Buku Lengkap Interpretive Reading

PREFACE
Reading comprehension is one of the pillars of the act of

reading. When a student reads a text he engages in a complex
array of cognitive processes. He is simultaneously using his
awareness and understanding of phonemes (individual
sound “pieces” in language), phonics (connection between
letters and sounds and the relationship between sounds,
letters and words) and ability to comprehend or construct
meaning from the text.
There are two elements that make up the process of
reading comprehension: vocabulary knowledge and text
comprehension. In order to understand a text, the reader
must be able to comprehend the vocabulary used in the piece
of writing. If the individual words don’t make the sense then
the overall story will not either. Student can draw on their
prior knowledge of vocabulary, but they also need to
continually be taught new words. The best vocabulary
instruction occurs at the point of need. Text comprehension
is much more complex and varied that vocabulary
knowledge. Readers use many different text comprehension
strategies to develop reading comprehension. These include
monitoring for understanding, answering and generating
questions, summarizing and being aware of and using a text’s
structure to aid comprehension.
Reading comprehension is incredibly complex and
multifaceted. Because of this, readers do not develop the
ability to comprehend texts quickly, easily or independently.
Reading comprehension strategies must be taught over an
extended period of time by the teachers who have knowledge
and experience using them. Reading comprehension
strategies must be refined, practiced and reinforced
continually throughout life. Even in the middle grades and
high school, teachers need to continue to help their students
1
develop reading comprehension strategies. As their reading
materials become more diverse and challenging, students
need to learn new tools for comprehending these texts.
Content area materials such as textbooks and newspaper,
magazine and journal articles pose different reading
comprehension challenges for students and thus require
different comprehension strategies. The development of
reading comprehension is a lifelong process that changes
based on the depth and breadth of texts the person is
reading.
This book is for undergraduate students in university
especially for English department students. SLA belongs to
English department subject. In faculty guide book, this
subject refers to MKK (Mata Kuliah Keahlian). This subject
will teach at second semester students.
Writers
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The writer thanks to the Almighty God, Allah SWT. And

shalawat and salam to prophet Muhammad SAW. Who has
given her guidance and blessing during the writing of this
book. This book is entitled interpretive Reading
supplementary material to Reading course for English
Department Faculty of Education and Teachers’ Training of
State Islamic University of Sultan Syarif Kasim Riau (UIN
SUSKA).
The writer is grateful to many people who have
supported the writer to the completion of this book,
especially Dr. H. Mas’ud Zein (the dean of education and
teacher training), Drs. H. M.Syafi’I, S., M.Pd (the head of
English Department), the secretary of English Department;
Rizki Fiprinita, M.Pd and all of English department lecturers.
The completion of writing this book is also devoted to our
beloved family.
Finally, the writer realizes that the material and content
of this book still need to be developed. Therefore, readers’
comments, critisms, and constructive suggestions will be
highly appreciated
Pekanbaru. August 2017
Wiriters
3
CONTENTS
1. Introducing Interpretive Reading

a. What is Reading ` 1
b. What is Reading Comprehension 7
c. What is Interpretive Reading? 10
2. Strategies for Active Reading

a. What is Active Reading 12
b. Pre reading 13
c. Making predictions and connections 15
d. Developing guide questions 18
e. Monitoring comprehension 19
3. Skimming: Reading for Main Ideas

a. Purposes for skimming 22
b. How to skim 24
c. Using Skimming Effectively 24
d. Skimming Various material 25
4. Scanning: Rapidly Location Information

a. Definition of scanning 27
b. How to scan 28
c. Scanning particular types of material 31
5. Technique for reading faster

a. Eye-movement 33
b. Reading in meaning clusters 35
c. Key word reading 36
d. Using cue words 38
e. Rapid reading drills 39
f. Pacing techniques 39
g. Rereading for rate increase 40
6. Sentence pattern
1
a. Understanding sentence 41
b. Identifying key ideas 44
c. Locating details 46
d. Reading sentence that combine ideas 48
e. Reading sentence that relate ideas 49
7. Paragraph structure
a. Identifying the topic 52
b. Finding the main idea 57
c. Developing expectations as you read 62
d. Major and minor supporting details 63
e. Types of supporting details 67
8. Reading article and essays

a. Organizational features 73
b. Types of article and essays 78
9. Interpreting: Understanding the writer’s Message

a. Connotative Meaning 85
b. Implied Meaning 87
c. Figurative Language 87
10. Interpreting: Understanding the Author’s Purpose

a. Style and intended Audience 89
b. Tone 91
c. Language 94
11. Critical Reading strategies

a. Making Inferences 97
b. Distinguishing between fact and opinion 98
c. Recognizing Generalization 100
d. Identifying tone 101
e. Identifying author’s purpose 102
f. Identifying Bias 103
12. Practices 105
2
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCING INTERPRETIVE READING
1. What is Reading?
a. Definition of Reading
Reading is a complex "cognitive process" of
decoding symbols in order to construct or derive meaning.
Reading is a means of language acquisition,
communication, and of sharing information and ideas.
Reading is one of the subjects to get information and

knowledge about everything readers need from the
written form. Reading is very important, and it is one of the
four language skills that should be mastered by student for
all level. According to Nunan (2003) reading is a fluent
process of readers combining information from a text and
their own background knowledge to build meaning.
Then, Baker and Brown in Dorn and Soffos (2005)
says that reading is a complex process involving a network
of cognitive actions that work together to construct
meaning. Then, Johnson states in his book that reading is
the act of linking one idea to another.
In addition, Linguists also give definitions about
reading, their opinions about reading vary. Some of them
say that reading is the process to get, to understand, to
catch the content of the reading. And also reading is a
process to understand a written text which means
extracting the required information from it as efficiently as
possible.
1 | Interpretive Reading
Those statements above show the various definitions
of reading, they mean generally. Reading means a complex
process of thinking in assigning meaning from printed
materials which involve most of the reader’s intellectual
act such as pronunciation and comprehension in order to
receive ideas or information extended by the text. It can be
seen that reading is not only looking at word in the form of
graphic symbols but also getting meaning from word to
word or line to line to understand what we read. It means
that reading is process to understand the text content and
to get information.
b. Purpose of reading
The purpose of your reading determines how you

will read. You are not expected to read every reading on
your reading list carefully from beginning to end, word for
word. Skimming, scanning and careful, deliberate reading,
are all skills which can be applied to reading academic
texts, depending on the ‘purpose’ of your reading.
There are various academic purposes for reading,
but only two are in evidence in the modern classroom. The
first is recreational. One would think that recreational
reading and academic reading would occupy different
worlds, but, in the modern classroom, they do
not. Recreational reading, especially in the upper
elementary grades and middle school, affords the student
the sole opportunity to improve his primary reading skills,
especially fluency and comprehension. If the reading
choices are controlled by a list, what is described as
recreational in nature also serves an academic purpose. If
8th graders are reading "The Red Badge of Courage," they
are also accessing the canon of Western literature.
Usually the main purpose behind your reading is to
make connections between what you already know and
what you need to know. Knowing why you are reading will
greatly increase your chances of understanding the
material. There are many reasons why you might be
reading some particular text:
1. Pleasure and Enjoyment
This is probably the best reason to read anything. You

have chosen the material for the purpose of enjoying
yourself. Reading entertains you, even relaxes you.
However, this will rarely be the purpose behind the
reading you need to do for your subjects at university.
2. Practical Application
Here the purpose is to gain information that you can
apply or use in a practical situation. Books such as
laboratory manuals, computer manuals, instruction
booklets, and recipe books are all texts that you would
consult with the purpose of gaining specific
information.
3. To get an overview
The point here is to get a general feel for the material, to
determine whether it is relevant, useful, up to date, and
to get a sense of how the topic is treated by the author.
This is likely to be the main purpose behind your
reading when you:
a. are given an extensive reading list for an
assignment
b. are doing initial library research for an essay,
tutorial, research report or similar
assignments
c. need to decide which texts are most relevant
or useful for your assignment
4. To locate specific information
Sometimes you know what you are looking for but do

not know exactly where to find it. For example, you
might be looking for:
a. a specific quotation
b. evidence to support a particular argument
c. details about a specific person or event
d. a map
e. a diagram
f. a statistic or table of statistics
g. To find this sort of information might mean that
you have to consult several books or sources. In
these circumstances you will be reading with the
aim of zeroing in on the information you are
looking for.
5. To identify the central idea of theme
Looking for the main ideas rather than individual words
and so-called facts. Once you identify a main idea, look
for the deeper meanings:
a. What evidence is being presented to support it?
b. What evidence might there be against it?
c. What connections might there be between the
main points and what you already know?
d. How does what the speaker is saying match up
with what you have read in the relevant
literature?
6. To develop a detailed and critical understanding
From the theories above, we know that what we are
going to get after reading. The readers have their aim
when they read something.
c. Kinds of reading
There are two kinds of reading:
1) Extensive reading
Extensive reading is a language teaching

procedure where learners are supposed to read large
quantities of material or long texts for global
understanding, the principal goal being obtaining
pleasure from the text (Bamford, Extensive Reading
Activities 1). It is the view of Palmer (1964) that
“extensive reading” is considered as being reading
rapidly. The readers read books after books. Its
attention is paid to the meaning of the text itself not the
language. The purpose of extensive reading is for
pleasure and information. Thus, extensive reading is
also termed as “supplementary reading”.
Extensive is a form of reading instruction. Its

definition and purpose are expressed as follows:
‘‘Extensive reading means reading in quantity and in
order to gain a general understanding of what is read.
It is intended to develop good reading habits, to build
up knowledge of vocabulary and structure, and to
encourage a liking for reading” Richards and Schmidt
(2002: 193–194). Although there are various ways of
implementing.
Extensive reading in educational settings, the top
ten principles by Day and Bamford (2002) provide a
good guideline for conceptualizing extensive reading in
a teaching/ learning process:
1. The reading material is easy.
2. A variety of reading material on a wide range of
topics must be available.
3. Learners choose what they want to read.
4. Learners read as much as possible.
5. The purpose of reading is usually related to
pleasure, information and general understanding.
6. Reading is its own reward.
7. Reading speed is usually faster rather than
slower.
8. Reading is individual and silent.
9. Teachers orient and guide their students.
10. The teacher is a role model of a reader.
2) Intensive Reading
The work of Palmer (1921) notes that “intensive

reading” means that the readers take a text, study it line
by line, and refer at very moment to the dictionary
about the grammar of the text itself. It is related to
further progress in language learning under the
teacher's guidance. It provides a basis for explaining
difficulties of structure and for extending knowledge of
vocabulary and idioms. It will provide material for
developing greater control of the language and speech
and writing. Students will study short stories and
extracts from novels, chosen for the standard of
difficultly of the language and for the interest they hold
for this particular group of students.
Intensive reading is generally at a slower speed

and requires a higher degree of understanding to
develop and refine word study skills, enlarge passive
vocabulary, reinforce skills related to sentence
structure, increase active vocabulary, distinguish
among thesis, fact, supportive and non-supportive
details, provide socio cultural insights.
2. Reading Comprehension
Comprehension is the process of making sense words,

sentences, and connected text. Phang (2011: 15) stated that
comprehension is the process of deriving meaning from
connected text. It involves word knowledge as well as
thinking and reasoning. Readers must use the information
already acquired to filter, interpret, organize, reflect upon and
establish relationships with the new incoming information on
the page.
We define reading comprehension as the process of

simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through
interaction and involvement with written language. We use
the words extracting and constructing to emphasize both the
importance and the insufficiency of the text as a determinant
of reading comprehension. According to Galda and Beach
(2001), Comprehension entails three elements:
1. The reader who is doing the comprehending
2. The text that is to be comprehended
3. The activity in which comprehension is a part
Beside, comprehension is the active process of
constructing meaning concepts, making inferences, and
linking key ideas. It is supported by Karen R.Harris and Steve
Graha state that reading comprehension is a
multicomponent, highly complex process that involves many
interactions between readers and what they bring to the text
(previous knowledge and strategy use) as well as variables
related to the text itself (interest in text, understanding of
text types). It means that comprehension is a process that
involves prior knowledge and interaction between readers
and text in comprehending the text.
While, reading is comprehending. It means that if they

can read the words of a text, but do not understand what they
are reading, they are not really reading. How much and how
easily readers comprehend depends on variables within and
outside them. These key variables of reading comprehension
include the reader, the activity of reading, and the text
Reading comprehension includes the following:
a. Applying one’s knowledge and experiences to the text,
b. Setting goals for reading, and ensuring that they are
aligned with the text,
c. Using strategies and skills to construct meaning
during and after reading,
d. Adapting strategies that match the reader’s text and
goals,
e. Recognizing the author’s purpose,
f. Distinguishing between facts and opinions, and
g. Drawing logical conclusions.
From the explanation above, known that reading

comprehension is process and activity to understand about all
of reading text that include vocabulary and concepts, making
inferences, and linking key ideas, besides the reader will get
idea or meaning from the written text.
Moreover, as pointed out by Lems, Miller and Soro (2010:

170), reading comprehension is not a static competency; it
varies according to the purposes for reading and the text that
is involved. When the prerequisite skills are in place, reading
becomes an evolving interaction between the text and the
background knowledge of the reader. It means that to
comprehend the text the readers need to use some strategies
before, during and after reading.
Fundamentally, King and Stanley (1989), the components

of reading comprehension are as follows:
1) Finding Factual Information.
Factual information requires reader to scan specific
details. The readers must be recognizing the factual
information and able to find detail information such
as person, place, event and time.
2) Finding Main Idea.

Recognition of the main idea of a paragraph is very
important because it helps the readers not only
understand the paragraph on the first reading, but
also help to remember the content later. Reader not
only comprehends the idea in the text but also the
relative significance as expressed by the writer.
3) Finding The Meaning of Vocabulary.

It means that the reader should be able to guess the
meaning of unfamiliar word in the paragraph or
sentence which they read.
4) Identifying Reference.
Recognizing reference words and being able to
identify the word to which they refer to will help the
reader understand the reading passage. Reference
words are usually short and very frequently
pronoun, such as; it, she, he, they, this, etc.
5) Making Inference.
Inference is a skill where the reader has to be able to

read between the lines.
3. Interpretive Reading
Interpretive communication includes listening, viewing,
or reading a text, such as listening to an announcement on a
public address system, watching a movie, or reading a
newspaper. The listener, viewer, or reader does not have any
way to question the author of the text, ask for repetition, or
negotiate meaning. This type of communication is referred to
as one-way communication.
When talking about interpretive communication the

content of the language input that is listened to, watched, or
read is referred to as a “text” regardless of the mode. Not all
interpretive communication is the same; listening to an
announcement in an airport requires a different sort of
listening capability than listening to a story on the radio, and
reading an ad in the newspaper requires a different sort of
reading capability than reading a newspaper article. In
addition, listening, viewing, and reading each pose unique
challenges.
Reading is an interactive process that goes on between

the reader and the text, resulting in comprehension. The text
presents letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs that
encode meaning and the reader uses knowledge, skills, and
strategies to determine what that meaning is. The reader
must cope with the way the writer has structured the
material, but can look backwards and forward in the text to
increase comprehension.
Interpretive communication always involves

comprehension of a text. Comprehension is usually described
as literal or inferential. Your instructional objectives for
comprehension in the target language should include both
literal and inferential comprehension, just as they do in the
students’ first language.
Literal Comprehension is comprehension of the facts that
are explicitly stated in a text that is read, listened to, or
viewed. A recipe, for example, is a series of explicit statements
about ingredients, amounts, and the steps taken in
preparation.
In contrast, Inferential Comprehension is comprehension

of ideas or facts derived from inferences, predictions, and
elaborations that are based on the literal interpretation of a
text. If a student reads that a man is opening an umbrella as
he walks outside, s/he may infer that it is raining, even if the
text does not include that specific information.
While, Interpretive reading is when a person reads

aloud from a written literary script in a way that makes it feel
as though it is being performed though the person is not
performing the script. The audience must imagine the action
happening rather than seeing it in front of them. Interpretive
readers will use vocal and physical cues to help convey the
action that the script suggests.
CHAPTER II
STRATEGIES FOR ACTIVE READING

1. What is active reading
Active reading takes place when students are proactively
involved in the reading of a text. Active reading is about more
than reading words in black and white and answering
questions afterwards. Student engagement is important in
order to optimize learning, so when you, as the teacher, get
your students involved in what they are reading, they are
more likely to better understand the meaning within the text.
Active reading simply means reading something with a

determination to understand and evaluate it for its relevance
to student’s needs. Simply reading and re-reading the
material isn't an effective way to understand and learn.
Actively and critically engaging with the content can save
their time. Research reveals that effective reading is not a
single-step process, but a complex set of skills involving
activities before, during and after reading. Here is a partial list
of some of those skill:
a. Before reading:
1) Determining the subject of the material
2) Determining how the material is organized
3) Deciding what you need to remember from the material
4) Defining your purpose for reading
b. During Reading
1) Identifying what is important
2) Determining how key ideas are supported
3) Identifying patterns of thought
4) Drawing connections among ideas
5) Anticipating what is to come next
6) Relating ideas to what you already know
c. During and after reading
1) Identifying the author’s purpose for writing
2) Analyzing the writer’s technique and language
3) Evaluating the writer’s competence or authority
4) Asking critical questions
5) Evaluating the nature and type of supporting evidence
Active readers get involved with the material they are
reading. They think, question, challenge, and criticize the
author’s idea. They also try to make the material their
material.
2. Pre reading
Pre reading is a way to familiarize yourself with the
organization and content of the material. It involves getting a
quick impression or overview of what you are going to read
before beginning to read. As a result, you will be able to read
faster and follow the author’s train of thought more easily. Pre
reading likes a road map before you start out on a drive to
unfamiliar place. The road map, such as pre reading, gives you
an idea of what lies ahead and how it is arranged.
a. How to pre read

This the way how to do pre reading:
1) Read the title

2) Read the introduction or opening paragraphs
3) Read each boldface heading
4) Read the first sentence under each heading
5) Notice any typographical aids
6) Notice any graphs or picture
7) Read the last paragraph or summary
b. How to pre read articles without headings
To get an overview of the content of an article without
headings, read the first sentence of each paragraph: it often
states the main idea of the paragraph. By reading first
sentences, you will become familiar with most of the main
ideas contained in the selection
c. Adapting pre reading to various types of material

If the key to becoming a flexible reader lies in adapting
techniques to fit the material, then the key to successful
pre reading is the same. You must adjust the way you pre
read to the type of material you are working with. Here
are a few suggestion to help you make these adjustment.
Table II.1
How to adjust pre reading to the material
No Types of material Special features to consider

1 Textbooks Title and subtitle
Preface
Table of contains
Appendix
Glossary
2 Textbook chapters Summary
Vocabulary list
Review and discussion questions
3 Article and essays Title
Introductory paragraphs
Concluding paragraphs
4 Tests and exams Instructions and directions
Number of items
Types of questions
Point distribution
(McWhorter, 1992: 24)
d. Why pre reading is effective
Pre reading is effective because it:
1) Helps you become interested and involved with

what you will read
2) Gives you basic information about the
organization and the content of the article
3) Allows you to read somewhat faster, since the
material is familiar
4) Provides you with a mental outline of the material
3. Making predictions and connections

