Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research

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Volume 4 Issue 4 · October 2022· ISSN 2810-9384 (Online)
Advances in Geological
and Geotechnical
Engineering Research
Editor-in-Chief
Prof. Sayed Hemead
Prof. Wengang Zhang
Volume 4 ｜ Issue 4 ｜ October 2022 ｜ Page1-49
Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research
Contents
Articles
1 Use of GIS to Estimate Recharge and Identification of Potential Groundwater Recharge Zones in the
Karstic Aquifers, West of Iran
Zeinab Najafi Gholam Hossein Karami
14 Petrography and Geochemical Studies of Basement Rocks around Zango-Daji and Its Environs, North
Central Nigeria
Simon D. Christopher Onimisi A. Jimoh Onimisi A. Martins
22 Aeromagnetic Interpretation of Basement Structures and Geometry in Parts of the Middle Benue
Trough, North Central, Nigeria
Esho Oluwaseyi Olatubosun Osisanya Olajuwon Wasiu Ibitoye Taiwo Abel Ajibade Femi Zephaniah
Tokunbo Sanmi Fagbemigun
41 Assessment of Subsurface Competency Using Geotechnical Method of a Proposed Structure F.C.T Nigeria
Osisanya O. Wasiu Diyanuwa A. Buduwara Korode A. Isaac Ibitoye T. Abel Ajibade F. Zephaniah
Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 04 | October 2022

https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/agger
ARTICLE
Use of GIS to Estimate Recharge and Identification of Potential
Groundwater Recharge Zones in the Karstic Aquifers, West of Iran
Zeinab Najafi1 Gholam Hossein Karami2*
1. Department of Environmental Geology and Hydrogeology, Earth Sciences Faculty, Shahrood University of Technology,
Semnan, Iran
2. Department of Geology, Earth Sciences Faculty, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Article history Estimating and studying groundwater recharge is necessary and important
Received: 4 October 2022 for the management of water resources. The main aim of this work is to
estimate the value of the annual recharge in some parts of the Kermanshah
Revised: 31 October 2022 and Kurdistan province located in the west of Iran. There are many ap-
Accepted: 5 November 2022 proaches available for estimation of the recharge, but RS (remote sensing)
Published Online: 11 November 2022 and GIS (geographic information system) have provided and combined a
lot of effective spatial and temporal data of large areas within a short time.
Keywords: For this purpose, nine information layers including the slope, aspect of
slope, lithology, lineament density, drainage density, precipitation, vege-
Karstic aquifers tation density, soil cover, and karst features were prepared and imported
Remote sensing to the ArcMap software. After preparing the information layers, they have
GIS to weigh based on their effects on the value of the recharge. In order to be
weighted the different parameters, methods of judgment expert, reciprocal
AHP
influences of parameters, and AHP were used. Using GIS, the results ob-
Aquifer recharge coefficient tained from the final map indicated the average value for the recharge based
Iran on the average calculated coefficient of recharge. The annual recharge coef-
ficient in the study area was estimated to be between 30% and 80%.
1. Introduction be larger than the average recharge (in the long term).
The aquifer recharge can be determined by different
Groundwater potential is dependent on recharge, its methods. These methods can be put into several groups
management and sustainability require the identification such as studies on surface water, unsaturated zone, saturat-
of the recharge coefficient. Recharge has an impact on ed zone, and remote sensing. Each of these methods can
the groundwater flow and transport models. It is the most be divided into subgroups. The techniques based on sur-
important parameter for abstraction from a groundwater face water studies have included the surface-water budget,
reservoir, especially in arid and semiarid regions, like hydrograph analysis, direct measurement [1-6], seepage
Iran, because the extraction from groundwater should not meters [7], and natural and artificial tracers. The technics
*Corresponding Author:
Gholam Hossein Karami,
Department of Geology, Earth Sciences Faculty, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran;
Email: g.karami@khu.ac.ir
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/agger.v4i4.5122
Copyright © 2022 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Co. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
1
based on unsaturated-zone studies contain methods of as- effective spatial and temporal data of large areas within a
sessment of the soil moisture balance. Many authors have short time. The RS and GIS technics have been used for
worked in this field [8-10]. the evaluation and estimation of the recharge zone [21-29,13].
