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Tensile Loading of Notches
Tensile Loading of Notches
2.1 Introduction
The tensile test is the most important method for mechanical material testing. It
provides essential results for strength, ductility as well as stiffness for uniaxial,
bending-free loading of slender bars. The measured material parameters serve to
dimension statically loaded components.
Relatively rapid basic assertions can be made about the mechanical properties for
developing materials or components. This is enormously important, for instance,
for lightweight constructions which must support more and more load using de-
creasingly less material (mass). Lengthy development times for lightweight ma-
terials often possessing complex structures are associated with high costs. With
the aid of the tensile test, the development costs can be limited by means of rec-
ognising and quickly eliminating material variants having unfavourable proper-
ties.
Of course, it is indispensible for both material manufacturers and material proces-
sors to inspect the tensile deformation behaviour of their products as part of their
quality assurance, particular for mechanically highly loaded materials.
The notched tensile test is employed to examine the material behaviour under
more stringent static loading conditions. For this purpose, a notch is introduced
into the middle of the specimen. The material and the material's state, the loading
as well as the notch geometery affect the notch's deformation behaviour. Mainly,
only the notch tensile strength is measured, which one also uses to assess the ma-
terials toughness. Both strength and toughness are essential for the load carrying
capacity of components. A tensile test on a component-like specimen provides the
best approximation to the operating behaviour. However, this involves high costs
and is therefore rarely carried out.
Loading, which deviates from tensile tests, can induce considerable changes in
the material's reaction so that other investigations may be necessary; for instance,
for fatigue, creep or corrosion behaviour. These are, as a rule, time consuming
and expensive.
The assignment of the laboratory test consists of performing tensile loaded mate-
rial tests on differently notched steel specimens and assessing the notch's tensile
deformation behaviour.
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2 Tensile loading of notches
0 xeS x xeS x
Fig. 2.1: Stress-strain curves in the notched ligament’s cross-section for uniaxial
loading
The total strain curve is elastic in the core of the notched ligament’s cross-section.
At a distance x = xeS, the total strain then assumes the value
R
e t = eeS = eS (2.2)
E
For x > xeS, elastic-plastic deformation occurs. In the notch root itself, the notch
root's total strain consists of elastic and plastic components
eK,t = eK,e + eK,p (2.3)
Empirically, the entire total strain curve is similar to a purely elastic deformation.
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2 Tensile loading of notches
As a consequence of loading beyond the elastic limit, the definition of the stress
concentration factor
s
aK = max (only elastic) (2.4)
sn
is no longer valid (cf. test no. 1), thus
s
a K ¹ max
sn
and the proportionality (Hooke) between real stress s(x) and notch root's total
strain eK,t is lost.
If one introduces a fictitious stress distribution, which plotted in Fig. 2.1, s* (x)
for the loading sn and an assumed elastic-plastic deformation, then sK*
sK*
aK = (2.5)
sn
would be valid for the fictitious notch root's stress. The nominal stress becomes
dK
2
F 1
sn = =
AK AK ò s(x)dA K (2.6)
dK
-
2
with AK as the ligament’s cross-section.
Stress strain diagrams are depicted in Fig. 2.2, namely
• for the smooth bar (sn, et) as well as
• for the notched bar,
o as the nominal stress over the notch root's total strain (sn, eK,t),
o as the real notch root's stress over the notch root's total strain
(sK, eK,t), and
o as the fictitious stress over the notch root's total strain ( s*K ,e K ,t )
One obtains the s*K -value via Eq. (2.5) by multiplying the nominal stress by the
stress concentration factor aK.