Pre reading is similar to watching a film preview. After
pre reading you should be able to make predictions about the
content and organization of the material and make
connections with what you already know about the topic.
a. Making prediction
Predictions are educated guesses about the material to
be read. It are made based on your experience with written
language, as well as your background knowledge and
familiarity with the subjects. To get started making
predictions, keep the following questions in mind.
What clues does the author give?
What will this material about?
What logically would follow?
How could this be organized?
Table II.2
Sample Predictions
No Title Prediction
1 Highlights of marketing An overview of
research the history of
market research
will be presented
2 Laws affecting competition How competition
works and what
affects it will be
explained
3 Why new products fail or Factors that
succeed influence a
product’s sales
will be discussed
4 A test of your consumer rights Questions and
awareness answers about
consumer rights
will be presented
Exercise 2-1
Directions: Predict the content or organization of each of

the following textbook chapter headings taken from a
sociology textbook
1. Inequality in the United States

_________________________________________________
2. Nontraditional marital and family lifestyles

_________________________________________________
3. What is religion?
_________________________________________________
4. Education and change in the 1980s

_________________________________________________
5. Computers in the school

_________________________________________________
b. Making connection
Once you had pre read an assignment, an important
next step is to call to mind what you already know about
the subject. Do this by making connections between the
material to be read and your background knowledge and
experience. For example, learnings occurs more easily if
you can relate new information to information already
stored. Material that is familiar and meaningful is easier to
learn that that which is not.
Search your previous knowledge and experience for

ideas or information to which you can connect the new
material in an assignment. You might think of this process
as tying a mental stringing between already stored
information and new information. Then as you pull out, or
recall, old information, you will find new information is
also recall. To draw on or active your prior knowledge and
experience, think about the subject using one of the
following techniques:
1) Ask as many questions as you can about the

topic and attempt to answer them
2) Divide the subject into as many features or
subtopics as possible
3) Free associate, write down anything that comes
to mind related to the topic.
4. Developing guide question

Reading should also be a purposeful activity. Before you
begin reading any article, selection, or chapter, you should
know what you want to accomplish by reading it. One o9f the
best ways to develop specific purposes is to form guide
questions.
a. How to develop guide questions

Guide questions can be formed by turning the chapter
or essay titles and headings into questions that you will try
to answer as you read.
b. Asking the right guide questions

To put guide question to their best use, you must ask the
right questions. Questions that begin with what, why or
how are useful because they usually require you to think or
consolidate information and ideas. Questions that begin
with who, when and where are less useful because they
can often be answered in a word or two; they often refer to
a specific fact or detail rather than to larger ideas or
concepts.
Exercise 2-2
Directions: For each of the following titles or headings, write a

guide question that would be useful in guiding your reading of
the material that would follow.
1) Political Party functions
_________________________________________________
2) The thinking of men and machines

_________________________________________________
3) Comparing X-Rays and Visible Light

_________________________________________________
4) Ghana and Rhodesia- A Study in Contrasts

_________________________________________________
5) The constitution: New Challenges

_________________________________________________
5. Monitoring Comprehension
Cognitive monitoring means keeping track or being
aware of what is happening mentally as you read. In cognitive
monitoring, you maintain an awareness of your level of
understanding by picking up clues or signals that indicates
whether you are understanding what you are reading.
Read the following paragraph, as you read, be alert to

your level of understanding.
The two most common drugs that are legal and

do not require a prescription are caffeine and
nicotine. Caffeine is the active ingredient in
coffee, tea and many cola drinks. It is stimulates
the central nervous system and heart and
therefore is often used to stay awake. Heavy use-
say, seven to ten cups of coffee peer day—has
toxic effects, that is, acts like a mild poison.
Prolonged heavy use appears to be addicting.
Nicotine is the active ingredient in tobacco. One
of the most addicting of all drugs and one of the
most dangerous, at least when obtained by
smoking, it has been implicated in lung cancer,
emphysema and heart disease.
In this paragraph, everything seemed to fit together and

make sense. Ideas seem to lead from one to another, you
could follow the author’s train of thought easily.
a. Recognizing comprehension signals

The table below are some common signals that may
assist you to monitor your comprehension.
Table II.3
Comprehension Signals
No Positive Signals Negative signals

1 Everything seems to fit and Some pieces do not seem to
make sense; ideas flow belong: the material seems
logically from one to disjointed
another
2 You are able to see where You feel as if you are
the author is leading struggling to stay with the
author and are unable to
think ahead
3 You are able to make You are unable to detect
connections and see relationships; the
patterns of thought organization is not
developing apparent
4 You read at a regular pace You need to reread
without slowing down or frequently, and you make
rereading frequent regression
5 You begin to see uses or You do not know why the
applications to other material was assigned and
situation cannot explain why it is
important
6 You feel comfortable and The topic is unfamiliar, yet
have some knowledge the author assumes you
about the topic understand it
7 You recognize most words Many words are unfamiliar
or can figure them out
from context
8 You can express the main You must reread and use
ideas in your own words the author’s language to
explain an idea
9 You understand why the You do not know why the
material was assigned material was assigned and
cannot explain why it is
important
10 You read a t a regular, You often slow down or
comfortable pace reread
11 You understand what is Nothing or everything
important seems important
(McWhorter, 1992: 42)
b. Correcting incomplete comprehension

Once you recognize clues that signal your level of
understanding, you will find situations where you are
not comprehending as well as you should. When this
happen:
1) Analyze the time and place in which you are

reading
2) Rephrase each paragraph in your own words
3) Read aloud sentences or sections that are
particularly difficult
4) Write a brief outline of the major point of the
article
5) Do not hesitate to reread difficult or complicated
sections
6) Underline keys ideas
7) Slow down your reading rate
8) Summarizing
CHAPTER III
SKIMMING: READING FOR MAIN IDEA
According to Marks (2013), skimming is one of the tools you

can use to read more in less time. Skimming refers to looking
only for the general or main ideas, and works best with non-
fiction (or factual) material. With skimming, your overall
understanding is reduced because you don’t read everything.
You read only what is important to your purpose. Skimming
takes place while reading and allows you to look for details in
addition to the main ideas. In others words, skimming is reading
a text quickly to get a general idea of meaning. Skimming allows
you to pick up some of the main ideas without paying attention
to detail. It is a fast process. A single chapter should take only a
few minutes.
1. Purposes for skimming
In skimming, you overall purpose should be to read only

those parts of an article or selection that contain the most
information. The basic task of skimming is to identify those
parts of any reading material that contain main ideas.
Here are a few examples of material for which skimming

would be the most effective technique to use:
a. A section of a text chapter that reviews the metric system.

b. A section of a reference book that you are using to
complete a research paper
c. A newspaper report of a current political event
d. A movie review
2. How to skim
a. Note any bold print and graphics.
b. Start at the beginning of the reading and glide your eyes
over the text very quickly.
c. Do not actually read the text in total. You may read a few
words of every paragraph, perhaps the first and last
sentences.
d. Always familiarize yourself with the reading material by
gaining an overview and/or skimming before reading in
detail.
To acquaint you with the process of skimming, a basic, step-
by step procedure is presented and applied to a sample
article. As general guide, read the following items:
1) The title
2) The subtitle or introductory byline
3) The introductory paragraph
4) The headings
5) The first sentence of each paragraph
6) Key words
7) The title or legend of any maps, graphs, charts, or
diagrams
8) The last paragraph
3. Using skimming effectively
There are three types of skimming:
a. Preview skimming: to become generally familiar with

the organization and content of material before
reading it.
b. Overview skimming: to get an overview of the
content and organization without reading the
material completely.
c. Review skimming: to go back over material you have
already read to review the main points of the
material
4. Skimming various material
Effective skimming hinges on the reader’s ability to

recognize the organization and structure of the material and
to locate the main ideas of the selection. The following
suggestions should help you become familiar with the
technique of skimming.
Table III.1
Adapting your skimming strataegy
No Type of material Focus on

1 Textbook chapters a. Chapter objectives and
introductions
b. Headings and typographical
aids
c. Graphic and visual aids
d. Review and discussion
questions
2 Reference sources a. Date
b. Organization of the source
c. Topical index
3 Newspaper article a. Title
b. Opening paragraphs
c. First sentences of
remaining paragraphs
4 Magazine articles a. Title / subtitle / byline
b. Opening paragraphs
c. Photograph / captions
d. Headings / first sentence
e. Last several paragraphs
5 Nonfiction book a. Front and back cover of
book jacket
b. Author’s credentials
c. Table of contents
d. Preface
e. First and last chapter
(McWhorter, 1992:87)
CHAPTER IV
SCANNING RAPIDLY INFORMATION
1. Definition of scanning
Scanning is another useful tool for speeding up your
reading. Unlike skimming, when scanning, you look only for a
specific fact or piece of information without reading
everything. You scan when you look for your favorite show
listed in the cable guide, for your friend’s phone number in a
telephone book, and for the sports scores in the newspaper.
For scanning to be successful, you need to understand how
your material is structured as well as comprehend what you
read so you can locate the specific information you need.
Scanning also allows you to find details and other information
in a hurry.
Scanning is a process of rapidly locating specific

information in printed material. Because you already scan
many different types of material in your daily life, learning
more details about scanning will be easy. Establishing your
purpose, locating the appropriate material, and knowing how
the information is structured before you start scanning is
essential.
The material you scan is typically arranged in the

following ways: alphabetically, chronologically, non-
alphabetically, by category, or textually.
Alphabetical information is arranged in order from A to Z,
while chronological information is arranged in time or
numerical order. Information can be also be arranged in non-
alphabetical order, such as a television listing, or by category,
listings of like items such as an auto parts catalog. Sometimes
information is located within the written paragraphs of text,
also known as a textual sense, as in an encyclopedia entry
2. How to scan
The key to effective scanning is to approach the material
in a systematic manner. The following steps provide a
systematic approach.
a. Check the organization

Before you begin to scan, check to see how the article
or material is organized
b. Form specific question

Scanning is effective only if you have a purpose, so try
to fix in your mind what you are looking for by
forming specific questions about the topic
c. Anticipate word clues

This step may help you locate the answer more
rapidly. The table below, lists additional clues for
finding various types of information.
Table IV.1
Clues for Scanning
No Type of Clues example

information
need
1 Statistics, Numbers 1.389.000
amounts, (words or gallons of oil
quantities, digits):
words
expressing
quantities
2 Dates, timers Digits, clue After 1983,…
words:
before, after,
during…
3 Definitions Boldface or The playbill
italicized (poster
print: clue reviewed…
words: is
referred to
as, can be
defined as,
means, is
termed; pairs
of commas
enclosing
parenthetical
information,
dashes,
parentheses
4 Reasons / Clue words: Consequently,
causes because air flows
consequently, upward
for that
reason, as a
result;
enumeration:
one cause…, a
second cause
5 Names, places Capitalized The famous
nouns: pairs general,
of George C.
parenthetical Marshal
commas
6 Location, Capitalized In Indonesia,
position nouns, clue …
words:
besides, next
to, adjacent,
below…
7 Characteristics Item listed in Platinum is a
a series steel-grey
separated by malleable,
commas, ductile
synonyms, chemical
features, elements…
variables,
qualities
8 Process (how Clue words: First, blood is
does) first, then, circulated
next…
Enumeration:
1)… 2)… 3)…
d. Identify likely answer locations

Using what you have learned from checking how
material is organized try to identify likely places
where the information you are looking for might
appear.
e. Use a systematic patterns

Scanning should be organized and systematic. Do not
randomly skip around, searching for clues. Instead,
rhythmically sweep your eyes through the material.
The pattern or approach you will use depend on
material.
f. Confirm your answer

Once you think you have located the information you
have been looking for, check to be sure you are
correct. Read the sentence or two that contain the
answer, confirming that is the information you need.
3. Scanning particular types of material

Materials to be scanned can be divided into two broad
categories: columnar material and prose material. Columnar
material includes all sorts of information presented in lists,
tables, columns, schedules, or charts. On the other hand, prose
material refers to any information presented in paragraph
form and includes materials such as encyclopedia series,
newspaper and magazine articles, textbooks, and brochures
and pamphlets.
a. Scanning columnar material

The most important step is to become familiar
with its organization. It is essential to recognize how
the writer has arranged the information. First, check
to determine the overall organization and then see if
it is divided in any particular way. In scanning a zip
code directory you would see that it is arranged
alphabetically but that there is a separate
alphabetical list for each state. Many reference books
that are arranged alphabetically have guide words at
top of each page to indicate the words or entries
that are included on each page. In scanning columnar
material you will often be able to scan for a specific
word, phrase, name, date, or place name.
The most effective scanning pattern for most

columnar material is a straight down-the column
pattern often called the arrow pattern. It is a swift,
down-ward sweep. In using this pattern with
material arranged alphabetically, focus on the first
letter of each line until you reach the letter that
begins the word you are looking for. Then focus on
the first two letters until you reach the two letter
combination you are searching for. Successively
widen your focus until you are looking for whole
words.
b. Scanning prose materials

It more difficult to scan prose materials than
columnar material. For prose materials you must
rely heavily on identifying clue words and predicting
the form of your answer. It is useful to think of
scanning prose material as floating process in which
your eyes drift quickly through a passage searching
for clue words or phrases.
CHAPTER V
TECHNIQUE FOR READING FASTER

1. Eye-movement
Reading is primarily a thinking process. There are
physical aspect of reading: your eyes recognize words and
transmit them in the form of signals to the brain. While
physical aspects of reading are far less important that the
cognitive process, it is worthwhile to consider briefly what
occurs physically when you read.
a. What happen when you read

Your eyes are highly specialized and complicated
instruments. They have the capacity to recognize words
rapidly and to transmit them in the form of signals to the
brain. Mental process become involved as your brain
attaches meaning to the signals it receives. As these two
process occur, you comprehend what you are reading. To
explain what occurs as your eyes move across a line of
print, let us look at some physical features of eye-
movement process.
1) Left to right progression

Your eyes are already well trained to move in a left-to-
right pattern across the page. The speed of this
progression is variable and can be significantly
increased with practice and training.
2) Fixation
As your eyes move across a line of print, they move and
stop, move and stop. When your eyes in motion, they do
not see anything. When your eyes stop, or focus, this is
called a fixation.
3) Eye span
As your eyes stop, or fixate, while progressing from left
to right across the line, they see a certain number of
words or letters. The amount you see during each
fixation is called your eye span.
4) Return sweep
When your eyes reach the end of line of print, they
return to the beginning of the next line. This return
motion is called the return sweep.
5) Regression
Normally, your eyes progress in a left-to-right direction,
seeing each word in the order it was written.
Occasionally, your eyes will, instead of moving to the
next word, move backward, or regress. This word may
be on the same line or on a previous line.
b. Observing eye-movement patterns

Most of the process described so far can be readily
observed by watching another person read. To get a better
understanding of eye movement patterns, choose another
person to work with and try the following experiments.
Experiment 1: observing eye movement
Experiment 2: counting fixations
Experiment 3: regression
c. Reducing regression
There are various mechanical devises used to reduce
regression, but you can easily get the same result by using
one or more of the following techniques.
1) Be conscious of your tendency to regress
and force yourself to move your ayes only
from left to right. Do not regress in the
middle of a sentence
2) Use a 5’x8’ index card to prevent regression
to previous lines
3) Use a pen, pencil or finger to guide your
eyes in a left-to-right direction across each
lines as you read.
2. Reading in meaning cluster

Clustering is the technique of grouping words together.
You recall that your eyes move and stop, move and stop as
they proceed across a line of print. It involves widening your
eye span so that you see several words in one fixation.
a. How to cluster read

Essentially, clustering involves widening your eye
span and / or point of concentration to encompass
two or three words. To cluster most effectively,
however, you should try to group words together
naturally fit or go together. In both written and
spoken language, words fall into natural groupings.
Our languages contains many words that carry little
meaning alone, but when combined with others,
express a thought or idea.
b. Learning to cluster read

To develop this skill, try to read as many things as
possible in clusters. Begin by reading easy material,
such as newspaper and magazines article, in phrases.
Later as you feel more confident about the skill,
progress to more difficult types of material.
3. Key word reading

Key words reading involves skipping unessential words
and reading only those words and phrase that carry the
primary or core meaning of each sentence. In developing skill
in key word reading it sometimes helps to think of the process
as similar to that of reading a telegram, a headline in a
newspaper, or a news caption that is run across the bottom of
a television screen while a program is in progress.
a. When to use key word reading

Here are a few situations in which key word reading
might be an appropriate technique.
1) When you are reading magazine movie reviews to

decide if you want to see the movie.
2) When you are reading encyclopedia entries to
determine if this encyclopedia contains any
information that you do not already have.
3) When you are reading newspaper article to find the
key ideas and primary details in a recent local event.
4) When you are reading
5) When using reference books to gain a general ideas
of an author’s approach and t treatment of an even,
idea, concept, or theory.
b. Aids to key word reading

The ability to key word read draws on many
comprehension skills and reading techniques. Your
knowledge of sentence structure, specifically your
awareness of punctuation, and your ability to identify key
parts of a sentence will unable you to key word read. You
will also be using your knowledge and familiarity with the
structure of the English language, which you have
acquired naturally throughout your lifetime, to help you
locate key words.
1) Using sentence structure

Sentences contain core parts that tell you what is
about (subject), what action occurred (predicate), and
who or what received the action (the object). These
parts carry the basic meaning of the sentence
2) Using punctuation
Punctuation can serve as an aid in locating key words.
It may signal what is to follow, separate nonessential
parts of a sentence, or indicate the relationship of
various parts of sentence to one another.
3) Using typographical aids

Typographical aids include any aspects of the words
that appear in print such as boldface print, colored
print, capitalization, underlining, enumeration, or lists
of information. Most typographical aids emphasize
important information; others help the reader
organize the information, italics, underlining, and
boldface print all used to make important information
more noticeable.
4) Using grammatical structure

Your knowledge of grammar can also help you read
key words effectively.
4. Using cue word
Many materials contain cue words and phrases that
indicate when to speed up, when to maintain your pace
and when to slowdown. These words and phrases often
function as transition, connecting, and leading from one
idea to another. These transitions also cue reader as to
what is follow and indicate its relative importance.
Table VI.1
Reading rate cues

No Cues Transition
1 Repetitious Again, in other words, that is
information
Examples To illustrate, for example,
suppose, for instance, such as
2 Change in thought However, nevertheless,
instead of despite.
Summary In summary, for these
reasons, to sum up, in brief.
Conclusion In conclusion, therefore,
Thus.
Emphasis ( above all, Most important, it is
indeed) essential.
3 Continuation Likewise, similarly, also,
furthermore, and added to, in
addition.
Numeration (listing) First, second,…, next, then,
1)…, 2)…
5. Rapid reading drills
One effective way to build read rate is to practice reading
various material than uncomfortably high rate. Do not be too
concerned if at first your comprehension is incomplete. Your
first goal is to gain speed-to cover material faster than before.
Then as you become more skilled at faster reading, you will
find that your comprehension will improve.
6. Pacing technique
Pacing involves forcing yourself to read slightly faster
than you normally would. It involves trying to keep up with a
pre-established pace.
a. Pacing methods
There are numerous ways to pace yourself for speed
increase. Among the most common are these:
1) Use an index card