Some methods have been used in both the saturated and The study area covers an area of about 22000 km2 sit-
unsaturated-zones such as water balance [11-13] and Darcy’s uated in Kermanshah and Kurdistan province in the West
low. The application of this method requires knowing of Iran (Figure 1). It is located between 46.48° – 47.93°E
the hydraulic conductivity and hydraulic head in the un- longitude and 34.19° – 35.36°N latitude. The study area
saturated zone. Natural tracers [14-17] and CMB (Chloride has a Mediterranean climate. The temperature ranges
Mass Balance) has been used by many researchers for the between 6 °C and 21 °C, and the total annual rainfall is
estimation of recharge [18,19]. Water table fluctuation (WTF) ranging from 350 mm to 750 mm. Based on the average
is based on the measurement of the water level before precipitation and temperature in this area, by using the
and after precipitation, and with this measurement, the re- interpolation of weather station data in the study area,
charge has been estimated [19]. Modeling is another method there are three different zones of precipitation. Zone A in
for evaluation of the recharge [19,20]. The appropriate tech- the central and west has 385 mm, zone B with 700 mm
nique used for estimating the recharge in a saturated zone in the northwest, and other parts have 515 mm. The pop-
is the saturated volume fluctuation (SVF). ulation in the study area is more than 2 million people.
As is clear, there are many different ways to estimate Most of this area is covered by the mountainous region.
the recharge, but because of the expanse of the study area, The most geologic setting of the studied area is limestone
using the RS (remote sensing) and GIS (geographic infor- and dolomite, and there is sandstone, shale, conglom-
mation system) is the most beneficial way. Other methods erate, radiolarite, volcanic rocks consisting of andesite
are usable at the local scale, in which there is a lot of data and gabbro in some parts, and also alluvium deposits of
and equipment. The RS and GIS are powerful and unique Quaternary age (this part has an agricultural plain). The
tools used for managing and evaluating vital groundwa- major formations in the mountainous region are carbonate
ter recharge. These have provided and combined a lot of formations.
Figure
Figure 1. Geological
1. Geological mapmap
of of
thethe studyarea
study area
Figure 1 shows the geological map of the area. There are several important karstic
2 aquifers in the study area .Because of the breadth of the study area, using RS and GIS is
the most efficient way. The estimated recharge for the different geological settings is
more complicated because this area has more heterogeneity, so GIS is a very convenient
tool. The objection against GIS is the large number of expert comments it received. This
Figure 1 shows the geological map of the area. There the recharge in Karstic aquifers, so, only carbonate forma-
are several important karstic aquifers in the study area. tions has been considerated (Figure 3a).
Because of the breadth of the study area, using RS and
GIS is the most efficient way. The estimated recharge for 3.2 Slope
the different geological settings is more complicated be- The slope is an influencing factor for the percolation
cause this area has more heterogeneity, so GIS is a very resulting in the recharge. The slope information layer was
convenient tool. The objection against GIS is the large created using the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the
number of expert comments it received. This problem has studied area. Then it was classified in ArcGIS by degree
partly been solved using the methods applied in this paper. (Figure 3b).
The fundamental aims of this study are: In steep areas, the possibility of the presence of soil
1) Estimating the annual recharge in the study area and vegetative on limestone is usually low. However,
2) Determining the important potential zone for the re- sinkholes and other solutional cavities are generally ab-
charge sent in the steep regions. Therefore, the flat regions with
3) Introducing and comparing several different meth- low slopes, particularly on the top of mountains, play an
ods weighing in GIS to evaluate the recharge. important role in karst aquifer recharges.
2. Materials and Methods 3.3 Aspect (Slope Direction)

To achieve the above goals, GIS was applied. The mean The angle of the sunbeam varies in different slope
coefficient of annual recharge for this area was calculat- directions. Such that the resistance time of snow in the
ed using three various methods for weighing, rating and North and North-East slopes is larger than in South and
comparing with others and the real discharge was meas- South-West directions. Therefore, this factor has a major
ured. First, the layers of information corresponding to the impact on the recharge, especially in snowy areas. This
recharge were introduced into GIS. For this work, ENVI layer was also produced by DEM and then reclassified in
4.3, Google Earth, global mapper 13, and ArcGIS 10 were ArcGIS. The North-facing slopes gave more values (Fig-
used. Finally, the layers were entered into ArcMap. For ure 3c).
rating and weighing the prepared layers, three methods
were used, which are explained below. 3.4 Lineament Density
3. Results and Discussion The term lineament is commonly used for some geo-
logical linear features. The main lineament features are the
The estimation and evaluation of the groundwater re- fault, rift valleys, axial traces of folds, joints and fractures,
charge potential zones have been explored by analyzing vegetation along, dike, layering of stratification, rivers,
the various parameters such as lithology, slope, aspect, and valleys.
