy

Sensible Energy Chemical energy: The

Latent Energy internal energy associated
- Kinetic energy of molecules with the atomic bonds in a
- Associated with
phase of a molecule.
system Nuclear energy: The
tremendous amount of
energy associated with the
strong bonds within the
nucleus of the atom itself.

The internal energy of a system is the sum of all forms of

the microscopic energies.
Thermal = Sensible + Latent
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Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear
 FORMS OF ENERGY (cont’d)

Total Energy of a system

1
E  U  KE  PE  U  m 2  mgz UNIT ?
2

Total Energy of a system per unit mass

1 2
e  u  ke  pe  u    gz UNIT ?
2

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 Energy in Closed System

Most of the closed system remains

stationary, so for that system;
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E  U  KE  PE
 FORMS OF ENERGY (cont’d)

Energy Interaction
 Forms of energy not stored in the system
 It is also called dynamic forms of energy
 Recognized as it crosses boundary,
represent energy lost or gain

 The only two forms of energy interactions

associated with a closed system are heat
transfer and work.

 The difference between heat transfer and

work: An energy interaction is heat transfer if
its driving force is a temperature difference.
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Otherwise it is work.
Energy can cross the
boundaries of a closed system
in the form of heat and work.
 ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Means of energy transfer caused by temperature
Heat Transfer difference between the system and the surroundings

Direction of heat transfer: Higher T

to Lower T

Energy is recognized as heat

transfer only as it crosses the
system boundary

Temperature difference is the driving force

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for heat transfer. The larger the temperature
difference, the higher is the rate of heat11
transfer.
 ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
(cont’d)
 Adiabatic process is a process during
which there is no heat transfer, Q=0

 How a process can be adiabatic?

 Well insulated system
 No temperature difference
 Adiabatic is not necessarily means
isothermal process. Temperature of the
system can still be changed by other
means

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 ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
(cont’d)
 Amount of heat transferred is denoted by Q (kJ)
 For a unit mass: Q
q (kJ/kg)
m
 Sign Convention for Heat:
Q positive indicates heat input
Q negative indicates heat lost

Specifying the directions

of heat using in and out

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 ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT

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 ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
(cont’d)
MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Conduction Convection Radiation

The transfer of energy from the The transfer of energy between

more energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less
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energetic ones as a result of
interaction between particles.
a solid surface and the adjacent
fluid that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
The transfer of energy due to the
emission of electromagnetic waves
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(or photons).
 ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK

 Work is an energy interaction between a system and its

surroundings that is not caused by temperature difference

WORK Energy transfer associated with a force acting

through a distance, e.g. rotating shaft, rising piston

 The work done by, or on, a system is defined as (unit kJ):

s2
W  F .ds or Work done per unit mass W
s1 w
m

 The work done per unit time is Power (unit kJ/s or kW):
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 ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
(cont’d)
 Sign convention for work:
W positive indicates work done by system (work output)
W negative indicates work done on the system (work input)

Specifying the directions

of work using in and out

 The work done by, or on, a

system is defined as (unit
kJ):

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 ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
(cont’d)
Heat vs. Work
 Both are recognized at the boundaries
of a system as they cross the
boundaries. That is, both heat and work
are boundary phenomena.
 Systems possess energy, but not heat
or work.
 Both are associated with a process, not
a state.
 Unlike properties, heat or work has no
meaning at a state.
 Both are path functions (i.e., their
magnitudes depend on the path followed Properties are point functions; but heat
during a process as well as the end and work are path functions (their
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states). magnitudes depend on the path 18
followed).
 ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
(cont’d)
Electrical work

Electrical power

When potential difference and

current change with time

Electrical power in terms of

When potential difference resistance R, current I, and
and current remain constant potential difference V.

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 MECHANICAL FORMS OF
WORK
 There are two requirements for a work interaction between a system and
its surroundings to exist:
 there must be a force acting on the boundary.
 the boundary must move.

Work = Force  Distance When force is not constant

 In thermo, most of the work is mechanical work, which

associated with moving boundary work

 Other common forms of work

 Shaft work
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If there is no movement, no  Spring work 20
work is done.
 SHAFT WORK
A force F acting through a moment arm r
generates a torque T

This force acts through a distance s

Shaft work is
Shaft work: proportional to the
torque applied and the
number of revolutions
of the shaft.

The power transmitted through the shaft is the shaft work done per unit time

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 SPRING WORK
When the length of the spring changes by a
differential amount dx under the influence of a force
F, the work done is:

For linear elastic springs, the displacement x is

proportional to the force applied

k: spring constant (kN/m)

Substituting and integrating yield

The displacement of a linear

spring doubles when the force
x1 and x2: the initial and the final displacements
is doubled.
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 NET WORK DONE BY A
SYSTEM
Different forms of work transfer could occur in a system simultaneously
during a process.

The total or net work done by the system = algebraic sum of all work

Wtotal  Wb  We  Wsh  Ws  ...

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 Class Takeaway

1. How can a closed system and its surroundings interact?

2. What are the sign conventions used for energy transfer?

3. Express total energy and for each of the terms, indicate the unit.

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