2) Use your hand or index finger, or a pen or pencil
3) Use a timer or alarm clock
As you begin to use one of these pacing methods, here are
several suggestion keep in mind:
1) Keep a record of your time, the amount you read and

your words per minute
2) Be sure that you maintain an adequate level of
comprehension
3) Push yourself gradually, across several weeks of
practice
4) Try to keep your practice material similar from day
to day
b. Why pacing works
Pacing is built on the principle that rate gain occurs in
slow, incremental eps. It provides a framework and a
means to accomplish these incremental gains. It is also
effective because it established a goal to be met, speed to
attain. Pacing forces you to keep moving at a given rate
unless you deliberately decide to slow down. Pacing also
improves your concentration by forcing you to pay close
attention to the text.
7. Rereading for rate increase

Rereading is an effective method that you can use to
build your reading rate. This technique is similar to pacing in
that involves building your rate gradually, using small
increments. To reread for speed increase use the following
steps.
a. Select an article or passage and read it as you normally

would for careful or leisure reading.
b. Time yourself and compute your speed in words per
minute after you finish reading.
c. Take a break (five minutes or so). The reread the same
selection. Push yourself to read faster than you read the
first time.
d. Time yourself and compute your speed once again.
e. Read a new selection, pushing yourself to read almost as
fast as you reread the first selection
CHAPTER VI
SENTENCE PATTERN
1. Understanding Sentence
A sentence is a group of words giving a complete thought.
A sentence must contain a subject and a verb (although one
may be implied).
A sentence can consist of a single clause or several
clauses. When a sentence is a single clause, it is called a simple
sentence (and the clause is called an independent clause). A
sentence must contain at least one independent clause. Below
are the four types of sentence structure (with their
independent clauses shaded:
a. A Simple Sentence.
A simple sentence contains one independent clause
and has no dependent clauses.
For example:
- I went to the zoo last week.
- They are cleaning their classroom.
- The students have the assignments for this semester.
Simple sentence is called 'simple' because it contains

only one subject and one verb, or predicate. What's a
predicate? A predicate is the main verb in a sentence and
any additional components related to the subject's actions.
For example:
I will shop at the store this weekend.
In this sentence 'I' is the subject, and 'will shop' is the

predicate. The verb 'shop' is helped by the auxiliary verb
'will,' and together they form the predicate.
b. A Complex Sentence.
A complex sentence has an independent clause and
at least one dependent clause. A clause is a group of words
that has both a subject and a verb. An independent
clause forms a complete thought. A dependent clause, also
called a subordinating clause, does not form a complete
thought and is dependent upon an independent clause for
meaning.
For example:
- Although Paul had some doubts, he found the courses
very useful.
The above example is a complex sentence: it has a
dependent clause (a subject 'Paul' and a verb 'had'),
followed by an independent clause (subject 'he' and a verb
'found') and forms a complete thought.
- Computers have come a long way since they first
came on the market.
This example begins with an independent clause
(subject 'computers' and verb 'have come') that forms a
complete thought, followed by a dependent clause (subject
'they' and a verb 'came').
c. A Compound Sentence.
A compound sentence is a sentence that has at
least two independent clauses joined by a comma,
semicolon or conjunction.
For example:
This house is too expensive, and that house is too
small.
This sentence is a compound sentence because it

has two independent clauses, 'This house is too
expensive, and that house is too small' separated by a
comma and the conjunction 'and.'
When independent clauses are joined with

coordinators (also called coordinating conjunctions)
commas and semicolons, they do more than just join the
clauses. They add meaning and flow to your writing. These
are the coordinators we can use to join independent
clauses. They are: For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
d. A Compound-Complex Sentence.
A compound complex sentence is made up of more

than one sentence joined by a conjunction, and at least
one of those sentence is complex. In other words, it is a
compound sentence with a dependent, or subordinate
clause.
Examples of Compound Complex Sentences:
In these examples, the dependent, or subordinate clause

is underlined.
1. When I grow up, I want to be a lecturer, and my
mom is proud of me.
2. I will get to watch television, but first, I have to
clean up the dishes after we finish eating.
3. After our trip to the beach, school started back, and
I was excited to see my friends.
4. Sarah cried when her cat got sick, but it soon got
better.
5. The sun is shining through the clouds, so I
think that we can go swimming.
2. Understanding the sentence pattern
McWhorter (1986: 62) states that here are how to

understand the sentence pattern:
b. Identifying key ideas
Every sentence expresses at least one key idea, or

basic message. This key idea is made up of two parts;
a simple subject and a simple predicate.
The simple subject is usually a noun which identifies
the person or object the sentence is about. While, the
simple predicate is a verb which tells what the
person or object is doing or has done.
For example:
John submitted all semester assignments last Sunday.
The key idea of this sentence is “John submitted”.

It is expressed by the simple subject and
predicate. The simple subject of this sentence is
John; it tells who the sentence is about. The
simple predicate is the verb submitted; it tells
what John did.
Sometimes, some sentences may have more than

one subject and/or more than one verb in the
predicate.
Examples:
1. Poor diet and lack of exercise can cause weight

gain.
This sentence has two subjects; poor diet and lack
of exercise. While, can cause is the predicate.
2. My brother always worries and complains about
his job.
The subject of this sentence is My brother and it
has two verbs as the predicate; worries and
complains.
Exercise 6-1
Direction: Look at the sentences below. Draw one

line under the simple subject and two lines under the
predicate!
1. The horse ran in the field.

2. The people in the house are having a party.
3. Mom asked me to go to the store.
4. The U. S. President spoke to the American people.
5. Jose rode her bike to school.
6. The students of Kennedy School watched the
presentation by the jugglers.
7. Melanie's mother drove her to the doctor in
Chicago.
8. The defensive tackle of the Chicago Bears missed
the running back as he ran by him.
9. Joseph's brother bought a new car.
10. Allison likes to play volleyball.
11. Every summer, my parents travel to the eastern
seacoast.
12. Wiliam Faulkner, a popular American author,
wrote about life in the South.
13. Cocain, although illegal, is apparently increasing
in use.
14. Psychologists are interested in studying human
behavior in many different situations.
15. Attention may be defined as a focusing of
perception.
c. Locating details
After we have identified the key idea, the next step in

understanding a sentence is to see how the details affect
its meaning. Most details either add to or change the
meaning of the key idea. Usually they answer such
questions about the subject or predicate as 5W+H
(What, where, which, when, why and how).
For examples:
- Susan taught the English grammar at the Second

semester last Wednesday
The English grammar at the Second semester last
Wednesday is the details
The English grammar : what
At the second semester: which
Last Wednesday : when
- Last night, I read with interest a magazine article

on sailing
Last night : when
With interest : how
A magazine article on sailing : what
As we read a sentence, be sure to notice how
the details change, limit, or add the meaning of
the key idea. Look at the following examples, how
the underlined portion affects the meaning of the
key idea.
- The scientists with the most liberal attitudes

urged further study of nuclear power.
The underlined detail tells which scientists
(only those with the most liberal attitudes)
urged further study.
- The film about the death of the basketball
star was depressing.
The underlined detail describes the film.
Exercise 6-2
Direction: Write what, which, when, where, why, or

how in the space provided!
1. We can relieve tension through exercise.----------

2. The English instructor summarized the plot. ------
3. Many students in computer science courses can
use the computer terminals only weekend. --------
4. Many shoppers clip coupons to reduce their
grocery bill. -------------------------
5. After having a lunch, I am going to discuss with
my academic advisor. --------------------------
6. Astronomers have learned about stars and
galaxies by analyzing radiation they emit. ---------
7. The world’s oil supply is concentrated in only a
few places around the globe. --------------------------
8. Light traveling through empty space will move in
a straight line. ------------------------
9. Cobalt, essential for the manufacture of jet
aircraft engines, is a valuable resource. -------------
10. Ebbinghaus, one of psychology’s pioneers,
studied learning and memory processes. -----------
d. Reading sentence that combine ideas
Many sentences tells more than one key idea. In

this case, the writer often combines two or more
closely related ideas into one sentence. For example:
Some teachers decided to go to Singapore, and others
chose to go to Malaysia.
In this sentence two related ideas are combined:
1. Some teachers decided to go to Singapore.

2. Some students chose to go to Malaysia.
As we read the combined sentences, be sure to notice
both key ideas. Sometimes, we also can combine
ideas by the punctuation in the sentence. Two
complete ideas can be combined by:
1. Using a semicolon
Examples:
- Some children hate swimming in the river;
others enjoy it.
- Television is entertaining; it can also be
educational.
- Some students enjoy learning in the
laboratory; others hate it.
2. Using a comma followed by a conjunction

(and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet)
Examples:
- Velcha expected a good grade in Reading
course, but she received a C.
- My reading instructor assigns a lot of work,
and he is very particular about how it is done.
Exercise 6-3
Direction: Draw one line under the first complete

idea and two lines under the second complete idea.
1. I read all chapters that were assigned, and I wrote

an outline of each.
2. Some students like Geography, while others hate
it.
3. The football team practices every day; rain or
snow never stops them.
4. Although my favorite dessert is orange chocolate
cake, I love anything made with chocolate.
5. George was lonely and depressed, so he called his
brother on the phone to talk things over.
6. The students wanted to cancel the class, but the
lecturer decided to reschedule it.
7. I drove around the city for a while, and then I
found the restaurant for which I was looking.
8. My uncle bought a used car, but he could not keep
up with the payments.
9. Some students chose to write a term paper, and
others chose to take the final exam.
10. People are impressed with the computer’s ability
to solve a problem, yet computers do not solve
problems unless a person has programmed them
to do so.
d. Reading sentence that relate ideas

The writer expands a sentence by adding a
related but less important idea. Especially in a
complete sentence, there are independent and
dependent clauses. It means, this sentence contains
more important idea and less important idea.
McWorther (1986: 86) states that here are the
functions of the idea of lesser importance:
1. Describes
Example: Our teacher, who is sitting over
there, got the scholarship for her post
graduate program.
2. Expresses cause
Example: Because I was out shopping, I
missed your video call.
3. States purpose or reason

Example: Andrew skipped his Computer class
so he could study for his psychology test.
4. Describes conditions
Example: If my brother pass that test, he will
move to Jakarta next month.
5. Expresses time relationships

Example: While I was waiting for my
instructor, I watched the news on television.
Exercise 6-4
Direction: Read carefully the following sentences and

then underline for the less important idea!
1. Although I was recovering from a cold, I went

shopping anyway
2. If a department store is too crowded, I cannot
concentrate on what I am trying to purchase.
3. Because violence is regularly shown on tv,
children accept it as an ordinary part of life.
4. As far as scientists can tell from available
research, some types of cancer may be caused by
a virus
5. As most people are aware,$100 will not purchase
the same amount of goods or services today as
ten years ago
6. When a child throws a temper tantrum, the child
usually receives at tension
7. Since comparison shopping is a necessary part of
the buying process, wise money managers look
for differences in quality as well as price
8. When you learn a computer language, you learn
the logic of problem solving
9. Although different psychologists within the
developmental field hold various points of view,
some fundamental issues confront all of them
10. While many political issues are of concern today,
the most important ones are energy, the
economy, and equality.
CHAPTER VII
PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE
A paragraph is a group of related sentences about a topic.

In many languages, the fundamental unit of composition is the
paragraph. A paragraph consists of several sentences that are
grouped together. This group of sentences together discuss one
main subject.
The purpose of a paragraph is to express a speaker’s
thoughts on a particular point in a clear way that is unique and
specific to that paragraph. In other words, paragraphs shouldn’t
be mixing thoughts or ideas. A paragraph is structure around
three essential elements: the topic, the main idea and supporting
details. Here are the function of each of these elements.
1. Identifying the topic
Every paragraph has a topic to be discussed. A topic is the

one thing the whole paragraph is about. McWhorter (1992:
71) states that topic is another word for subject. It answers
the question, “Who or what is the paragraph (or article)
about?” The topic is stated as a single word or phrase—not a
complete sentence.
Identifying the topic is important, because it is a key in

monitoring our comprehension, getting the full meaning of
the text, and answering our instructor when she asks, “So
what is this section about?” Once we identify the topic, we can
more easily determine the author’s main idea
Finding the Topic

a. Ask ourselves, “Who or what is the paragraph (or article)
about?”
b. Use these clues to help us:
1. Look for a heading or title.
2. Look for pictures and words in special print, such as
bold, italics, or color
3. Read the first and last sentences of the paragraph.
4. Look for repeated words in a paragraph. It helps to
use a pencil to circle or box repeated words and
ideas.
5. Look for something mentioned at the beginning of
the paragraph and then referred to throughout the
paragraph by pronouns or by other words.
6. Look for ideas that are implied, or suggested, in
addition to being named.
Let’s use the following paragraph.
Computer chips have changed our way of life.

With computer chips, we can make very small computers.
Space scientists use these small computers in satellites and
space ships. Large companies use these small computers for
business. We can make very small calculators with computer
chips. Some calculators are as small as a credit card, and these
calculators are not very expensive. Computer chips are also
used for making digital watches. A normal watch has a spring
and moving hands, but a digital watch has no moving parts. A
digital watch show the time and date with numbers, and some
digital watches even have an alarm and a stopwatch.
The computer chip makes all of this possible.
Explanation:
The phrase “computer chips”, as indicated by the
underlining, is the most frequently mentioned thing in this
paragraph. It is the one that best describes what all of the
sentences in the paragraph are about. Thus, this is the topic of
the paragraph.
Most paragraphs state the topic, but some writers

frequently imply the topic. Thus, to identify the topic, readers
have to synthesize, or combine; different words in the
paragraph. To be useful, the topic you select or create should
be general enough to include everything discussed in the
paragraph. Read the following paragraph.
Another Example:
Traffic is directed by color. Pilot instrument panels,
landing strips, road and water crossings are regulated by
many colored light and signs. Factories use color to
distinguish between thoroughfares and work areas. Danger
zones are painted in special colors. Lubrication points and
removable parts are accentuated by color. Pipers for
transporting water, steam, oil, chemicals, and compressed air,
are designated by different colors. Electrical wires and
resistances are color-coded.
Explanation:
In this paragraph, the topic is not directly stated. However,
by considering the whole sentence, it is clear that the
paragraph discusses about the uses of color in modern
technological instrument. This is the topic of the paragraph.
Exercise: 7-1
Identify the topic in the following paragraphs!

1. Before we started radio communication inthe last
century, people had suggested ingenious ways of
signaling our presence to other worlds in the
solar system: huge bonfires in simple geometric
patterns such as squares or triangles; planting a
16-kilometer-wide strip of pine forest in Siberia
in the form of a right triangle: huge mirrors to
reflect sunlight; a 30-kilometer circular ditch
filled with water over which kerosene would be
poured and set burning; a powerful on the desert
sands of the planet; a network of large sunlight-
reflecting mirrors strategically positioned in
several European cities forming the shape of the
Big Dipper in Ursa Major.
Topic: _________________________________________________
2. Coffee tree (actually they are more shrubs than

trees) are relatively fast-growing, bearing fruits
three to four years after planting. The fruits take
another seven to nine months to mature. It is
from these that the beverage used by at least a
third of the world’s people is produced. The
mature fruits, or berries, are harvested by hand
and processed by one of two methods. The dry
method is used in most of Brazil’s coffee-
producing regions: the fruits are spread out to
dry in the sun for fifteen to twenty-five days and
then hulled. The wet method calls for pulping the
berries after picking to removed the outer layer
and part of the fleshy inner layer of the fruit. The
pulped fruit is then fermented in tanks, washed,
and sun-dried for eight to ten days. The dry skin
around the beans is removed by milling and
polishing, leaving shiny blue or grayish blue
beans. The characteristic brown color is
produced by roasting.
Topic: _________________________________________________
3. Next time you fill up your tank, look at the price
schedule on the pump. There you will see that
several cents of each gallon’s price is a federal tax.
( In addition, most states—and some cities—
change a tax on gasoline.) Most of these federal
tax collections flow into highway trust funds, on
the assumption that motorists should pay for the
construction and repair of the nation’s highways.
(if you own a boat, you still pay the tax for
gasoline. But you can receive a rebate of the
federal tax proceeds at the end of the year. The
reason, of course, is that boats don’t need
highways.
Topic: _________________________________________________
4. One of the largest components of debt is the

mortgage, the debt owed on real estate. In
speaking of the mortgage market it is important
to distinguish between real estate mortgages and
mortgages as a type of security for a debt
obligation. In one sense, one mortgages a car to
secure a car loan. Anytime an asset is pledged to
secure a loan, a mortgage is created. Since real
estate loans are so typically secured by a pledged
of real estate, such loans are themselves called
mortgages. Mortgage borrowing exceeds the
combined borrowing of corporations and
municipalities by a wide margin.
Topic: _________________________________________________
2. Finding the main idea
The most important idea in a paragraph is called the main
idea. It tells what a paragraph is mostly about. Meaning that,
main idea is the general sentence tells about the topic.
The main idea is the central point or thought the author
wants to communicate to readers about topic. The main idea
answers the question, “What does the author want me to
know about the topic?”
Before determining the main idea, we should first find the
topic. Then ask ourselves these questions: What is the main
idea—what is the author trying to say about the topic? Which
sentence states the main idea? It is easy to identify a main
idea that is directly expressed in the text.
Main ideas are often found at the beginning of paragraphs.
The first sentence often explains the subject being discussed
in the passage. Look at the following example:
Juan loves to play games. His favorite game is chess

because it requires a great deal of thought. Juan also
likes to play less demanding board games that are based
mostly on luck. He prefers Monopoly because it
requires luck and skill. If he is done, Juan likes to play
action video games as long as they aren't too violent.
In this example, the main idea is found at the beginning of

paragraph; Juan loves to play games.
Main ideas are also found in the concluding sentences of a

paragraph. The main idea can be expressed as a summation of
the information in the paragraph. Look at the following
example:
At the beginning of this century, only eight percent of

marriages ended in divorce. In 1976, just over fifty
percent did. The dramatic change doesn’t necessarily
mean that people were happy in marriage in the old
days and are unhappy today. Expectations have
changed, and divorces are now much easier to come by.
People who years ago might have suffered along now
sever the marriage bond. Yet, however the statistics are
interpreted, it is clear that there is a reservoir of
dissatisfaction in many marriages.
This paragraph ends with a general statement of what the

statistics do show—that there is much dissatisfaction in many
marriages.
Occasionally, a writer does not directly state the main idea

of paragraph. Instead, he or she leaves it up to the reader to
infer, or reason out, what the main idea of the paragraph is.
This type of paragraph contains only details or specifics which
relate to a given topic and which substantiate an unstated
main idea. To read this type of paragraph, start as you would
for paragraphs with stated main idea. Ask yourself the
question for finding the topic: What is the one thing the
author is discussing throughout the paragraph? Then try to
think of a sentence about the topic that all the details included
in the paragraph would support. Analyze the following
example:
Thomas Alva Edison invented or improved on the

telegraph, phonograph, stock ticker, microphone,
telephone, light bulb, battery, motion picture projector,
and many other things. He held more than 1,300 US and
foreign patents and was the first American director of a
research laboratory for inventors. His various
companies later combined to become General Electric.
In this paragraph, the writer returns again and again to
Thomas Alva Edison. Therefore, the topic this paragraph is.
Having been identifying this topic, it is not hard to figure out
what the author wants to say about it. The sentences in the
paragraph combine to suggest a main idea that would, if put
into a sentence, read something like this: “Thomas Alva
Edison was a great inventor.” This is the main idea.
Exercise 7-2
Read the following paragraphs and determine the topic, the

main idea in each of them.
1. Between 1890 and 1900, millions of people from

southern and eastern Europe left their home in search of
the American dream. The new immigrants had hoped to
find a comfortable place where they could settle and live
out their lives. But the cities to which they came were not
prepared for the new arrivals, and many immigrant
families ended up in ugly tenements that were poorly
supplied with light, heat and water. They had dreamt of
finding work, work that could make them independent,
even rich. Instead they found that jobs were scarce.
Frequently they had to take jobs for which they were
unsuited, and the work left them exhausted and
depressed. Many immigrants found that instead of the
warm welcome they expected, they were treated as
outsiders, with funny customs and even funnier way of
speaking.
2. Human digestion begins when we use our teeth to cut

and grind food. As we chew, saliva moistens and softens
food so it can be easily swallowed. After being
swallowed, the food passes into a tube that connects the
mouth and stomach; this tube is called esophagus. After
the food reaches the stomach, muscles in the stomach
will mix it together and combine it with a gastric juice
that consists mostly of water and hydrochloric acid. The
gastric juice reduces the food to a liquid that can pass
into the small intestine. The passage takes about eight
hours. During this time, enzymes break down the food
even more, preparing it for absorption into the blood
stream.
3. Liberty Statue is a colossal statue in Liberty Island in the