Lineament density, drainage density, precipitation, karst The faults and joints provide the possibility of per-
feature, soil cover, and vegetation cover, it has been done colation. The dissolution causes a larger space for more
by using 3 different weighting methods in ArcGIS. The infiltrating water. The most accurate method for providing
most important information layers which affect the re- a lineament map is the fieldwork but it is more expensive
charge into the study area’s aquifers are as follows: and has a limited spatial viewpoint. Thus, maps of linea-
ment can be made using remote sensing. For this purpose,
3.1 Lithology geological maps, satellite images (Panchromatic band of
Lithology and hydrographic network influence the lin- IRS), and Google earth were used. A satellite image enters
eaments and drainage as a function of porosity (primary the ENVI software, and by using the appropriate filter, be-
and secondary), and water percolation. The distribution comes an apparent lineament in the studied area. Google
of the lithological formation was taken from a geological Earth was used to correct it. More values were devoted
map of 1:250000 scale for Kermanshah [30], as a base, but to a higher density of lineaments. The final map was pro-
had to be combined with the fieldwork. Satellite images duced by the ArcGIS software (Figure 3d).
(Landsat 7 ETM+) and Google Earth were used for more
3.5 Drainage Density
exact matching. The area mainly has been covered by
carbonate formation and in some part igneous rocks and The stream is the drainage path for the passage of wa-
shale, sandstone, whereas the surrounding mountains were ter from the highland to lowland regions. So, the drainage
covered by alluvial plains, this study aims is assessment density can influence the recharge because water has more
3
time to penetrate. Because the stream contains a large val- cipitation infiltrated, or volatilize. In the karstic part of the
ue of water for a long time, it becomes the most important study area, cracks are, observed in the soil. The area ob-
in the top order. This layer was plotted by ArcGIS, and served related to subsurface drainage (cracks in epikarst,
controlled by Google Earth (Figure 3e). according to the studied area) (Figure 2).
The soil cover layer was extracted from the satellite
3.6 Precipitation images, and then it was inputted into the ArcGIS software
More amount of precipitation results in a greater value (Figure 3h).
of recharged water (in the warm months which is the high
3.9 Vegetation Density
evaporation, precipitation is very low or does not occur).
This layer was prepared by the data available for 12 The last layer of information produced was the vege-
stations in the study area that had long-time data (a thir- tation density layer. To achieve the above aim, satellite
ty-year period). images of ETM+ and the NDVI software were used. This
Generally, the precipitation occurs concentrated rela- index was created by subtracting bands 3 and 4 and divid-
tively, during the period in which evaporation is low, for ing by the total of them. Its range was between –1 and +1.
example, according to the data of Kermanshah station, the Devoid of vegetation gave-1 and increased with the vege-
total precipitation for the water year of 2015-2016 was tation cover (Figure 3i).
654 mm, 524 mm of this amount, has been recorded in 20 The effect of each factor on recharge relative to the
days (from the end of November until March and 1 day in others is different. In the next step and before overlapping
May). This period had 67 days of frost days. Due to the layers, it is necessary to determine the relative importance
presence of large development karst areas with wide karst of each layer to the other layers. The expert judgment is
features in the area, the rate of recharge in mountainous very impressive when weighing ArcGIS. In this work,
areas is relatively high (Figure 3f). three methods were used for weighing, and the effect of
the expert judgment in them is getting less. Finally, the
3.7 Karst Feature
outputs of the different methods were compared.