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2 Tensile loading of notches
Figure 2.2: Stress-strain curves smooth and notched bar geometry (schematic)
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2 Tensile loading of notches
By employing Neuber's equation (2.8) and the eqs. (2.9) and (2.10) for the case
of elastic-plastic deformation
s e
a sa e = K × K,t = aK2 (2.13)
sn en
together with
s
en = en,e = n , (2.14)
E
one obtains
2 sn2
sK eK.t = aK sn aK en,e = aK (2.15)
E
This relationship is valid for elastic nominal stresses in smooth comparative spec-
imens (tensile test)
en = en,e < ee,S and sn < ReS (2.16)
And, for elastic-plastic deformations in the notch root (notched tensile test)
eK,t > ee,S and sK > Re,S . (2.17)
Moreover, if one uses the maximum fictitious stress value in the notch root
sK* = aK sn (2.5)
and the fictitious notch root's strain
* sK*
eK = , (2.18)
E
s* a s a Ee
or inserting eK* = K = K n = K n,e = aK en,e
E E E
into equation (2.15), the following is given
2
* * 2 sn
sK eK,t = sK eK = aK . (2.19)
E
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2 Tensile loading of notches
That is, the right-hand side of Eq. (2.19) is specified by the bar's geometry (aK),
the loading (sn) and the material (E). The left-hand side represents the notch root's
loading, that is, the product of the notch root's total strain ( eK,t ) and the real notch
root's stress ( sK ), or is, as the case may be, the fictitious notch root's stress state
sK* × eK* .
Figure 2.3: Determining the elastic-plastic notch root's stress state with the aid
of Neuber's hyperbola
As illustrated in Fig. 2.3, one approximately obtains the required notch root's load-
ing using Neuber's hyperbola (2.19) together with the sn, e t -diagram (smooth
comparative specimen).
The case of purely elastic deformation
s
sK < ReS and eK,t = eK,e = K < eeS , (2.20)
E
Eq. 2.15 becomes
sK = aK sn . (2.21)
For this case, one thus obtains, which is also inevitable, the defining equation of
the stress concentration factor aK. Material and material’s state have no influence
on the behaviour of the elastic notch's deformation (cf. test 1).
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2 Tensile loading of notches
eK,t
eK,r
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2 Tensile loading of notches
Figure 2.5:
Notch yield stress, off-set
notch yield stress and notch
tensile strength as a function of
the stress concentration factor
for 32NiCrMo14-5 specimens
(Source: Macherauch)
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2 Tensile loading of notches
decreases such that it is imperative to avoid very "sharp" notches even in ductile
materials.
Starting from a normalised (N) through to a hardened and tempered (HT) state,
the decreasing material's ductility causes a fall in the notch tensile strength and,
for extremely brittle hardened (H) C45 or cast materials, the curves approximate
the function (cf. Fig. 2.6)
RK,m 1
= . (2.26)
Rm aK
aK
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2 Tensile loading of notches
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2 Tensile loading of notches
If one considers a flat notched bar subject to an assumed uniaxial stress state for
ductile material behaviour, then the following results for the approximate fracture
failure (cf. Fig. 2.8, left)
s1 = 2t(ductile)
S = R(ductile)
m
(1)
» RK,m . (2.33)
(1)
The notch tensile strength RK,m is then expected to be about the same magnitude
as the tensile strength R(ductile)
m of the material (cf. section 2.2.5).
causes are similar triaxial stresses beneath the notch root's surface (round notch
bar). By this means, the maximum shear stress tmax remains rather small, whereas
the principle normal stresses ( s1 > s 2 > s 3 ) increase (cf. Fig. 2.8). A change in
the failure limit from shear to separation strength sT occurs. Dislocation glide
(MSS)
and plasticity are reduced. The multiaxial notch tensile strength RK,m of ductile
materials is considerably larger than both their tensile strength R(ductile)
m as well
(1)
as the uniaxial notch tensile strength RK,m
(MSS) (1)
RK,m > RK,m » R(ductile)
m (2.34)
The component's ductility is assessed with the aid of, among others, the measured
relative notch tensile stress RK,m/Rm. Here, ideal brittle behaviour specifies the
lower limit (cf. Fig. 2.6)
(ideal brittle)
RK,m 1
= <1 (2.35)
R(ideal
m
brittle)
aK
Accordingly, brittle materials have lower notch tensile strength as tensile strength
(smooth bars), but do not attain the lower limit given by Eq. (2.35) 1/aK.