Upper New York Bay, U.S., made to commemorate the
friendship of the peoples of the United States and France.
Standing 305 feet (93 meters) high including its pedestal,
it represents a woman holding a torch in her raised right
hand and a tablet bearing the adoption date of the
Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776) in her left.
The torch, which measures 29 feet (8.8 meters) from the
flame tip to the bottom of the handle, is accessible via a
42-foot (12.8-metre) service ladder inside the arm (this
ascent was open to the public from 1886 to 1916). An
elevator carries visitors to the observation deck in the
pedestal, which may also be reached by stairway, and a
spiral staircase leads to an observation platform in the
figure’s crown.
4. The atmosphere of Earth acts like any window in serving

two very important functions: to let light in and to permit
us to look out and to guard Earth from dangerous or
uncomfortable things. A normal glazed window lets us
keep our house warm by keeping out cold air. In such a
way, the Earth’s atmospheric window helps to keep our
planet to a comfortable temperature by holding back
radiated heat and protecting us from dangerous levels of
ultraviolet light. Just like a window which prevents rain,
dirt, and unwelcome insects and animals from coming in,
scientists have discovered that space is full of a great
many very dangerous things against which our
atmosphere guards us. (Adapted from: Brandon &
Brandon, 2011: 289).
5. Astronauts face many problems in space caused by

weightlessness. One of these problems is floating around
the cabin. To solve this problem, astronauts wear shoes
that are coated with a special adhesive. This adhesive
sticks to the floor of the cabin. Serving food is another
problem. It won’t stay put on the table! Experts solved
this problem by putting food and drinks in pouches and
tubes. It only needs to be mixed with water.
Weightlessness also causes problems when an astronaut
tries to work. The simple task of turning a wrench or a
doorknob can be difficult. Since there is no gravity to
keep him down, when he exerts a force in one direction,
the opposite force may flip him over completely. To solve
this problem, he must be very careful about how much
force he uses to do these simple tasks. Here on earth, life
is much simpler, thanks to gravity.
6. To many parents, the infant's crying may be mainly an

irritation, especially if it continues for long periods. But
crying serves important functions for the child as well as
for the parents. For the child, crying helps improve lung
capacity and the respiratory system. Perhaps more
important, the cry serves as a signal of distress. When
babies cry, they indicate that they are hungry or in pain,
and this is important information for parents."
3. Developing expectations as you read
According to McWhorter (1992: 180) states that to be an
effective reader, you must become mentally active as you
read. Rather than just taking in facts and ideas as you
encounter them, you should be reacting to and thinking about
what you are reading. In fact there are certain mental
activities that should occur almost automatically as you read.
For instance, you should be thinking about what you have just
read, following the author’s pattern of thought, and trying to
relate the ideas. Also, as you read a paragraph you should be
developing expectations about how the writer will develop
his or her ideas and what will come next in the paragraph. In
other words, the reader should not keep up with the writer,
you should try to stay one jump ahead.
Similarly, as you begin to read a paragraph, often you will

find sufficient clues to enable you to know what to expect
throughout. Often, the topic sentence, especially if it appears
first in the paragraph, will suggest how the paragraph will be
developed. Suppose a paragraph were to begin with the
following topic sentence:
The unemployment rate in the past several years has

increased due to a variety of economic factors.
What do you expect the rest of the paragraph to include? It

will probably be about the various economic factors that
cause unemployment.
Exercise 7-3
Read the following sentences, and then summarize your
expectations in the space provided after each sentence.
1. Conventional musical instruments can be grouped into

three classes.
2. The distinction between storage and retrieval has
important implications for memory researchers.
3. When Charles Darwin published his theories of

evolution, people objected on scientific and religious
grounds.
4. Narcotics such as opium, morphine, and heroin are

derived from different sources and vary in strength and
aftereffects.
5. Not all factors that contribute to intelligence are

measurable.
4. Major and Minor Supporting Details
Supporting details are those facts and ideas that prove or

explain the main idea of a paragraph. When we read an article
or any other type of reading, we will notice that in addition to
have a thesis statement, the document will also have points
that support that thesis. The thesis provides the author's topic
and purpose for writing. The supporting details help the
author make that topic and purpose clear to the reader.
The supporting details of a reading can be divided into
major supporting details and minor supporting details, and
they are found in the supporting paragraphs, or body
paragraphs, of an article or essay. Distinguishing between
major and minor supporting details will help you break down
the paragraphs in a reading, making it easier to understand. In
this lesson, you will learn how to identify both major and
minor supporting details in a reading.
There are two kinds of supporting details:
a. Major supporting details: topic sentences in each

body paragraph that support the thesis
statement.
b. Minor supporting details: sentences that support
the major supporting details.
To find the most important or major supporting details,

ask ourselves like this question: “which statements directly
prove or explain the main idea?”
Notice the following example:

There are potential disadvantages to group therapy.
Many psychologists feel that the interactions in group
situations are too superficial to be of much benefit. A
patient with deep-seated conflicts may be better
treated by a psychotherapist in individual therapy,
the therapist can exert consistent pressure, refusing
to let the patient avoid the crucial issues, and she or
he can control the therapeutic environment more
effectively. Another criticism of groups is that they
are too powerful. If the group starts to focus on one
individual’s defense mechanism—which are used for
a reason, remember—that individual might break
down. If no trained therapist is present—which is
often the case in encounter groups—the result can be
disastrous.
In this paragraph, we can see that the main idea of the

sentence is double underlined. Then, each of the underlined
details states one of the disadvantages of group therapy.
These are called major details, because they directly explain
and support the main idea. While, the details that were not
underlined, they are the lesser important ideas that further
explain details. And these details are called minor details.
They provide information that qualifies, describes, or explains
the major details. In the previous example, the third sentence
further explains the disadvantage described in the second
sentence.
Exercise 7-4
Learn the following paragraphs and then underline the

major and minor supporting details!
1) Success in college depends on many things, but one of the

most important is having a positive attitude. There are
many ways to develop a positive outlook. You can try
using encouraging self-talk to motivate yourself. For
example, if you tell yourself that you are smart and can
be successful, you are more likely to do well in your
classes. Helping others to be successful is also a way of
maintaining a positive attitude. When you see that
college is not a competition, you will see success come to
you and those who work closely with you. Finally, you
can develop a positive attitude by viewing difficult
situations as opportunities to grow. For example, if you
are struggling in a class because the material is
challenging, don't let yourself feel down about it. Instead,
take action! Visit with your professor or form a study
group. Getting help will enable you to learn the material
and therefore do better in your class. By using
encouraging self-talk, helping others, and utilizing
difficult moments as an opportunity to grow, you will
have the optimistic outlook that will enable you to
succeed in college—and in life!
2) Studies reveal that people’s first names can have an

influence on them. Some names reflect on people in a
positive way. For example, one survey showed that
American men consider them name Susan to be ver sexy.
And participants in a British study thought Tony to be the
name of someone very friendly. However, other names
can have a negative impact. In one study, for instance,
teachers gave lower grades to essay supposedly written
by boys Learning Assistance Center University of Hawaii,
Manoa named Hubert and Elmer than to the very same
essay when they credited to boys with more popular
names. Another study found girls with unpopular names
did worse on IQ and achievement tests than girls with
more appealing names.
3) The skin itself is the largest organ of the body, is

composed of epithelial and connective tissue
components, and forms a pliable protective covering over
the external body surface. It accounts for about 7 percent
of the body weight and receives about 30n percent of the
left ventricular output of blood. The term protective, as
used here, includes not only resistance to bacterial
invasion or attack from the outside, but also protection
against large changes in the internal environment.
Control of body temperature, prevention of excessive
water loss, and prevention of excessive loss of organic
and inorganic materials are necessary to the
maintenance of internal homeostasis and continued
normal activity of individual cells. In addition, the skin
acts as an important area of storage, receives a variety of
stimuli, and synthesize several important substances
used I the overall body.
4) There are basically two types of computers—analog

computers and digital computers. Analog computers
operate on the principle of a parallel or analog between
numbers and physical quantities. For example, a slide
rule is an analog device with length representing
numbers. Modern analog computers use electronic
circuitry to represent physical process with changes in
electric current representing the behavior of the system
being studied. Digital computers, on the other hand, are
essentially based on counting operations. Most modern
computers are digital computers, and it is usually digital
computers which are referred to when the word
“computer” is used. For this reason, the explanations in
the chapter to follow apply only to digital computers.
5) Consumers concerned about the hazards or noise can

reduce noise pollution in many ways. They can purchase
noisy products such as garbage disposals and lawn
mowers with reduced noise levels. They can also use
sound-absorbing materials in their home. Carpeting can
be installed instead of hard flooring, and cork and fabric
can be used in rooms that tend to be noisy. Also, people
can become less noisy themselves. They can learn to
avoid shouting, to close doors without slamming them,
and to play radios, TV sets, and stereos at moderate
levels.
5. Types of Supporting details
There are many types of supporting details that a writer
can use to explain or support a main idea. When we read we
should notice the type of details a writer uses as well as be
able to identify which details are most important. Among the
most common types of supporting details are illustrations and
examples, facts and statistics, reasons, and descriptions.
a. Illustrations and Examples
One way the supporting details are explained through

illustrations or examples. Usually, a writer uses examples
to make a concept, problem, or process understandable by
showing its application in a particular situation.
Look at the following example:
All of us live within a culture, one that is
qualified by a label like “middle-class American,
”Roman,” or “Aztec”—a label that conjures up
certain objects or behavior patterns typical of this
particular culture. For instance, we associate
hamburgers with middle-class American culture,
and skin canoes with Eskimos. Romans are
thought to have spent their time conquering the
world. Sioux Indians wandering over the Great
Plains. But such stereotypes are often crude,
inaccurate generalizations. Though we think of
American Indians as legendary, feathered braves,
only a few Indian groups ever wore such head-
dresses. In fact, the label “American Indian”
includes an incredibly diverse set of peoples,
ranging from family size hunter gatherer bands to
large, complex civilizations.
In this example, the writer uses examples from
specific cultures—Eskimo, Roman, and American
Indian—to illustrate that labels exist. When we
read illustration and example and the concept or
idea it illustrates.
b. Facts and Statistics
Another way to support and further explain the main

idea is by giving the facts and/or statistics. Analyze the
following example:
Compared with females, males have a great excess of
crimes in all nations, all communities within nations, all
age groups, all periods of history for which we have
statistics, and all types of crime except those related to the
female sex, such as abortion, in the United States, males
are arrested approximately ten times as frequently as
females, and they are committed to prisons and
reformatories approximately twenty times as frequently
as females. Of the cases coming before juvenile courts,
about 85 percent are boys. The official statistics are
probably biased in favor of females, but even if correction
could be made for the statistical bias, the criminal sex
ratio probably would be well over 600 or 700.
These authors used percentages and ratios to indicate
that the crime rate is higher among males than females.
When, reading paragraph developed by the use of facts
and statistics, you can expect that these details will
answer questions such as what, when, where, or how
about the main idea.
c. Reasons
Certain types of main ideas are most easily explained by

giving reasons, especially in argumentative and persuasive
writing, we will find that a writer supports an opinion,
belief, or action by discussing why the thought or action is
appropriate.
Notice the following example:

The growth in American higher education is
taking place largely in the public colleges and
universities. These colleges are usually more
responsive than private colleges to state and local
demands, and provide training for the increasingly
numerous occupation that require adenavced skills.
They are relatively inexpensive, often easy to enter,
and conveniently located to serve large numbers of
students. The rapid expansion of college attendance
among job-oriented young people of lower social
origins is chiefly in these service –minded
institutions.
In this paragraph, the writer provides reasons for

growth of public colleges and universities. We can see that
the writer offers numerous reasons for the growth trend,
including response to local demands, costs, ease of
entrance, location, and so forth.
d. Description
Descriptions are often used as a means of paragraph

development. Descriptive details are facts that help us
visualize the person, object, or event being described.
The following paragraph contains descriptive details to
help us to create a description of a person.
A newly married pair had boarded this coach at
San Antonio. The man’s face was reddened from
many days in the wind and sun, and a direct resultof
his new black clothes was that his brick-colored
hands were constantly performing in a most
conscious fashion. From time to time he looked
down respectfully at his attire. He sat with hand on
each knee, like a man waiting in a barber’s shop. The
glances he devoted to other passengers were furtive
and shy.
In this paragraph, we can see that how each detail does

not contribute much to our understanding of the
bridegroom, but when all details are added together we
are able to visualize him. Small details, such as sitting “with
a hand on each knee,” contribute to our overall impression
and help us realize that the writer is trying to suggest that
the man was awkward and uncomfortable.
Exercise 7-5
Predict and analyze what types of supporting details

fr the following main idea!
1. It is much easier to sell a productto buyer

who possesses complete purchasing authority
than to sell to one who has little authority.
Type of detail: ___________________________________
2. The concept of insurance is an ancient one,

beginning with the Babylonians.
Type of detail: ___________________________________
3. It was cold in the fall in Rome and the evening

fell suddenly and with great importance.
Type of detail: __________________________________
4. Government documents indicate that the total

number of Americans living in poverty has
decreased, but the definition of the poverty
line has also been changed.
Type of detail: __________________________________
5. A sudden explosion at 200 decibels can cause

massive and permanent hearing loss.
Type of detail: __________________________________
CHAPTER VIII
READING ARTICLE AND ESSAYS
1. Organizational features
McWhorter (1986:122) noted five basic parts of articles

and essays.
a. Title
b. Introduction
c. Thesis Statement
d. Supporting information
e. Conclusion or summary
a. Title
There are two basic kinds of titles, descriptive and
interest catching.
1) A descriptive title announces the topic of the article

and essays clearly and succinctly. It also tell about
what the article will be about. This type of title is
always appropriate and is usually expected in
academic writing.
Examples:
a) The Writing Approaches of University Students

b) What Do People Need to Know About Writing in
Order to Write in Their Jobs?
c) Sociolinguistic Implications of Academic Writing
d) How I Became a Famous Novelist
2) Interest Catching, it doesn’t tell the subject of the
article.
For example:
Title Subject
a) Rolling Along Roller Dorbies

b) Man at the top Flagpole-sitting contests
There are another types of title suggestive title and
Combination Title. First, suggestive title (also known as an
implicative title) is almost the exact opposite of a
descriptive one. It merely hints at the topic, whereas a
descriptive title boldly declares it. Creative and catchy,
this is the type of title you see most often on bookstore
books (the non-academic ones). Next, Combination tiles.
These titles are a combination of both descriptive and
suggestive titles. In essence, you’re coming up with two
titles and then stapling them together using a colon (:) or
conjunction (and, or).
Here are the example of suggestive title
Examples:
a) A Plague of Secrets
b) Killer Summer
c) Strange Brew
d) The Two Towers
Next, the example of combination title
Examples:
a) Tagmemics: An Introduction for Perl

Developers, or “I wouldn’t Know a Tagmeme
if it Bit Me on the Parse”*
b) From the Personal to the Public:
Conceptions of Creative Writing in Higher
Education
c) Utterance Unmoored: The Changing
Interpretation of the Act of Writing in the
European Middle Ages
Exercise 8-1
Direction: read eaxh title and, when possible, describe

what you expect the article to be about
1. “Ancient Sports Revisited”

__________________________________________
2. “The Woman Question”

__________________________________________
3. “The Graying of the American Family”

__________________________________________
4. “Roots of Rock”
__________________________________________
5. “Changing Times, Changing Morals

__________________________________________
6. “City That Finds its Children”

__________________________________________
7. “How To Fight Hungries”

__________________________________________
8. “Saving The Third World’s Children”

__________________________________________
9. “A Cop To The Core”

__________________________________________
10. “In Pursuit of The Perfect Hamburger”

__________________________________________
b. Introduction
When reading an article, it is tempting to rush
through the first paragraph in order to get right into the
main part of the article. Introduction is one of the most
important parts of an article because it usually:
1) Announces the subject

2) Provides a focus and context for the subject
3) Give pertinent background information
4) Build interest in the subject
c. Thesis Statement
Thesis statement is the one important idea the article
presents. It may also suggest the organization, purpose,
and focus of the article (McWhorter, 1986:123). Every
article and essay should have a main point, a main idea, or
central message. The argument(s) that appears in that
article and essay should reflect this main idea.
A thesis statement focuses the ideas into one or two

sentences. It should present the topic of the paper and also
make a comment about the position in relation to the topic.
Thesis statement should tell the reader what the paper is
about and keep your argument focused.
A thesis statement usually appears at the end of the

introductory paragraph of a paper, and it offers a concise
summary of the main point or claim of the essay, research
paper, etc. A thesis statement is usually one sentence that
appears at the beginning, though it may occur more than
once.
d. Supporting information
A paragraph contains details that explain the idea.
The term "supporting details" can be defined as additional
information that explains, defines or proves an idea.
Supporting details are additional details that support the
topic sentence in a paragraph. They let the reader
understand and learn more about the main idea. These
details can be reasons, descriptions, examples,
explanations or comparisons. Similarly, an article or essay
contains supporting ideas that explain the thesis
statement. Most writers use various types of supporting
information. Often this information is organized by means
of one or more of the patterns. In addition to these
common patterns, writers may support facts, statistics or
research (McWhorter, 1986:125).
e. Conclusion or summary
An article or essay is usually brought to a close with
a summary or conclusion. Each in its own way brings
together the ideas expressed in the article. A summary
provides a review of important ideas. It can be thought of
as an outline in paragraph form. The order in which the
information appears in the summary reflects the
organization of the article itself. Next, a conclusion is a final
statement about the subject of the article. A conclusion
does not review content as a summary does. It usually
suggests a new or further direction of thought. It most
always introduces an idea that has not been stated
previously or a new way of looking at what has been stated
(McWhorter, 1986:126).
2. Types of article and essays

There are various types of articles and essays:
a. Narrative
Narratives tell a story, so narrative essays have a
beginning, a middle and an end. They review events that
have happened. Usually the events are presented in the
order in which they occurred. The story is told to make a
point or to explain an idea. In addition to essays, many
types of material use the narrative style such as
biographies, autobiographies, historical accounts and
travel book. Follow these steps when reading narratives:
1) Determine when and where the events

take place
2) Notice the sequence of events
3) Notice how the story is told and who is
telling
4) Look beyond specific events to the
overall meaning
5) Watch for the writer’s commentary as he
or she tells the story
Narratives concern characters, their actions, their
mental states and emotions, their interactions with
others in the text and also with the physical world of the
narrative, and have a narrative “point of view”. There are
several features common to a typical story: an
introduction to orient the reader, which usually describes
the main characters and setting, for example a young
child living in the Russian countryside; an initiating event,
such as losing a pet dog; the character’s goal to find that
pet and the motivation for that action, because this was a
much-loved dog and the loss has made the child sad;
often there is a problem or a conflict that must be resolved
so that the main characters can accomplish their goal, for
example the pet getting into a dangerous situation from
which it must be rescued, such as seeking shelter in a
cave and disturbing a fierce bear. More sophisticated
stories also include consequences and reactions to the
outcome and also unexpected situations or complications
(Stein & Glenn, 1982 in Friedman).
b. Descriptive
Descriptive articles and essays present ideas by
providing details about characteristics of people, places
and things. The detailed are intended to appeal your
senses, to help you create a mental picture, or to make
you feel a certain way. For example, descriptive writing is
used frequently in advertising. Notice in the following
travel ad, how the writer helps you imagine what
Bermuda is like.
For more than a century, people who like value

relaxation have been returning to Bermuda year
after year. They appreciate the pink-tinted beaches,
the flower-laden garden paths, the cozy pubs, and
the clear turquoise waters.
In reading descriptive writing, be sure follow these

steps:
1) Identify the subject of the essay.