Other parameters that can influence the value of re-
charging water are Karst features. In the areas with low 3.10 Expert Judgment
slopes and low evaporation (due to high elevation), up to In this approach, determining the estimated weighed
90% of precipitation can be infiltrated [31]. In the carbonate is based on the expert opinion that is at a specific scale,
formation, at several points in the study area, sinkholes for example on a scale of 1 to 100. The 100 points were
were observed. Such karst features can be the most effec- divided among the various criteria. A score of zero will
tive factor for recharge (Figure 3g). be allocated to one parameter, and this parameter will be
ignored. In the event that just one parameter takes 100
3.8 Soil Cover
points, this has been considered only. The coefficients and
Most part of this area does not have the run-off, pre- weights for this method are presented in Table 1.
a b
Figure 2. a) Cracks observed in the soil at the south of Ravansar, of the area, b) Epikarst observed on a mountain at
north of Kermanshah
4
a) Geology of the study area b) Slope map of the study area c) Aspect map of the study area
d) Lineament density map of the study e) Drainage density map of the study
f) Precipitation map of the study area
area area
g) Karst feature map of the study area h) Soil cover in the study area i)Vegetation map of the study area
Figure 3. Prepared effective layers on aquifer recharge

Figure 3. Prepared effective layers on aquifer recharge
3.11 Reciprocal Influences of Parameters Method The calculated effect for each influencing factor is ex-
pressed as follows:
This methodThe has effect of each
been used factor(2003)
by Shaban on recharge
for the relative to the
Lithology: others+ 4ismajors
2 minor different.
= 0.5 In
× 2the
+ 1 next
×4=5
step and
first time [21]
. Forbefore overlapping
this approach, layers,
the expert idea itis is necessary
effec- Lineament density: 1 minor + 2 major = 0.5 × 1 + 1 of
to determine the relative importance × 2 = 2.5
each
tive only in thelayer
earlytostage
the (in
other layers.
the rating The expert
categories). Then judgment isdensity:
Drainage very impressive when
1 minor + 2 major = 0.5weighing
× 1 + 1 × 2 = 2.5
each of ArcGIS.
the criteria In had
thisbeen
work, three methods
evaluated were used for
and then divided weighing,
Karst and the
feature: 2 minor + 2 effect
majors = of0.5
the× 2expert
+1×2=3
into thejudgment in them
effective major and is getting
minor less. Finally,
parameters. One (1) the Precipitation:
outputs of 4the different
majors = 1 × 4 =methods
4 were
point iscompared.
allocated to the major effect and the minor effect Soil cover: 1 minor + 3 major = 0.5 × 1 + 1 × 3 = 3.5
3.10
gets half of theExpert
point. Judgment
The sum of all points for each crite- Aspect: 3 minor + 1 majors = 0.5 × 3+ 1 × 1 = 2.5
rion produces its coefficient. The measured weight of each Slope: 1 minor + 3 major = 0.5 × 1 + 1 × 3 = 3.5
coefficient is multiplied by its initial coefficient. The final Vegetation: 1 minor + 3 major = 0.5 × 1 + 1 × 3 = 3.5
weight was obtained by summing the weights. Figure 4 To obtain the weight of each factor, the calculated ef-
shows the effect of parameters on each other. fect and coefficient must be multiplied (Table 2). Finally,
5
Table 1. Categorization and weights of factors influencing recharge based on expert judgment
Affecting factor Classify Rate Weight Affecting factor Classify Rate Weight
0-20% 2
<30% 3
20-30% 4
30-50% 4
30-40% 5
Lineament density 50-65% 6 10% Drainage density 14%
40-55% 6
65-80% 8
55-70% 7
>80% 9
>70% 8
Very high 9
Very high –5
High 7
High –3
Moderate 6
Soil cover Moderate –1 14% Karst feature 15%
Low 4
Low 6
Very low 3
Without soil cover 9
Without karst feature 2
High 7 N-NE 8
Moderate 6 SE-E 6
Vegetation Low 4 10% Aspect NW-W 4 10%
Very low 2 SW-S 5
Without vegetation 1 ---- 3
360-400 1
400-450 2 0-1 9
450—500 3 1-5 7
500-550 4 5-7.5 6
precipitation(mm) 550-600 5 8% Slope 7.5-12.5 5 14%
600-640 6 12.5-22 4
640-680 7 22-33 3
680-740 8 >33 2
740-780 9
Karst 7
Alluvial 0
Conglomerate 0
Lithology 5%
Impure karst 5
Shale – Sandstone 0
Volcanic rocks 0
Figure 4. Schematic sketch showing affective parameters concerning aquifer recharge
6
Table 2. Categorization and weight of selection factors influencing recharge, based on reciprocal influences of parame-
ters method
Factor Classify Rate (a) The calculated effect (b) Weight |a*b| Sum Total weight
Shale – Sandstone
0 10
Volcanic rocks