For tough behaviour, this becomes
(1)
RK,m
» 1 (Flat bar) (2.36)
R(ductile)
m
or
(MSS)
RK,m
> 1 (Round bar) (2.37)
R(ductile)
m
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2 Tensile loading of notches
(1)
RK,m » R(ductile)
m = Rm (2.38)
F sn s1 F
(MSS)
RK,m F F
s2 < R(ductile)
m
F
(1)
RK,m » R(ductile)
F
m s3
F
eK,t
F
s 2 » s3 » 0
F F
F
F
Figure 2.9: Full plastic loading for the notch tensile strength, schematically de-
picted for a flat bar (left) and for a round bar (right)
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2 Tensile loading of notches
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2 Tensile loading of notches
For your own safety and to avoid damage, the machine may strictly only be oper-
ated by persons who have been previously instructed. Each test is to be carried
out by only one person. During the clamping of the specimen bar, care must be
taken that no part of the body (fingers) is ever inserted within the clamping de-
vices. To guard against flying fragments and to avoid bodily entrappment between
the moving traverse and the machine's base, it is imperative that the test room
must be closed prior to starting the test. For this purpose, a transparent door is
available through which the test's progress can be monitored.
Dlt = lt – l0 (2.39)
are recorded in a F,Dlt-diagram. lt is the measured length which is produced by the
applied force F at time t (cf. Fig. 2.10).
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2 Tensile loading of notches
AK
l0
F F
lt
Fig. 2.10: Initial gauge length l0 in the unloaded state and the measured length
lt for the applied force F
To determine the strength values (cf. section 2.2.3), the corresponding nominal
stress (Eq. (2.6)) is to be computed with the aid of the data from the corresponding
F, Dlt-diagram.
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2 Tensile loading of notches
Strength:
• The notch yield stress RK,eS, according to Eq. (2.22), represents the re-
sistance to the incipient plastic deformation at the notch root, it concludes
the purely elastic deformation. After attaining the notch yield stress, the
material deforms elastic-plastically. This begins in the notch root and pro-
gresses into the specimen’s interior.
• Using the curve's maximum, one obtains the notch tensile strength RK,m
(Eq. 2.23).
• The off-set notch yield stresses RK,px (Eq. (2.24)) can not be determined
since no notch root strains are measured.
Deformation:
• The maximum irreversible longitudinal displacement
DlB = lB - l0 (2.40)
is determined from the broken notched bar.
LB - L0
A= 100% (2.41)
L0
and
• the necking at fracture as the change in the cross-section in the necking
region
A 0 - AB
Z= 100% (2.42)
A0
LB and AB are the measured length and the smallest cross-section of the bar
after fracture.
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2 Tensile loading of notches
2.4 Assignment
Force displacement diagrams are to be recorded at room temperature from pre-
pared smooth and notched specimen bars made of normalised and hardened steels
S235JRG2 (RSt 37-2) and C45E using a hydraulic driven universal testing ma-
chine. Prior to beginning the test, the specimens' dimensions are measured. The
notch's stress concentration factors of the used bars are aK = 1; 1.58; 1.87 und
2.55.
The traversing speed is to be set to 20 mm/min.
The obtained notch yield stress RK,eS and notch tensile strength RK,m are to be
R
plotted as functions of aK. In doing this, the function eS is to be completed. In
aK
R
another diagram, the relative notch tensile strengths K,m are to be depicted as a
Rm
1
function of aK together with the limiting curve . All results should be dis-
aK
cussed in a summary, in particular with regard to the toughness behaviour.
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2 Tensile loading of notches
2.5 Protocol
Group: Date:
Recorded by:
Testing machine:
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2 Tensile loading of notches
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2 Tensile loading of notches
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2 Tensile loading of notches
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