2) Pay close attention to the writer’s
choice of words
3) Look for overall impressions the writer
is trying to create
4) Pay particular attention to the first and
last paragraphs
The generic structure of descriptive text consist of
two parts: identification and description. Identification
refers to identifying the phenomenon to be described.
And description means describing the phenomenon in
parts, qualities and characteristics. The language
features of descriptive text are: using simple present
tense, using attribute and identifying process, using
adjective and classifier in nominal group.
c. Expository
Expository articles and essays are written to explain.
They are intended to present information about a topic
or to explain an idea. Most textbooks, magazine articles,
and nonfiction books use the expository style. Writers
use various methods to develop their subjects and
present their ideas. The most common approaches
include the following:
1) Illustration / example-giving examples

2) Definition-describing characteristics
3) Comparison-showing similarities
4) Contrast-showing differences
5) Cause-effect-showing relationships or
connections
6) Classification-grouping ideas based on similar
characteristics
7) Process-describing a procedure or giving a step-
by-step list
The following questions may be used as a guide in
reading expository writing:
a. What is material about?

b. What main points is the writer making?
c. How is this material organized? How are the main
points connected together?
d. How much detail do I need to recall
In general, reading expository writing involves the
sifting and sorting out of information. Most expository
writing contains many facts and detent. The reader’s task
is to identify and remember those that that are
important. Your purpose of reading will determine the
type of information you need to recall.
Expository writing is also writing that seeks to

explain, illuminate or 'expose' (which is where the word
'expository' comes from). This type of writing can include
essays, newspaper and magazine articles, instruction
manuals, textbooks, encyclopedia articles and other
forms of writing, so long as they seek to explain.
Expository writing differs from other forms of writing,
such as fiction and poetry. In fact, this lesson itself is an
example of expository writing.
The expository essay is a tool that is often used in

the academic world. If you've attended school, it's highly
likely you've written one. Most expository essays have an
introductory paragraph in which a thesis or objective is
stated, several main body paragraphs that prove or
explain what is in the introduction, and a concluding
paragraph in which everything is summed up.
When writing an expository essay, it's important to

write with the assumption that your audience has little to
no background knowledge about the main topic. Your
duty as the writer is to provide the reader with as much
information as you can. The reader should feel as if he or
she has learned something after reading your essay.
Informational (expository) texts can follow a range

of structures, such as description, sequence, compare and
contrast, problem–solution, and cause–effect, and often a
text will combine two or more of these structures (Meyer
& Freedle, 1984). Thus, a text about the constitutional
monarchy in the UK could simply describe the system
currently in place, or how monarchies first arose across
Europe, or the text might additionally explain the current
UK system through examples of what is similar and also
what is different between the UK’s ceremonial
constitutional monarchy and an executive system, such
as the one in place in Monaco. Each of these structures of
description, sequence, and compare and contrast might
be found in the same text. Because informational texts
often contain unfamiliar concepts and vocabulary, they
can require high levels of inference skill. Therefore, an
appreciation of the structure and how it signals
connections between ideas is crucial to successful
understanding of these texts and also to learning from
them.
d. Persuasive
Persuasive articles and essays are written to
convince the reader of something. They are usually
concerned with controversial issues or those for which
there is no clear-cut right and wrong. This type of writing
encourages you to change your beliefs or attitudes. The
two principal methods authors use to accomplish this are
logical argument and appeal to the reader’s emotion.
Reading a persuasive article or essays involves skills of
interpretation as well as basic comprehension skills.
Now read the following paragraph of a persuasive

essay. Decide whether the writer will use a logical
argument or make an emotional appeal.
My point of view is that of a cancer researcher

who has been working for the last 20 years with RNA
viruses that cause cancer in chickens. Since the early
years of this century, it has been known that viruses
cause cancer in chickens. In more recent years
viruses have been shown to cause cancer not only in
chickens, but also in mice, cats, and even in some
primates. Therefore, it was reasonable hypothesis
that viruses might cause cancer in humans and that,
if a human cancer virus existed, it could be
prevented by a vaccine as so many other virus
disease have been prevented.
In the first paragraph, the author tells you that he is a

researcher. This is your first clue that a logical argument
will be presented. In the second paragraph, the words
reasonable hypothesis and therefore also suggest a logical
presentation.
CHAPTER IX
INTERPRETING: UNDERSTANDING THE WRITER’S

MESSAGE
1. Connotative Meaning
Words have two levels of meaning-a literal meaning

and additional shade of meaning. These two level of
meaning are called denotative and connotative. A word’s
denotative meaning is the meaning stated in the
dictionary-its literal meaning. On the other hand, a
word’s connotative meaning is additional implied
meaning, or shading, that a word may take on. Often the
connotative meaning carries either a positive or
negative, favorable or unfavorable impression. For
instance, the words mob and crowd have a negative
connotation because they imply a disorderly,
disorganized group. Congregation, audience, and class
have a positive connotation because they suggest an
orderly, organized group.
Exercise 9-1
Direction: for each of the following pairs of words, circle
the word with the more positive connotation
a) Request demand
b) Overlook neglect
c) Tease ridicule
d) Glance stare
e) Display expose
f) Garment gown
g) Gaudy showy
h) Awkward clumsy
i) Artificial fake
j) Token keepsake
Exercise 9-2
Directions: for each word listed below, write a word that
has similar denotative meaning but a negative
connotation. Then write a word that has a positive
connotation.
Negative Positive
Example: eat gobble dine
1) Take __________________________________________
2) Ask __________________________________________
3) Look at __________________________________________
4) Walk __________________________________________
5) Dress __________________________________________
6) Music __________________________________________
7) Car __________________________________________
8) Laugh __________________________________________
9) Large __________________________________________
10)Woman __________________________________________
2. Implied Meaning
An inference is an educated guess or prediction about
something unknown based on available facts and information.
It is logical connection that you draw between what you
observe or know and what you do not know.
How to make inferences
Making an inference is a thinking process. As you read,

you are following the author’s thoughts. You are also alert for
ideas that are suggested but not directly stated. Because
inference is a logical thought process, there is no simple, step-
by-step procedure to follow. Each inference depends entirely
on the situation, the facts provided, and the reader’s
knowledge and experience with the situation. Here are a few
guidelines to make inferences:
a. Be sure you understand the literal meaning

b. Notice details
c. Add up the facts
d. Watch for clues
e. Be sure your inference is supportable
3. Figurative Language
Figurative language is a way of describing something that
makes sense on an imaginative level but not on a factual or
literal level. The purpose of figurative language is to paint a
word picture-to help you visualize how something looks, feels,
or smells. Figurative language is a device writers use to
express an idea or feeling and, at the same time, allow the
reader the freedom of imagination. It allows the writer to
express attitudes and opinions without directly stating them.
Depending on the figurative expression chosen, a writer can
create a variety of impressions.
Figurative language is used in many types of articles and

essays. It is also used in everyday speech and in slang
expressions. Various types of literature, especially poetry, also
use figurative language. When reading an article that
contains figurative language, be sure to pay close attention to
the images and feeling created. Be sure you recognize that the
writer is shaping your response to the topic or subject.
Example: Sam eats like a horse
Exercise 9-3
Direction: each of the following sentences includes a

figurative expression. Read each sentence and explain in your
own words what the expression means
a) My psychology quiz was a piece of cake

__________________________________________
b) My life is a junkyard of broken dreams

_________________________________________
c) You took scissors and sheared my life to shreds

__________________________________________
d) Life is as tedious as a twice-told tale

__________________________________________
e) A sleeping child gives me the impression of a traveler in a

very far country
__________________________________________
CHAPTER X
INTERPRETING: UNDERSTANDING THE AUTHOR’S

PURPOSE
1. Style and intended audience
The writers have unique characteristic in making an
article or essays. One author may use many examples; and
other may use few. One author may use relatively short
sentences; another may use long, complicated ones. The
characteristics that make a writer unique are known as style
(McWhorter, 1986:223).
Style is the way in which something is written, as

opposed to the meaning of what is written. In writing,
however, the two are very closely linked. As the package for
the meaning of the text, style influences the reader’s
impression of the information itself. Style includes diction and
tone. The main goal in considering style is to present the
information in a manner appropriate for both the audience
and the purpose of the writing. Consistency is vital. Switching
styles can distract the reader and diminish the believability of
the paper’s argument.
Writers may vary their style to suit their intended

audiences. A target audience is the person or group of people
a piece of writing is intended to reach. In other words, it is
important for a writer to know who will be reading his or her
writing. This audience is the person or group of people the
writer is aiming for or trying to reach. When a writer knows
the target audience, he or she will shape both the purpose and
tone of the writing to match the audience's needs and,
sometimes, expectations.
A writer may write for a general-interest audience
(anyone who interested in the subject but is not considered
an expert such as newspapers and periodicals. On the other
hand, a writer may have a particular interest group in mind.
For example: journal of American Medicine. A writer may also
target his or her writing for an audience with particular
political, moral, or religious attitudes. Depending on the
group of people for whom the author is writing, he or she will
change the level of language, choice of words, and method of
presentation.
Knowing the audience for a particular essay and article is

important because it determines the content that will appear
in the writing. The content of an essay that has a specific
topic will vary depending on the intended audience. In other
words, having a focused topic is important, but having a
specific audience is equally important.
Exercise 10-1
Direction: read each of the following statements and decide

for whom each was written.
a. Introducing the new, high powered supertuner III, a

stereo system guaranteed to keep your mother out of
your car,
________________________________________________
b. Bright and white laundry detergent removes dirt and

stains faster than any other brand
________________________________________________
c. Think about all the places your drinking water has been
before you drink another drop. Most likely it has been
chemically treated to remove bacteria and chemical
pollutants. Soon you may begin to feel the side effects of
these treatments. Consider switching to filtered,
distilled water today.
________________________________________________
2. Tone
McWhorter (1986: 224) stated that tone refers to the
attitude or feeling a writer expresses about the subject. A
writer may adopt a serious tone, an angry tone, a humorous
tone, a sympathetic tone, an instructive tone, a persuasive
tone and so forth.
Here are a few example of different tones
a. Instructive
Example: When purchasing a piece of clothing, one
must be concerned with quality as well as
with price. Be certain to check for the
following: double-stitched seams,
matched patterns, and ample linings
b. Sympathetic
Example: The forlorn, frightened-looking child
wandered through the streets alone,
searching for someone who would show
an interest in helping her find her
parents.
c. Persuasive
Example: child abuse is a tragic occurrence in our
society. Strong legislation is needed to
control the abuse of innocent victims and
to punish those who are insensitive to the
rights and feelings of others.
In the first example, the writer offers advice in a

straightforward, informative style. In the second, the writer
wants you to feel sorry for the child. This is done through
description. In the last example, the writer tries to convince
the reader that action must be taken to prevent child abuse.
The use of such words as tragic, innocent, and insensitive
establish this tone
Surber also mentioned that tone is the author's attitude

toward a subject. The tone can be identified by looking at
word choices and phrases. Take time to look at the language.
An author uses words to create meaning. For example, a dog
described as a lovable puppy is positive, but one described as
a fierce fighter is more frightening.
You should also decide if a word is abstract, concrete,

general, or specific. It is important to note if an author is using
a general word, like car, or a more specific word, like Ford
Focus. An abstract word is one that may carry different
meanings, such as pleasant, while a concrete word will show
us the meaning.
Finally, look at the details of the story. Language is the

first step to finding the tone, but the word choice is just as
important. Look how an author describes the setting, a
character, or an event. This description will help create the
tone
In literature, tone is the attitude or approach that the

author takes toward the work’s central theme or subject.
Works of literature can have many different types of tone,
such as humorous, solemn, distant, intimate, ironic, arrogant,
condescending, sentimental, and so on. Any emotion that
humans can feel can be an example of tone in literature.
All works of literature have a tone. Authors use elements

such as syntax, diction, imagery, details, and figurative
language to create tone. Authors must use words to convey
emotions and feelings, and the choice of these words
constitutes the tone the author has toward the work’s main
subject.
Works of literature are not limited to having only one

tone. Tone may shift throughout a work as the narrator’s
perspective changes, or as the plot becomes more complex,
dramatic, bizarre, etc. There also may be more than one tone
that an author takes toward a work at the same time. For
example, a novel can be both humorous and dark, or both
sentimental and formal.
Exercise 10-2
Direction: of each of the following statements, paying

particular attention to the tone. Then write a sentence that
describes the tone. Prove your point by listing some of the
author’s words that reveal his or her feelings.
1) No one says that nuclear power is risk free. There are

risks involved in all methods of producing energy.
However, the scientific evidence is clear and obvious.
Nuclear power is at least as safe as any other means
used to generate electricity.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________
2) I’m a tired America. I am tired of watching criminals

walk free while they wait for their day in court. I’m tired
of hearing about victims getting as much as or more
hassle than criminals. I’m tired of reading about courts
of law that even accept a lawsuit in which criminal sues
his or her intended victim.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
3. Language
One important feature that writers adjust to suit their
purpose is the kind of language they use. There are two basic
types of language, objective and subjective.
a. Objective language is factual

Objective information is observable and factual:
able to be seen, touched, smelled, tasted, or proven. It is
able to be counted, described, or imitated. It is as close to
the truth as we can get and is the same from multiple
reports. There are no personal opinions or viewpoints in
objective language. Formal voice and academic writing
both rely on objective language.
Example of objective language: IVCC is a community

college located in Oglesbly, IL.
b. Subjective language expresses attitudes and feelings.

Subjective information is opinion, judgment,
assumption, belief, rumor, suspicion, or other unprovable
information. It is colored by the observer, and brings in
personal opinions and viewpoints. Your first narrative
essay uses a lot of subjective language, but all others after
that should rely on objective language.
Example of subjective language: IVCC is a beautiful
community college located in Oglesby, IL.
c. Descriptive Language
Descriptive language is a particular type of
subjective language. It is the use of words that appeal to
one or more of the reader’s senses. Descriptive words
help the reader create an imaginary picture of the object,
person, or event being described (McWhorter,
1986:226).
Exercise 10-3
Direction: read each of the following selections and answer

the questions that follow.
AMERICANS AND THE LAND
I have often wondered at the savagery and

thoughtlessness with which our early settlers approached this
rich continent. They came at it as though it were an enemy,
which of course it was. They burned the forests and changed
the rainfall, they swept buffalo from the plains, blasted the
streams, set fire to the grass and ran a reckless scythe through
the virgin and noble timber. Perhaps they felt that it was
limitless and could never be exhausted and that a man could
move on to new wonders endlessly. Certainly there are many
examples to the contrary, but to a large extent the early
people pillaged the country as though they hated it, as though
they held it temporarily and might be driven off any time.
1. Is this selection an objective or subjective account

of the early settlement of America? Give examples
to support your choice.
_________________________________________________________
___________________________
2. Describe the writer’s tone. How does it make you

feel?
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
3. Why do you think the author wrote this

selection?
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
CHAPTER XI
CRITICAL READING STRATEGIES

1. Making Inferences
An inference is a logical connection that you draw
between what you observe or know and what you do not
know. Basically, an inference is the best guess that you can
make given the available information and circumstances.
Exercise 11-1
Direction: Foe each of the following items make an inference

about the situation described.
a. A woman seated alone in a restaurant nervously glances

at everyone who enters. Every few minutes she checks
her watch.
_________________________________________________
b. A dog growls as a teenager walks toward the house

_________________________________________________
c. Your three-year-old brother will not eat his dinner. A

package of cookies is missing from the kitchen cupboard
_________________________________________________
1) Making inferences as you read

As in many other everyday situations, you make
inferences frequently when you are reading. Applied to
reading, an inference is a reasonable guess about what
the author does not say based on what he or she does
say. You are required to make inferences when an author
suggests an idea but does not directly state it. For
example, suppose a writer describes a character as
follows:
In the mirror john bell noticed that his hair was

graying at the temples. As he picked up the morning
paper, he realized that he could no longer see well at
all without his glasses. Looking at the hands holding
the paper he saw that they were winkled.
2) How to make inferences

There are few general guidelines for making inferences
about what you read are offered:
a) Be sure you understand the literal meaning

b) Use clues provided by the writer
c) Consider the author’s purpose
d) Verify your inference
2. Distinguishing between fact and Opinion