0 5
shale-sandstone
Lithology 0 5 15 85 12
Karst-Impure karst
5 35
Conglomerate
0 20
alluvial
0-20% 4 10
20-30% 5 12.5
Lineament density 30-45% 6 2.5 15 77.5 11
45-70% 7 17.5
>70% 9 22.5
0-20% 2
5
20-30% 4
10
30-40% 5
Drainage density 2.5 15 67.5 10
40-55% 6
17.5
55-70% 7
20
>70% 8
Very high 5 17.5
High 3 10.5
Soil cover Moderate 1 3.5 3.5 66.5 9
Low 2 7
Without soil cover 8 28
>5 8 28
5-12.5 6 21
3.5
Slope 12-22 4 14 80.5 11
22-33 3 10.5
>33 2 7
8
N-NE 20
6
SE-E 15
4
Aspect NW-W 2.5 10 65 9
5
SW-S 12.5
3
- 7.5
Very high
9 27
High
7 21
Moderate
Karst feature 6 3 18 84 12
Low
4 12
Very low and Without karst
2 6
feature
High 7 24.5
Moderate 6 21
Vegetation Low 4 3.5 14 70 10
Very low 2 7
Without vegetation 1 3.5
360-450 2 8
450-550 4 16
precipitation(mm) 550-640 5 4 20 112 16
640-740 8 32
>740 9 36
7
the weight of each factor must be integrated. The sum of more important factor, and vice versa. Using the expertise
the weights, in this case, was equal to: and the extension of AHP in ArcMap software, the rela-
85+84+80.5+65+77.5+112+67.5+70+66.5=708 tive and absolute weights are calculated for each criterion
The percentages of the factor affecting the recharge (Table 4).
were as follow: Using these methods, the coefficient of annual recharge
Lithology: (85/708) × 100 ≈ 12 is then calculated.
Lineament density: (77.5/708) × 100 ≈ 11 The maps obtained for each selection factor (in each
Drainage density: (67.5/708) × 100 ≈ 10 method) were produced as layers. The ArcGIS software
Karst feature: (84/708) × 100 ≈ 12 was applied to the overlaying of these layers with de-
Precipitation: (112/708) × 100 ≈ 16 termined weights together. The resulting maps for each
Soil cover: (66.5/708) × 100 ≈ 9 method are shown in Figure 6.
Aspect: (65/708) × 100 ≈ 9 Table 3. Scale of relative importance for the AHP method
Slope: (80.5/708) × 100 ≈ 11 (according to [32])
Vegetation: (70/708) × 100 ≈ 10 Intensity of importance Definition
3.12 AHP Method 1 Equal importance

2 Weak
The Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) has been de-
3 Moderate importance
signed to solve multivariate problems by Saaty (1986) [32].
The values in this method are assigned from one to nine 4 Moderate plus
(Table 3). The AHP variable elements in each level are 5 Strong importance
compared with the higher-level elements. The weights are 6 Strong plus
called the relative weight and by using the integration of 7 Very strong importance
relative weights, the absolute weight is calculated (Figure
8 Very very strong importance
5). Using this method, the calculated weight for each fac-
tor varies between zero and one. The closer to one is the 9 Extreme importance
Figure 5. The matrix of the AHP method
Table 4. Categorization and weight of factors influencing recharge based on the AHP method
Calculated weight Calculated weight by

Factor Categorize Rate Factor Categorize Rate
by software software
Shale – Sandstone
>5
Volcanic rocks
5-12.5
shale-sandstone
Lithology 6 0.094 Slope 12-22 7 0.181
Karst-Impure karst
22-33
Conglomerate
>33
alluvial
8
Table 4 continued
Calculated weight Calculated weight by

Factor Categorize Rate Factor Categorize Rate
by software software
0-20% N-NE
20-30% SE-E
Lineament density 30-45% 7 0.125 Aspect NW-W 4 0.016
45-70% SW-S
>70% -
Very high
0-20%
High
20-30%
Moderate
30-40% Karst
Drainage density 5 0.022 Low 9 0.397
40-55% feature
Very low and
55-70%
Without karst
>70%
feature
High Very high

Moderate High
Vegetation Low 5 0.027 Soil cover Moderate 6 0.037
Very low Low
Without vegetation Without soil cover
360-450
450-550
precipita-
550-640 7 0.101
tion(mm)
640-740
>740
b) reciprocal influences of parameters method

a) Expert judgment method
9
b) reciprocal influences of parameters method
a) Expert judgment method
c) AHP method
Figure 6. Final recharge map of the study area, obtained by a) Expert judgment method b) reciprocal
Figure 6. Final recharge map of the study area, obtained by a) Expert judgment method b) reciprocal influences of parame-
influences of parameters
ters method,
method, c) c) AHP method
AHP method
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions where A is the area, R is the recharge coefficient, P is the
In order to achieve the goal of this paper (to estimate
precipitation, and W the
is therecharge
volume of in therecharged
water study into
Inarea), GIS was used. Although GIS was applied, the the main disadvantage was the personal
order to achieve the goal of this paper (to estimate
aquifer.