An essential critical reading skill is the ability to
distinguish fact from opinion. Facts are statements that can be
verified-that is, proven to be true or false. Opinions are
statements that express feelings, attitudes, or beliefs and are
neither true or false. Here are a few examples of each:
Facts
1) the average American adults spends 25 hours per

week on house work
2) U.S. military spending has increased over the past
ten years.
Opinions
1) By the year 2020 tobacco will be illegal, as various

other drugs are currently illegal.
2) If John F. Kennedy had lived. The United States
would have made even greater advancements
against the spread of communism.
Some authors are careful to signal the reader when they
are presenting an opinion. Watch for words and phrases such
as:
It is believed apparently
In my view presumably
It is likely that in my opinion
Seemingly this suggests
One explanation is possibly
Exercise 11-2
Direction: read each of the following statements and identify

whether it is fact or opinion
a) An infection is an illness produced by the action

of microorganism in the human body
__________________________________________
b) Work, or the lack of it, is the primary influence in

life style
__________________________________________
c) Parents now spend more times with their

children than they did 30 years ago
__________________________________________
d) When measured by earning power, the American
standard of living has increased steadily since the
early 1970s
__________________________________________
e) Increased job opportunities for women and other

minorities will depend primarily on larger trends
in economy
__________________________________________
3. Recognizing Generalization
A generalization is a statement that is made about a large
group or class of items based on observation of or experience
with a part of that group or class. When reading material that
contains generalizations, approach the writer’s conclusion
with a critical, questioning attitude. When a generalization is
unsubstantiated by facts, regard it as an opinion expressed by
the author. Generalizations presented as facts are dangerous
and misleading and may be completely false.
Exercise 11-3
Direction: indicate which of the following are generalizations.
a. Worker productivity in the United States is rapidly

declining.
__________________________________________
b. Government spending on social program is

detrimental to national economic grow
__________________________________________

c. In 1964 the federal government officially declared a
war on poverty
__________________________________________
d. Male computer scientists earn more than female

computer scientists with similar job responsibilities
__________________________________________
4. Identifying tone
In speech, a speaker’s tone of voice often reveals his or
her attitude and contributes to the overall message. Tone is
also evident in a piece of writing and it, too, contributes to its
meaning. Recognizing an author’s tone is often important in
interpreting and evaluating because tone often reveals
feelings, attitudes, or viewpoints not directly stated by the
author.. an author’s tone is achieved primarily through word
choice an stylistic features such as pattern and length.
Tone reveals feelings. Many human emotions can be

communicated through tone-disapproval, hate, admiration,
disgust, gratitude, forcefulness, are examples.
Exercise 11-4
Directions: describe the tone of each of the following

passage.
Passage 1:
If one is about to clean house, a good first step is

to get rid of the garbage. But one man’s garbage is

another man’s keepsake. Garbage is what a person
wants to get rid of. What I want to get rid of is the
human garbage that willfully perpetrates outrage
against the rest of humanity and whom we have come
to call terrorist.
Passage 2:
Welfare makes you feel like you are nothing. Like

you’re laying back and not doing anything and it’s
falling in your lap. But you must understand, mothers,
too, work. My house is clean. I’ve been scrubbing since
this morning. You could check my clothes, all washed
and ironed. I’m home and I’m working. I am a working
mother.
A job that a woman in a house is doing is a tedious

job-especially if you want to do it right. If you do it
slipshod, then it’s not so bad. I’m pretty much of a
perfectionist. I tell my kids, hang a towel. I don’t want
it thrown away. That is very hard. It’s a constant game
of picking up that. And putting this away, so the house
will be clean.
5. Identifying the author’s purpose

Authors write for a variety of purposes: to inform or
instruct the reader, to amuse or entertain, to arouse
sympathy, to persuade the reader to take a particular action
or to accept a certain point of view. To be an effective reader
must be aware of the author‘s purpose.
How to identify the author’s purpose
a. Who is the intended audience?

Try to decide for whom or for what type or group of
people the material seems to be written
b. What is the tone?

Determine whether the author is serious or whether
he or she is trying to poke fun at the subject.
c. What is the point of view?

Point of view is the perspective from which an article
or essay is written. Point of view might be described
as the way an author “looks at” or approaches his or
her subject. As such, point of view can often suggest
the author’s purpose in writing.
d. Does the writer try to prove anything about the

subject?
Try to determine if the article is written to persuade
the reader to accept a certain point of view or to
perform a certain action
6. Identifying Bias
Bias refers to an author’s partiality, inclination toward a
particular viewpoint, or prejudice. A writer is biased, for
example, if he or she takes one side of a controversial issue
and does not recognize opposing viewpoints. Perhaps the best
example of bias is advertising. A magazine advertisement for a
new car model, describes not only positive, saleable features-
the ad does not recognize the car’s limitations or faults. In
some material the writer is direct and outright in expressing
his or her bias: other times the bias is hidden and left for the
reader to discover through careful analysis.

To identify bias, apply the following questions:
1) Analyze connotative meanings, is there a

preponderance of positive or negative terms
toward the subject
2) Notice descriptive language. What impression is
created
3) Analyze the tone. The author’s tone often
provides important clues.
4) Look for opposing viewpoints

CHAPTER XII
PRACTICES
Text I
Questions 1 through 7 refer to the following passage:
In the 16th century, an age of great marine and terrestrial

exploration, Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition to sail
around the world. As a young Portuguese noble, he served the
king of Portugal, but he became involved in the quagmire of
political intrigue at court and lost the king's favor. After he was
dismissed from service by the king of Portugal, he offered to
serve the future Emperor Charles V of Spain.
A papal decree of 1493 had assigned all land in the New

World west of 50 degrees W longitude to Spain and all the land
east of that line to Portugal. Magellan offered to prove that the
East Indies fell under Spanish authority. On September 20, 1519,
Magellan set sail from Spain with five ships. More than a year
later, one of these ships was exploring the topography of South
America in search of a water route across the continent. This
ship sank, but the remaining four ships searched along the
southern peninsula of South America. Finally they found the
passage they sought near 50 degrees S latitude. Magellan named
this passage the Strait of All Saints, but today it is known as the
Strait of Magellan.
One ship deserted while in this passage and returned to

Spain, so fewer sailors were privileged to gaze at that first
panorama of the Pacific Ocean. Those who remained crossed the
meridian now known as the International Date Line in the early
spring of 1521 after 98 days on the Pacific Ocean. During those
long days at sea, many of Magellan's men died of starvation and
disease.
Later, Magellan became involved in an insular conflict in

the Philippines and was killed in a tribal battle. Only one ship and
17 sailors under the command of the Basque navigator Elcano
survived to complete the westward journey to Spain and thus
prove once and for all that the world is round, with no precipice
at the edge.
1. The 16th century was an age of great ______ exploration.
A. cosmic
B. land
C. mental
D. common man
E. None of the above
2. Magellan lost the favor of the king of Portugal when he became

involved in a political ________.
A. entanglement
B. discussion
C. negotiation
D. problem
3. The Pope divided New World lands between Spain and

Portugal according to their location on one side or the other of an
imaginary geographical line 50 degrees west of Greenwich that
extends in a _________ direction.
A. north and south

B. crosswise
C. easterly
D. south east
E. north and west
4. One of Magellan's ships explored the _________ of South America

for a passage across the continent.
A. coastline
B. mountain range
C. physical features
D. islands
5. Four of the ships sought a passage along a southern ______.
A. coast
B. inland
C. body of land with water on three sides
D. border
E. Answer not available
6. The passage was found near 50 degrees S of ________.
A. Greenwich
B. The equator
C. Spain
D. Portugal
E. Madrid
7. In the spring of 1521, the ships crossed the _______ now called
the International Date Line.
A. imaginary circle passing through the poles

B. imaginary line parallel to the equator
C. area

D. land mass
Text II
The following passage refers to questions 8 through 14.
Marie Curie was one of the most accomplished scientists

in history. Together with her husband, Pierre, she discovered
radium, an element widely used for treating cancer, and studied
uranium and other radioactive substances. Pierre and Marie's
amicable collaboration later helped to unlock the secrets of the
atom.
Marie was born in 1867 in Warsaw, Poland, where her

father was a professor of physics. At an early age, she displayed a
brilliant mind and a blithe personality. Her great exuberance for
learning prompted her to continue with her studies after high
school. She became disgruntled, however, when she learned that
the university in Warsaw was closed to women. Determined to
receive a higher education, she defiantly left Poland and in 1891
entered the Sorbonne, a French university, where she earned her
master's degree and doctorate in physics.
Marie was fortunate to have studied at the Sorbonne with

some of the greatest scientists of her day, one of whom was
Pierre Curie. Marie and Pierre were married in 1895 and spent
many productive years working together in the physics
laboratory. A short time after they discovered radium, Pierre was
killed by a horse-drawn wagon in 1906. Marie was stunned by
this horrible misfortune and endured heartbreaking anguish.
Despondently she recalled their close relationship and the joy
that they had shared in scientific research. The fact that she had
two young daughters to raise by herself greatly increased her
distress.
Curie's feeling of desolation finally began to fade when
she was asked to succeed her husband as a physics professor at
the Sorbonne. She was the first woman to be given a
professorship at the world-famous university. In 1911 she
received the Nobel Prize in chemistry for isolating radium.
Although Marie Curie eventually suffered a fatal illness from her
long exposure to radium, she never became disillusioned about
her work. Regardless of the consequences, she had dedicated
herself to science and to revealing the mysteries of the physical
world.
8. The Curies' _________ collaboration helped to unlock the secrets

of the atom.
A. friendly
B. competitive
C. courteous
D. industrious
E. chemistry
9. Marie had a bright mind and a ______ personality.
A. strong
B. lighthearted
C. humorous
D. strange
E. envious
10. When she learned that she could not attend the university in
Warsaw, she felt _________.
A. hopeless
B. annoyed
C. depressed

D. worried
11. Marie _________ by leaving Poland and traveling to France to

enter the Sorbonne.
A. challenged authority
B. showed intelligence
C. behaved
D. was distressed
12. _________ she remembered their joy together.
A. Dejectedly
B. Worried
C. Tearfully
D. Happily
E. Irefully
13. Her _________ began to fade when she returned to the

Sorbonne to succeed her husband.
A. misfortune
B. anger
C. wretchedness
D. disappointment
E. ambition
14. Even though she became fatally ill from working with radium,
Marie Curie was never _________.
A. troubled
B. worried
C. disappointed
D. sorrowful
E. disturbed
Text III
The following passage refers to questions 15 through 19.
Mount Vesuvius, a volcano located between the ancient

Italian cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, has received much
attention because of its frequent and destructive eruptions. The
most famous of these eruptions occurred in A.D. 79.
The volcano had been inactive for centuries. There was

little warning of the coming eruption, although one account
unearthed by archaeologists says that a hard rain and a strong
wind had disturbed the celestial calm during the preceding night.
Early the next morning, the volcano poured a huge river of
molten rock down upon Herculaneum, completely burying the
city and filling the harbor with coagulated lava.
Meanwhile, on the other side of the mountain, cinders,

stone and ash rained down on Pompeii. Sparks from the burning
ash ignited the combustible rooftops quickly. Large portions of
the city were destroyed in the conflagration. Fire, however, was
not the only cause of destruction. Poisonous sulfuric gases
saturated the air. These heavy gases were not buoyant in the
atmosphere and therefore sank toward the earth and suffocated
people.
Over the years, excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum

have revealed a great deal about the behavior of the volcano. By
analyzing data, much as a zoologist dissects an animal specimen,
scientists have concluded that the eruption changed large
portions of the area's geography. For instance, it turned the
Sarno River from its course and raised the level of the beach
along the Bay of Naples. Meteorologists studying these events
have also concluded that Vesuvius caused a huge tidal wave that
affected the world's climate.
In addition to making these investigations, archaeologists

have been able to study the skeletons of victims by using distilled
water to wash away the volcanic ash. By strengthening the brittle
bones with acrylic paint, scientists have been able to examine the
skeletons and draw conclusions about the diet and habits of the
residents. Finally, the excavations at both Pompeii and
Herculaneum have yielded many examples of classical art, such
as jewelry made of bronze, which is an alloy of copper and tin.
The eruption of Mount Vesuvius and its tragic consequences
have provided everyone with a wealth of data about the effects
that volcanoes can have on the surrounding area. Today,
volcanologists can locate and predict eruptions, saving lives and
preventing the destruction of other cities and cultures.
15. Herculaneum and its harbor were buried under _________ lava.
A. liquid
B. solid
C. flowing
D. gas
16. The poisonous gases were not _________ in the air.
A. able to float
B. visible
C. able to evaporate
D. invisible
E. able to condense

17. Scientists analyzed data about Vesuvius in the same way that
a zoologist _________ a specimen.
A. describes in detail
B. studies by cutting apart
C. photographs
D. chart
18. _________ have concluded that the volcanic eruption caused a

tidal wave.
A. Scientists who study oceans

B. Scientists who study atmospheric conditions
C. Scientists who study ash
D. Scientists who study animal behavior
E. Answer not available in article
19. Scientists have used _________ water to wash away volcanic ash
from the skeletons of victims.
A. bottled
B. volcanic
C. purified
D. sea
E. fountain
Text IV
The following passage refers to questions 20-24.
Conflict had existed between Spain and England since the

1570s. England wanted a share of the wealth that Spain had been
taking from the lands it had claimed in the Americas.

Elizabeth I, Queen of England, encouraged her staunch
admiral of the navy, Sir Francis Drake, to raid Spanish ships and
towns. Though these raids were on a small scale, Drake achieved
dramatic success, adding gold and silver to England's treasury
and diminishing Spain's supremacy.
Religious differences also caused conflict between the

two countries. Whereas Spain was Roman Catholic, most of
England had become Protestant. King Philip II of Spain wanted to
claim the throne and make England a Catholic country again. To
satisfy his ambition and also to retaliate against England's theft
of his gold and silver, King Philip began to build his fleet of
warships, the Spanish Armada, in January 1586.
Philip intended his fleet to be indestructible. In addition

to building new warships, he marshaled 130 sailing vessels of all
types and recruited more than 19,000 robust soldiers and 8,000
sailors. Although some of his ships lacked guns and others lacked
ammunition, Philip was convinced that his Armada could
withstand any battle with England.
The martial Armada set sail from Lisbon, Portugal, on

May 9, 1588, but bad weather forced it back to port. The voyage
resumed on July 22 after the weather became more stable.
The Spanish fleet met the smaller, faster, and more

maneuverable English ships in battle off the coast of Plymouth,
England, first on July 31 and again on August 2. The two battles
left Spain vulnerable, having lost several ships and with its
ammunition depleted. On August 7, while the Armada lay at
anchor on the French side of the Strait of Dover, England sent
eight burning ships into the midst of the Spanish fleet to set it on
fire. Blocked on one side, the Spanish ships could only drift away,
their crews in panic and disorder. Before the Armada could
regroup, the English attacked again on August 8.
Although the Spaniards made a valiant effort to fight
back, the fleet suffered extensive damage. During the eight hours
of battle, the Armada drifted perilously close to the rocky
coastline. At the moment when it seemed that the Spanish ships
would be driven onto the English shore, the wind shifted, and the
Armada drifted out into the North Sea. The Spaniards recognized
the superiority of the English fleet and returned home, defeated.
20. Sir Francis Drake added wealth to the treasury and

diminished Spain's _________.
A. unlimited power
B. unrestricted growth
C. territory
D. treaties
E. Answer not available in article
21. King Philip recruited many ______ soldiers and sailors.
A. warlike
B. strong
C. accomplished
D. timid
E. inexperienced
22. The ______ Armada set sail on May 9, 1588.
A. complete
B. warlike
C. independent
D. isolated
23. The two battles left the Spanish fleet _________.

A. open to change
B. triumphant
C. open to attack
D. defeated
E. discouraged
24. The Armada was ______ on one side.
A. closed off
B. damaged
C. alone
D. circled
E. Answer not available in this article
Text V
The victory of the small Greek democracy of Athens over

the mighty Persian Empire in 490 B.C. is one of the most famous
events in history. Darius, king of the Persian Empire, was furious
because Athens had interceded for the other Greek city-states in
revolt against Persian domination. In anger the king sent an
enormous army to defeat Athens. He thought it would take
drastic steps to pacify the rebellious part of the empire.
Persia was ruled by one man. In Athens, however, all

citizens helped to rule. Ennobled by this participation, Athenians
were prepared to die for their city-state. Perhaps this was the
secret of the remarkable victory at Marathon, which freed them
from Persian rule. On their way to Marathon, the Persians tried
to fool some Greek city-states by claiming to have come in peace.
The frightened citizens of Delos refused to believe this. Not
wanting to abet the conquest of Greece, they fled from their city
and did not return until the Persians had left. They were wise, for
the Persians next conquered the city of Eritrea and captured its
people.
Tiny Athens stood alone against Persia. The Athenian

people went to their sanctuaries. There they prayed for
deliverance. They asked their gods to expedite their victory. The
Athenians refurbished their weapons and moved to the plain of
Marathon, where their little band would meet the Persians. At
the last moment, soldiers from Plataea reinforced the Athenian
troops.
The Athenian army attacked, and Greek citizens fought

bravely. The power of the mighty Persians was offset by the love
that the Athenians had for their city. Athenians defeated the
Persians in both archery and hand combat. Greek soldiers seized
Persian ships and burned them, and the Persians fled in terror.
Herodotus, a famous historian, reports that 6,400 Persians died,
compared to only 192 Athenians.
25. Athens had _________ the other Greek city-states against the
Persians.
A. refused help to
B. intervened on behalf of
C. wanted to fight
D. given orders for all to fight
E. defeated
26. Darius took drastic steps to ________ the rebellious Athenians.
A. weaken
B. destroy
C. calm
D. irritate
27. Their participation _________ to the Athenians.
A. gave comfort
B. gave honor
C. gave strength
D. gave fear
E. gave hope
28. The people of Delos did not want to ______ the conquest of
Greece.
A. end
B. encourage
C. think about
D. daydream about
29. The Athenians were _________ by some soldiers who arrived

from Plataea.
A. welcomed
B. strengthened
C. held
D. captured
Text VI
The Trojan War is one of the most famous wars in

history. It is well known for the 10-year duration, for the heroism
of a number of legendary characters, and for the Trojan horse.
What may not be familiar, however, is the story of how the war
began.
According to Greek myth, the strife between the Trojans
and the Greeks started at the wedding of Peleus, King of
Thessaly, and Thetis, a sea nymph. All of the gods and goddesses
had been invited to the wedding celebration in Troy except Eris,
goddess of discord. She had been omitted from the guest list
because her presence always embroiled mortals and immortals
alike in conflict.
To take revenge on those who had slighted her, Eris

decided to cause a skirmish. Into the middle of the banquet hall,
she threw a golden apple marked "for the most beautiful." All of
the goddesses began to haggle over who should possess it. The
gods and goddesses reached a stalemate when the choice was
narrowed to Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite. Someone was needed
to settle the controversy by picking a winner. The job eventually
fell to Paris, son of King Priam of Troy, who was said to be a good
judge of beauty. Paris did not have an easy job. Each goddess,
eager to win the golden apple, tried aggressively to bribe him.
"I'll grant you vast kingdoms to rule," promised Hera.

"Vast kingdoms are nothing in comparison with my gift,"
contradicted Athena. "Choose me and I'll see that you win victory
and fame in war." Aphrodite outdid her adversaries, however.
She won the golden apple by offering Helen, daughter of Zeus
and the most beautiful mortal in the land, to Paris. Paris, anxious
to claim Helen, set off for Sparta in Greece.
Although Paris learned that Helen was married, he

nevertheless accepted the hospitality of her husband, King
Menelaus of Sparta. Therefore, Menelaus was outraged for a
number of reasons when Paris departed, taking Helen and much
of the king's wealth back to Troy. Menelaus collected his loyal
forces and set sail for Troy to begin the war to reclaim Helen.

30. Eris was known for _________ both mortals and immortals.
A. scheming against
B. creating conflict amongst
C. feeling hostile toward
D. ignoring
E. comforting
31. Each goddess tried ______ to bribe Paris.
A. boldly
B. effectively
C. secretly
D. carefully
32. Athena _________ Hera, promising Paris victory and fame in

war.
A. disregarded the statement of

B. defeated
C. agreed with
D. restated the statement of
E. questioned the statement of
Text VII
Refer to the following passage for questions 33-37.
One of the most intriguing stories of the Russian

Revolution concerns the identity of Anastasia, the youngest
daughter of Czar Nicholas II. During his reign over Russia, the
czar had planned to revoke many of the harsh laws established
by previous czars. Some workers and peasants, however,
clamored for more rapid social reform. In 1918, a group of these
people known as Bolsheviks overthrew the government. On July
17 or 18, they murdered the czar and what was thought to be his
entire family.
Although witnesses vouched that all the members of the

czar's family had been executed, there were rumors suggesting
that Anastasia had survived. Over the years, a number of women
claimed to be Grand Duchess Anastasia. Perhaps the most
famous claimant was Anastasia Tschaikovsky, who was also
known as Anna Anderson.
In 1920, 18 months after the czar's execution, this

terrified young woman was rescued from drowning in a Berlin
river. She spent two years in a hospital, where she attempted to
reclaim her health and shattered mind. The doctors and nurses
thought that she resembled Anastasia and questioned her about
her background. She disclaimed any connection with the czar's
family. Eight years later, however, she claimed that she was
Anastasia. She said that she had been rescued by two Russian
soldiers after the czar and the rest of her family had been killed.
Two brothers named Tschaikovsky had carried her into
Romania. She had married one of the brothers, who had taken
her to Berlin and left her there, penniless and without a vocation.
Unable to invoke the aid of her mother's family in Germany, she
had tried to drown herself.
During the next few years, scores of the czar's relatives,

ex-servants, and acquaintances interviewed her. Many of these
people said that her looks and mannerisms were evocative of the
Anastasia that they had known. Her grandmother and other
relatives denied that she was the real Anastasia, however.
Tired of being accused of fraud, Anastasia immigrated to

the United States in 1928 and took the name Anna Anderson. She
still wished to prove that she was Anastasia, though, and
returned to Germany in 1933 to bring suit against her mother's
family. There she declaimed to the court, asserting that she was
indeed Anastasia and deserved her inheritance.
In 1957, the court decided that it could neither confirm

nor deny Anastasia's identity. Although it will probably never be
known whether this woman was the Grand Duchess Anastasia,
her search to establish her identity has been the subject of
numerous books, plays, and movies.
33. Some Russian peasants and workers ______ for social reform.
A. longed
B. cried out
C. begged
D. hoped
E. thought much
34. Witnesses ______ that all members of the czar's family had
been executed.
A. gave assurance
B. thought
C. hoped
D. convinced some
35. Tschaikovsky initially ______ any connection with the czar's

family.
A. denied
B. stopped
C. noted
D. justified
36. She was unable to ______ the aid of her relatives.
A. locate
B. speak about
C. call upon
D. identify
E. know
37. In court she _________ maintaining that she was Anastasia and
deserved her inheritance.
A. finally appeared
B. spoke forcefully
C. gave testimony
D. gave evidence
Text VIII
King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette ruled France

from 1774 to 1789, a time when the country was fighting
bankruptcy. The royal couple did not let France's insecure
financial situation limit their immoderate spending, however.
Even though the minister of finance repeatedly warned the king
and queen against wasting money, they continued to spend great
fortunes on their personal pleasure. This lavish spending greatly
enraged the people of France. They felt that the royal couple
bought its luxurious lifestyle at the poor people's expense.
Marie Antoinette, the beautiful but exceedingly

impractical queen, seemed uncaring about her subjects' misery.
While French citizens begged for lower taxes, the queen
embellished her palace with extravagant works of art. She also
surrounded herself with artists, writers, and musicians, who
encouraged the queen to spend money even more profusely.
While the queen's favorites glutted themselves on huge

feasts at the royal table, many people in France were starving.
The French government taxed the citizens outrageously. These
high taxes paid for the entertainments the queen and her court
so enjoyed. When the minister of finance tried to stop these royal
spendthrifts, the queen replaced him. The intense hatred that the
people felt for Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette kept building until
it led to the French Revolution. During this time of struggle and
violence (1789-1799), thousands of aristocrats, as well as the
king and queen themselves, lost their lives at the guillotine.
Perhaps if Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette had reined in their
extravagant spending, the events that rocked France would not
have occurred.
38. The people surrounding the queen encouraged her to spend

money ______.
A. wisely
B. abundantly
C. carefully
D. foolishly
E. joyfully
39. The minister of finance tried to curb these royal ______.
A. aristocrats
B. money wasters
C. enemies
D. individuals
E. spenders

Text IX
Many great inventions are initially greeted with ridicule

and disbelief. The invention of the airplane was no exception.
Although many people who heard about the first powered flight
on December 17, 1903 were excited and impressed, others
reacted with peals of laughter. The idea of flying an aircraft was
repulsive to some people. Such people called Wilbur and Orville
Wright, the inventors of the first flying machine, impulsive fools.
Negative reactions, however, did not stop the Wrights. Impelled
by their desire to succeed, they continued their experiments in
aviation.
Orville and Wilbur Wright had always had a compelling

interest in aeronautics and mechanics. As young boys they
earned money by making and selling kites and mechanical toys.
Later, they designed a newspaper-folding machine, built a
printing press, and operated a bicycle-repair shop. In 1896, when
they read about the death of Otto Lilienthal, the brothers'
interest in flight grew into a compulsion.
Lilienthal, a pioneer in hang-gliding, had controlled his

gliders by shifting his body in the desired direction. This idea
was repellent to the Wright brothers, however, and they
searched for more efficient methods to control the balance of
airborne vehicles. In 1900 and 1901, the Wrights tested
numerous gliders and developed control techniques. The
brothers' inability to obtain enough lift power for the gliders
almost led them to abandon their efforts.
After further study, the Wright brothers concluded that

the published tables of air pressure on curved surfaces must be
wrong. They set up a wind tunnel and began a series of
experiments with model wings. Because of their efforts, the old
tables were repealed in time and replaced by the first reliable
figures for air pressure on curved surfaces. This work, in turn,
made it possible for the brothers to design a machine that would
fly. In 1903 the Wrights built their first airplane, which cost less
than $1,000. They even designed and built their own source of
propulsion-a lightweight gasoline engine. When they started the
engine on December 17, the airplane pulsated wildly before
taking off. The plane managed to stay aloft for 12 seconds,
however, and it flew 120 feet.
By 1905, the Wrights had perfected the first airplane that

could turn, circle, and remain airborne for half an hour at a time.
Others had flown in balloons and hang gliders, but the Wright
brothers were the first to build a full-size machine that could fly
under its own power. As the contributors of one of the most
outstanding engineering achievements in history, the Wright
brothers are accurately called the fathers of aviation.
40. The idea of flying an aircraft was ______ to some people.
A. boring
B. distasteful
C. exciting
D. needless
41. People thought that the Wright brothers had ______.
A. acted without thinking

B. been negatively influenced
C. been too cautious
D. been mistaken
E. acted in a negative way

42. The Wrights' interest in flight grew into a ______.
A. financial empire
B. plan
C. need to act
D. foolish thought
43. Lilienthal's idea about controlling airborne vehicles was

_________ the Wrights.
A. proven wrong by
B. opposite to the ideas of
C. disliked by
D. accepted by
E. improved by
44. The old tables were _________ and replaced by the first reliable
figures for air pressure on curved surfaces.
A. destroyed
B. invalidated
C. multiplied
D. approved
E. not used
45. The Wrights designed and built their own source of _________.
A. force for moving forward

B. force for turning around
C. turning
D. force for going backward
Adapted from Enoch Morrison (2017)

Text X
Read the following paragraph to answer the next four questions

(Questions 46-49).
"Anne," cried Mary, still at her window, "there is Mrs

Clay, I am sure, standing under the colonnade, and a gentleman
with her. I saw them turn the corner from Bath Street just now.
They seemed deep in talk. Who is it? Come, and tell me. Good
heavens! I recollect. It is Mr Elliot himself." "No," cried Anne,
quickly, "it cannot be Mr Elliot, I assure you. He was to leave Bath
at nine this morning, and does not come back till to-morrow." As
she spoke, she felt that Captain Wentworth was looking at her,
the consciousness of which vexed and embarrassed her, and
made her regret that she had said so much, simple as it was.
Mary, resenting that she should be supposed not to know

her own cousin, began talking very warmly about the family
features, and protesting still more positively that it was Mr Elliot,
calling again upon Anne to come and look for herself, but Anne
did not mean to stir, and tried to be cool and unconcerned. Her
distress returned, however, on perceiving smiles and intelligent
glances pass between two or three of the lady visitors, as if they
believed themselves quite in the secret. It was evident that the
report concerning her had spread, and a short pause succeeded,
which seemed to ensure that it would now spread farther. "Do
come, Anne" cried Mary, "come and look yourself. You will be too
late if you do not make haste. They are parting; they are shaking
hands. He is turning away. Not know Mr Elliot, indeed! You seem
to have forgotten all about Lyme." To pacify Mary, and perhaps
screen her own embarrassment, Anne did move quietly to the
window. She was just in time to ascertain that it really was Mr
Elliot, which she had never believed, before he disappeared on
one side, as Mrs Clay walked quickly off on the other; and
checking the surprise which she could not but feel at such an

appearance of friendly conference between two persons of
totally opposite interest, she calmly said, "Yes, it is Mr Elliot,
certainly. He has changed his hour of going, I suppose, that is all,
or I may be mistaken, I might not attend;" and walked back to her
chair, recomposed, and with the comfortable hope of having
acquitted herself well. From ‘Persuasion’, by Jane Austen.
46. Anne does not believe it is Mr Elliot whom Mary sees from
the window because:
A: Mary does not know what Mr Elliot looks like.

B: Mr Elliot was to have left Bath earlier that day.
C: it was highly unlikely that Mr Elliot would be a friend of
Mrs Clay.
D: A and B together.
E: B and C together
47. Anne obviously knows Mr Elliot quite well for all the
following reasons EXCEPT:
A: she has knowledge of his travel plans.

B: she shows discomfort at Mary spotting him.
C: she is sensitive to what the other ladies might know.
D: she had been speaking about Mr Elliot to others in the
room.
E: Mary refers to Anne meeting Mr Elliot in Lyme.
48. Anne finally goes to the window because:
A: she knows in her heart that it really is Mr Elliot

B: she wishes to prove Mary wrong.
C: she wishes to calm Mary and cover up her own lack of
composure.
D: Mary frets that Mr Elliot will disappear from view.
E: Mary is creating a fuss in front of the others in the room.

49. From what occurs it can be inferred that Anne:
A: couldn’t care less about Mr Elliot.
B: had not known Mr Elliot long enough to recognise him.
C: is attracted to Mr Elliot.
D: is uncomfortable at Mr Elliot’s behaviour.
E: C and D together.
Text XI
Read the following paragraph to answer the next two questions

(Questions 50-53).
A hare was very popular with the other beasts who all
claimed to be her friend, but one day she heard the hounds
approaching and hoped to escape them with the help of her
many friends. “What are friends for,” she asked herself, “if not to
help out in time of need?” Furthermore, most of her friends were
big and brave, so at least one should be able to help. First she
went to the horse, and asked him to carry her away from the
hounds on his back. But he declined, stating that he had
important work to do for his master. ” I feel sure,” he said, “that
all your other friends will come to your assistance.” She then
applied to the bull, and hoped that he would repel the hounds
with his horns. The bull replied: “I am very sorry, but I have an
appointment with a lady. However, I feel sure that our friend the
goat will do what you want.” The goat, however, feared that his
back might be harmed if he took her upon it. The ram, he felt
sure, was the proper friend to apply to. So she went to the ram
and told him the case. The ram replied: “Another time, my dear
friend. I do not like to interfere on the present occasion, as
hounds have been known to eat sheep as well as hares.” The hare
then applied, as a last hope, to the calf, who regretted that he was
unable to help her. He did not like to take the responsibility upon
himself, as so many older persons had declined the task. By this
time the hounds were quite near, so the hare had to take to her
heels. Luckily, she escaped.
50. The hare was confident she would find a friend to help for all
the following reasons except:
A: she knew she was popular.

B: she assumed friends were there to help.
C: most of her friends were big and strong.
D: her friends had promised help whenever she needed it.
E: .she had a wide range of friends.
51. A suitable moral for this story would be:
A: a friend in need is a friend indeed.

B: never rely on your friends in a time of crisis.
C: popularity does not mean friendship.
D: friendship does not exist among animals.
E: in a time of crisis you discover who your true friends are.
52. The sentence below does not have any punctuation. Choose
the option with the correct punctuation. dont you
understand what I’m saying shouted his father get down at
once
A: Don’t you understand what Im saying, shouted his father.

Get down at once.
B: “Don’t you understand what I’m saying”, shouted his
father, “Get down at once.”
C: “Don’t you understand what I’m saying”, shouted his
father. “Get down at once”
D: “Don’t you understand what I’m saying.” shouted his
father. “Get down at once”
E: “Don’t you understand what I’m saying?” shouted his
father. “Get down at once.”

53. Choose the option which will best replace the underlined
word in the sentence to make it correct. The hotel
accomodation was luxurious.
A: acommodation
B: accommodation
C: accomadation
D: accommerdation
E: Leave it as it is.
Text XII
Read the following paragraphs to answer the next five questions

(Questions 54 - 60).
When I returned to the common the sun was setting. The

crowd about the pit had increased, and stood out black against
the lemon yellow of the sky-a couple of hundred people, perhaps.
There were raised voices, and some sort of struggle appeared to
be going on about the pit. Strange imaginings passed through my
mind. As I drew nearer I heard Stent's voice: "Keep back! Keep
back!" A boy came running towards me. "It's movin'," he said to
me as he passed; "it’s screwin' and screwin' out. I don't like it. I'm
goin' home, I am." I went on to the crowd. There were really, I
should think, two or three hundred people elbowing and jostling
one another, the one or two ladies there being by no means the
least active. "He's fallen in the pit!" cried someone. "Keep back!"
said several. The crowd swayed a little, and I elbowed my way
through. Everyone seemed greatly excited. I heard a peculiar
humming sound from the pit. "I say!" said Ogilvy. "Help keep
these idiots back. We don't know what's in the confounded thing,
you know!" I saw a young man, a shop assistant in Working I

believe he was, standing on the cylinder and trying to scramble
out of the hole again. The crowd had pushed him in.
The end of the cylinder was being screwed out from

within. Nearly two feet of shining screw projected. Somebody
blundered against me, and I narrowly missed being pitched onto
the top of the screw. I turned, and as I did so the screw must have
come out, for the lid of the cylinder fell upon the gravel with a
ringing concussion. I stuck my elbow into the person behind me,
and turned my head towards the Thing again. For a moment that
circular cavity seemed perfectly black. I had the sunset in my
eyes. I think everyone expected to see a man emerge-possibly
something a little unlike us terrestrial men, but in all essentials a
man. I know I did. But, looking, I presently saw something
stirring within the shadow: greyish billowy movements, one
above another, and then two luminous disks-like eyes.
Then something resembling a little grey snake, about the

thickness of a walking stick, coiled up out of the writhing middle,
and wriggled in the air towards me-and then another. A sudden
chill came over me. There was a loud shriek from a woman
behind. I half turned, keeping my eyes fixed upon the cylinder
still, from which other tentacles were now projecting, and began
pushing my way back from the edge of the pit. I saw
astonishment giving place to horror on the faces of the people
about me. I heard inarticulate exclamations on all sides. There
was a general movement backwards. I saw the shop man
struggling still on the edge of the pit. I found myself alone, and
saw the people on the other side of the pit running off, Stent
among them. I looked again at the cylinder and ungovernable
terror gripped me. I stood petrified and staring. A big greyish
rounded bulk, the size, perhaps, of a bear, was rising slowly and
painfully out of the cylinder. As it bulged up and caught the light,
it glistened like wet leather. Two large dark-coloured eyes were
regarding me steadfastly. The mass that framed them, the head
of the thing, was rounded, and had, one might say, a face. There
was a mouth under the eyes, the lipless brim of which quivered
and panted, and dropped saliva.
The whole creature heaved and pulsated convulsively. A

lank tentacular appendage gripped the edge of the cylinder,
another swayed in the air. Those who have never seen a living
Martian can scarcely imagine the strange horror of its
appearance. The peculiar V-shaped mouth with its pointed upper
lip, the absence of brow ridges, the absence of a chin beneath the
wedge like lower lip, the incessant quivering of this mouth, the
Gorgon groups of tentacles, the tumultuous breathing of the
lungs in a strange atmosphere, the evident heaviness and
painfulness of movement due to the greater gravitational energy
of the earth above all, the extraordinary intensity of the immense
eyes-were at once vital, intense, inhuman, crippled and
monstrous. There was something fungoid in the oily brown skin,
something in the clumsy deliberation of the tedious movements
unspeakably nasty. Even at this first encounter, this first glimpse,
I was overcome with disgust and dread.
54. This is part of a science fiction story. The most important clue
to this would be:
A: the cylinder in a hole on the common.

B: something unscrewing the cylinder from within.
C: the sense of terror and apprehension in the crowd.
D: the emergence of a Martian.
E: the author’s feelings of disgust and dread.
55. The people in the crowd were first ‘elbowing and jostling’
one another because:
A: they were retreating in fear from the pit.

B: some were trying to push others into the pit.
C: they were excited and curious to see what was in the pit.
D: a few had lost their tempers.

E: there were no police present to control them.
56. The author hints that the women in the crowd were:
A: just as aggressive as the men.

B: more aggressive than the men.
C: reluctant to push forward.
D: merely passive onlookers.
E: None of these
57. The mood of the crowd altered suddenly when:
A: the cylinder opened.

B: a bear emerged from the cylinder.
C: a pair of eyes was detected peering at them from the
cylinder.
D: tentacles appeared out of the top of the cylinder.
E: the creature opened its mouth.
58. Of the Martian’s features, the one most causing the writer’s
disgust and dread was:
A: the slobbering mouth.

B: the huge, intensely staring eyes.
C: the oily, fungoid skin.
D: the Gorgon-like tentacles.
E: the heaving, pulsating body
59. Please read the following sentences. We all love to win.

However, we also have to know how to accept defeat. If we
change the above into a single sentence and begin: We have
to know how to accept defeat........ What will the best ending
be?
A: however, we all love to win.

B: but winning is better.

C: so we can also love to win.
D: even though we all love to win.
E: None of these.
60. He was a morose man, so people tended to avoid him. The

word morose in this sentence means:
A: large
B: cheerful
C: idiotic
D: sullen
E: none of these
Text XIII
Read the following paragraphs to answer the next two questions

(Questions 61 & 62).
The debate on whether Australia will have a nation-wide

carbon trading scheme ended last week with the government
committed to a national emissions scheme from 2012. However,
the decision making as to how we power the economy in a
carbon constrained world is only just beginning. Fossil fuels like
coal and oil have underpinned our economic growth and
standard of living for decades. The current resources boom is
there because other countries want our fossil fuels, and for all
these reasons it is profitable to keep mining them. Ironically, the
income may help develop the technologies to replace them, but it
is a matter of which and when. Almost certainly, in the race to
reduce emissions, new technologies such as solar, wind and
geothermal (heat from rocks) power will compete against gas,
clean coal and perhaps nuclear energy to win the hearts and
minds of the business world. In the end, business will favour
whatever is a cheap, abundant and reliable solution. You can

imagine the lobbying that will ensue from the different interest
groups, to attract business capital and government support so
that their technology wins out. There may be many collapsed
ventures and lost fortunes along the way.
61. Fossil fuels will be in demand for some time yet because:
A: we have no other options.
B: they are plentiful and cheap in Australia.
C: our wealth and lifestyle are at present dependent on them.
D: A and B together.
E: B and C together.
62. In the writer’s view ‘there may be many collapsed ventures’

along the way because:
A: cheaper fossil fuels will continue to be used for a long

time.
B: business will favour existing sources, rather than
undergoing expensive change.
C: carbon emission rules will cripple new energy sources.
D: not all the options will be adopted, so the cheaper and
more efficient will survive.
E: None of these.
Text XIV
Read the following paragraphs to answer the next questions

(Questions 63-72).
One of the modern world’s intriguing sources of mystery

has been aero planes vanishing in mid-flight. One of the more
famous of these was the disappearance in 1937 of a pioneer
woman aviator, Amelia Earhart. On the second last stage of an
attempted round the world flight, she had radioed her position
as she and her navigator searched desperately for their
destination, a tiny island in the Pacific. The plane never arrived
at Howland Island. Did it crash and sink after running out of fuel?
It had been a long haul from New Guinea, a twenty hour flight
covering some four thousand kilometres. Did Earhart have
enough fuel to set down on some other island on her radioed
course? Or did she end up somewhere else altogether? One
fanciful theory had her being captured by the Japanese in the
Marshall Islands and later executed as an American spy; another
had her living out her days under an assumed name as a
housewife in New Jersey. Seventy years after Earhart’s
disappearance, ‘myth busters’ continue to search for her. She
was the best-known American woman pilot in the world. People
were tracking her flight with great interest when, suddenly, she
vanished into thin air. Aircraft had developed rapidly in
sophistication after World War One, with the 1920s and 1930s
marked by an aeronautical record-setting frenzy. Conquest of the
air had become a global obsession.
While Earhart was making headlines with her solo flights,

other aviators like high-altitude pioneer Wiley Post and
industrialist Howard Hughes were grabbing some glory of their
own. But only Earhart, the reserved tomboy from Kansas who
disappeared three weeks shy of her 40th birthday, still grips the
public imagination. Her disappearance has been the subject of at
least fifty books, countless magazine and newspaper articles, and
TV documentaries. It is seen by journalists as the last great
American mystery.
There are currently two main theories about Amelia

Earhart’s fate. There were reports of distress calls from the

Phoenix Islands made on Earhart’s radio frequency for days after
she vanished. Some say the plane could have broadcast only if it
were on land, not in the water. The Coast Guard and later the
Navy, believing the distress calls were real, adjusted their
searches, and newspapers at the time reported Earhart and her
navigator were marooned on an island. No-one was able to trace
the calls at the time, so whether Earhart was on land in the
Phoenix Islands or there was a hoaxer in the Phoenix Islands
using her radio remains a mystery. Others dismiss the radio calls
as bogus and insist Earhart and her navigator ditched in the
water. An Earhart researcher, Elgen Long, claims that Earhart’s
airplane ran out of gas within fifty-two miles of the island and is
sitting somewhere in a 6,000-square-mile area, at a depth of
17,000 feet. At that depth, the fuselage would still be in shiny,
pristine condition if ever anyone were able to locate it. It would
not even be covered in a layer of silt. Those who subscribe to this
explanation claim that fuel calculations, radio calls and other
considerations all show that the plane plunged into the sea
somewhere off Howland Island.
Whatever the explanation, the prospect of finding the

remains is unsettling to many. To recover skeletal remains or
personal effects would be a grisly experience and an intrusion.
They want to know where Amelia Earhart is, but that’s as far as
they would like to go. As one investigator has put it, “I’m
convinced that the mystery is part of what keeps us interested. In
part, we remember her because she’s our favourite missing
person.”

63. Amelia Earhart’s nationality was:
A: English
B: Australian
C: Canadian
D: American
E: South African
64. All the following are theories about Amelia’s fate EXCEPT:
A: she crashed on a remote island somewhere near her
destination.
B: her plane ran out of fuel and crashed into the sea.
C: she was captured by the Japanese and executed as a spy.
D: she escaped incognito and lived under an assumed name.
E: she crashed somewhere on Howland Island.
65. The most convincing evidence that Amelia crashed

somewhere on land was:
A: the finding of aircraft remains.

B: sightings by islanders.
C: radio contact with the coastguard from the Phoenix island
D:distress signals from the Phoenix Islands on her particular
radio frequency.
E: All of these.
66. If the aircraft were ever recovered from its probable sea
grave:
A: it would be hardly recognizable.
B: it would be in pristine condition and considered highly
valuable.
C: it may reveal some grisly evidence.
D: A and C together.
E: B and C together.
67. The fate of Amelia Earhart still fascinates investigators for all
the following reasons EXCEPT:
A: she was a famous female aviator and adventurer.
B: there are such conflicting theories about her
disappearance.
C: she was so close to the end of her journey.
D: she may have staged her own disappearance.
E: she presents one of the twentieth century’s great
unsolved mysteries.
68. You cannot be a hero without being a coward What does this
sentence suggest?
A: Heroes are transformed cowards.

B: To be truly heroic, you first have to know the meaning of
fear.
C: Heroes are cowards in disguise.
D: You can never be one or the other; it is always a
combination of both.
E: None of these.
the option with the correct punctuation. whos going to fly
qantas to sydney and use its special return offer
A: who’s going to fly qantas to Sydney and use it’s special
return offer?
B: Who’s going to fly Qantas to Sydney and use its special
return offer?
C: Who’s going to fly Qantas to Sydney and use it’s special
return offer?
D: Who’s going to fly Qantas to Sydney and use its special
return offer.
E: who’s going to fly Qantas to Sydney and use it’s special
return offer?
70. Choose the option which best corrects the errors in this
sentence. Passed experience tells me sitting in a draft you’ll
catch a cold.
A: Passed experience tells me if I sat in a draught you’ll catch
a cold.
B: Passed experience tells me sitting in a draught I’ll catch a
cold.
C: Past experience tells me if I sit in a draft I’ll catch a cold.
D: Passed experience tells me if I sit in a draught you’ll catch
a cold.
E: Past experience tells me if I sit in a draught I’ll catch a cold.
71. Far from being upright and moral, his behavior showed him
to be fallible. The word fallible in this sentence means:
A: capable of falling over

B: weak-kneed
C: capable of error
D: immoral
E: None of these
the option with the correct punctuation. we aren’t welcome
here said Jenny so we had better go don’t you think
A: “We aren’t welcome here, said Jenny. We had better go

don’t you think.”
B: “We aren’t welcome here,” said Jenny, “we had better go,
don’t you think?”

C: “We aren’t welcome here,” said Jenny. “We had better go,
D: “We aren’t welcome here,” said Jenny, “we had better go,
don’t you think.”
E: “We aren’t welcome here,” said Jenny, “we had better go,
Text XV
Read the following text!
One Day City Tour of Sawahlunto
S Sawahlunto is about 94 km from Padang, 38 km from

Batu Sangkar or 137 km from Bukit Tinggi. If you want to go
to Sawahlunto, you can start from any of these three places
and take a bus, a taxi or join a trip arranged by a travel
agency. If you start from Padang, you can get to Sawahlunto
in two hours.
If you take a bus from Padang, you will have to pay
Rp8.0000. A taxi will cost you Rp. 200.000. If you join a trip,
you will have to pay the travel agency Rp 20.000.
At present, The Tourism, Art, and Culture office of
Sawahlunto municipality prepares a tourist package called
“One day City Tour of sawahlunto”. If you take this package,
you will be taken around the town on a tourist train, locally
known as dressing, or a tourist bus.
A tourist train is available every day at Sawahlunto
station. It starts at 10.00 a.m. and will take you to Muara
Kalaban station, which is about 5 km away. This tourist train
can accommodate a maximum of 12 passengers and the
return fare is Rp. 75.000.
On the way, you can see the tower of the old electric
power plant and will be plunged into darkness as you enter
the 900-meter-long tunnel.
If you wish to travel by bus, you can charter a tourist
bus. It is big enough for 25 people and the charter fee is
Rp.250.000 The bus will take you around the old town, visit
the living museum, the former open mining pit, and the
location of Ombilin Mines Training College (OMTC) and the
grave of Prof M.Yamin in Talawi.
When you visit OMTC, you will get information about
mining activities through a simulation system of
underground mining. You can also visit the geological
museum and a coal mining laboratory.
At the end of your tour, you can buy local handicrafts as
souvenirs.
73. What is the purpose of the text?

a. to persuade readers to visit sawahlunto
b. to describe about a one day tour of sawahlunto
c. to present some point of view about sawahlunto
d. to inform some interesting places in sawahlunto
e. To amuse readers with a one day tour of Sawahlunto
74. The main idea of paragraph six is ……..

a. you can visit the location of omtc
b. the bus is big enough for 25 people
c. you can visit the graves of some heroes
d. the bus will take the visitors to the location of omtc
e. There is a tourist bus available to travel to Sawahlunto
75. Which statement is TRUE according to the text?

a. sawahlunto is located in padang
b. the visitors will pay less if they take a taxi from padang
c. a tourist train is available at sawahlunto station everyday
d. information about the heroes’ graves can be got from omtc
e. taking a tourists bus will be cheaper than taking a tourist
train

76. “…….. you can charter a tourist bus” ( Paragraph 6).
The synonym of the underlined word is ……..
a. buy
b. hire
c. ride
d. borrow
e. exchange
Text XVI
Prague
Is there any city in Europe, or else, like Prague? There has been a
city here for over a thousand years, and now 2.250.000 people
live here. It is most famous for its Gothic and Baroque building
styles. Old Town Square, with its wonderful clock, the Charles
Bridge, and Prague Castle on the hill above the river are just a
few of Prague’s famous attractions.
Getting around Prague is easy by tram or underground train
but it’s also a pedestrian’s dream because much of the old
quarter and many of the streets and lanes have little or no traffic.
The medieval center is Prague castle and St Vitus Cathedral. An
evening view of these illuminated landmarks is one of the most
memorable sights in Europe. Wenceslas Square is in the heart of
modern Prague.
Visiting Prague today, you immediately notice the lively
atmosphere. The city can be crowded during the hot summer
months, but it is delight to visit any time of the year, even in the
snowy cold of winter. In fact, tourism makes the largest
contribution to Prague’s economy. Classical concerts take place
all through the year, though the biggest event is the Prague
Spring International Music Festival in May and early June.
Theatre also has a special place in the life of the city.
The suburbs are like many in Eastern Europe with tall sky
crappers and some light industry, but you are very quickly in the
sleepy villages and gentle hills of Bohemia. Many people say
Prague reminds them of Vienna or Budapest. But in fact, Prague
is unique. There’s nowhere quite like it.
77. The purpose of the text is …….

a. to inform people about Prague’s beauty
b. to tell people about the history of Prague
c. to present people about the events in Prague
d. to describe the city of Prague and its uniqueness
e. to persuade
78. An evening view of these illuminated landmarks ………..

The underlined word means ……..
a. full of colors
b. full of buildings
c. full of memories
d. full of illusion
e. full of lights
79. The text organization/generic structure for this text consists of

……..
a. general classification – description
b. identification – explanation
c. orientation – events – reorientation
d. identification – description
e. general classification – events
80. The text tells us about ………

a. Europe
b. Gothic building
c. Charles Bridge
d. Prague Castle
e. Prague

Text XVII
Read the following text and answer the questions!
Why do hawks hunt chicks?
Once upon a time, a hawk fell in love with a hen. The

hawk flew down from the sky and asked the hen, “Will you marry
me?” The hen loved the brave, strong hawk and wished to marry
him. But she said, “I cannot fly as high as you can. If you give me
time, I may learn to fly as high as you. Then we can fly together.”
The hawk agreed. Before he went away, he gave the hen a
ring. “This is to show that you have promised to marry me,” said
the hawk.
It so happened that the hen had already promised to
marry a rooster. So, when the rooster saw the ring, he became
very angry. “Throw that ring away at once!” shouted the rooster.
The hen was so frightened at the rooster’s anger that she threw
away the ring immediately.
When the hawk came a few months later, the hen told the
truth. The hawk was so furious that he cursed the hen, “Why
didn’t you tell me earlier? Now, you’ll always be scratching the
earth, and I’ll always be flying above to catch your children,” said
the hawk.
1. What is the social function of the text above?
2. Who was involved?
3. Did the hen face any problems to marry the hawk?
4. How did the hen solve the problem?
5. Does the story end in happy or sad ending?
6. Does the story happen in the past time or in the present time?
7. Mention the words are used to tell that the story happened in
the past?
8. What are the words used to tell the order of events?
9. Are the verbs in the present or in the past?
10. Write several action verbs that you find in the text!

Text XVII
England is one of countries located in Europe that has

four seasons. They are winter, spring, summer and autumn.
In winter, we can find snow everywhere. It is always

very cool. The temperature can be lower than 00 C. you should
wear jacket if you want to go out. We usually have winter from
December to February. After winter, we have spring from March
to May. The snow melts down. It is the time when trees and
plants start to grow their leaves. The temperature is warmer
than before, we also have a lot of rain.
Then, it is summer! We have summer from June to

August. The sun shine very bright and it is a holiday time. We
finish out school and we can play all day or travel to another
place. We usually visit our relatives in difference city. It is
sometime very hot and people go to the beach or swimming pool.
Autumn comes after summer. We have autumn from

September to November. The live on the trees go brown then
they fall of. We like playing with falling leaves in our garden. It is
very beautiful. We are sure that people like to visit England in
autumn
Check your comprehension!

Read the following statement! Are they true or false? Correct the
statement if they are false!
1. England is located in Europe.

2. There are four seasons in England.
3. Winter happen in June to August.
4. In winter, the temperature is upper than 0o C.
5. Spring start in February.
6. The weather in summer is hot.
7. Autumn happen form September to November.
8. The leave turn brown in spring.
9. In summer, people go to the beach and swimming pool.
10. The leaves on the trees grow in autumn

Bibliography
CDarwis, D. (1992). English for Islamic Studies. Jakarta: Raja

Grafindo Persada.
Friedman, W. (1982). , The developmental psychology of time.

New York: Academic Press.
King, Carol & Stanley, Nancy. (1989). Building skill for the TOEFL .
Jakarta: Bina Aksara.
Lambert, W. E. (1974). Culture and language as factors in learning

and education. In F. E. Aboud & R. D. Meade (eds.), Cultural
Factors in Learning and Education . Bellingham,
Washington: Fifth Western Symposium on Learning. .
Leams, Kristin,. Leah D Miller, and Tenena M sore . (2010).

Teaching reading to English Language Learner. New York
: The Gulid Press.
Marks, A. B. (2013).
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/skimming.
McWhorter, K. (1986). Guide to College Reading. Toronto: Litle

Brown and Company.
McWhorter, K. (1986). Guide to College Reading. Boston: Little,

brown and company.
Meyer, B. J. (1984). Effects of discourse type on recall . American

Educational Research Journal , 21(1), 121–143.

Nunan, D. (2003). Practical English Language Teaching: Young
Learners. 1st Ed. . New York: Mcgraw-Hill Companies Inc.
Richards, J. C. (2002). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching

and Applied Linguistics. 3rd ed. New York: Pearson
Education Limited.
Savignon, S. J. (1983). Communicative Comptence: Theory and

ClassroomPractice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Saville-Troike, M. (2003). The Ethnography of Communication: An

Introduction (Third Edition). Oxford: Blackwell.

Buku Lengkap Interpretive Reading

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Buku Lengkap Interpretive Reading

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PREFACE

Reading comprehension is one of the pillars of the act of

The writer thanks to the Almighty God, Allah SWT. And

Pekanbaru. August 2017

1. Introducing Interpretive Reading

2. Strategies for Active Reading

3. Skimming: Reading for Main Ideas

4. Scanning: Rapidly Location Information

5. Technique for reading faster

8. Reading article and essays

9. Interpreting: Understanding the writer’s Message

10. Interpreting: Understanding the Author’s Purpose

11. Critical Reading strategies

12. Practices 105

Reading is one of the subjects to get information and

The purpose of your reading determines how you

1. Pleasure and Enjoyment

This is probably the best reason to read anything. You

Sometimes you know what you are looking for but do

There are two kinds of reading:

Extensive reading is a language teaching

Extensive is a form of reading instruction. Its

The work of Palmer (1921) notes that “intensive

Intensive reading is generally at a slower speed

Comprehension is the process of making sense words,

We define reading comprehension as the process of

While, reading is comprehending. It means that if they

From the explanation above, known that reading

Moreover, as pointed out by Lems, Miller and Soro (2010:

Fundamentally, King and Stanley (1989), the components

2) Finding Main Idea.

3) Finding The Meaning of Vocabulary.

Inference is a skill where the reader has to be able to

When talking about interpretive communication the

Reading is an interactive process that goes on between

Interpretive communication always involves

In contrast, Inferential Comprehension is comprehension

While, Interpretive reading is when a person reads

STRATEGIES FOR ACTIVE READING

Active reading simply means reading something with a

a. How to pre read

1) Read the title

b. How to pre read articles without headings

c. Adapting pre reading to various types of material

How to adjust pre reading to the material

No Types of material Special features to consider

1) Helps you become interested and involved with

3. Making predictions and connections

What clues does the author give?

What will this material about?

What logically would follow?

How could this be organized?

Directions: Predict the content or organization of each of

1. Inequality in the United States

2. Nontraditional marital and family lifestyles

4. Education and change in the 1980s

5. Computers in the school

Search your previous knowledge and experience for

1) Ask as many questions as you can about the

4. Developing guide question

a. How to develop guide questions

b. Asking the right guide questions