view intervention.
the recharge To overcome
in the study area), thisAlthough
GIS was used. problem, the data obtained from 3 different methods
GIS were used. the
was applied, Although the degree
main disadvantage was of
the personal
personal view Table 5. Results obtained
intervention in them for is
thedifferent,
different methods
the
viewresults are almost the same. The percent of their area was
intervention. To overcome this problem, the data ob- classified into fiverecharge
classes
Recharge Average
2 W
tained from 35).
(Table different methods were
The recharge coefficient variedthefromMethod
used. Although about 30% Area (km )
to 80%.
percent The maximum
coefficient area
(MCM)
degree
andof the
personal
mean view intervention
recharge in them isare
coefficient different,
shown in Table 5. <30% In order69.72to estimate the annual
the results are almost
recharge, the same.
the first The percent
coefficient of ofrecharge
their areawas calculated using4732.10
30-50% Equation (1), then the
was classified into five classes (Table 5). The recharge Judgment
50-65% 4390.66 0.48 2279
expert
coefficient varied from about 30% to 80%. The maximum 65-80% 198.57
area and the mean recharge coefficient are shown in Table >80% 0.026
5. In order to estimate the annual recharge, the first coeffi- <30% 8.33
cient of recharge was calculated using Equation (1), then 30-50% 2792.74
Affecting
the value of the annual infiltration was estimated. Given 50-65% 5444.42 0.54 2470
value of the annual infiltration was estimated. Given that the average parameters annual precipitation
65-80% 1125.45
that
is the average
around 473 mm, annual
the valuesprecipitation is around
for the recharged 473for
water (W) mm,these methods according
value of 1the annual infiltration >80%to 21.03
the values
equation for
are asthe recharged was
follows: waterestimated.
(W) forGiven
thesethat the average annual precipitation
methods
is around 473 mm, the values for the recharged water (W) for these methods according <30%to 5.25
according
equation 1 to
areequation
as follows:1 are as follows:
Expert judgment: the average coefficient of recharge was 0.48, and the value for
30-50% 7415.18
the Expert
infiltratejudgment: the average
was about 2279 MCM. coefficient of recharge
Expert judgment: the average coefficient of recharge was 0.48, AHPand the value for 1760.55
50-65% 0.44 2130
was 0.48, and the value for the infiltrate was about 2279
the infiltrate was parameters:
Affecting about 2279 MCM.
the average coefficient recharge was 0.54, and the value for
65-80% 201.53
MCM.
the infiltrate was about 2470 MCM. >80% 10.37
Affecting
Affecting parameters:
parameters: thetheaverage
average coefficient
coefficient recharge
recharge was 0.54, and the value for
the infiltrate
AHP: was about 2470
the average MCM. recharge was 0.44, and the value for the infiltrate
coefficient
wasabout
0.54,2130and MCM.
the value for the infiltrate was about 2470 The final infiltrate map was derived by combining the
was
MCM. AHP: the average coefficient recharge was 0.44, and the value for the
obtained infiltrate
maps from the methods (Figure 7).
was about 2130 MCM.
AHP: the average coefficient recharge was 0.44, and Based on Figure 7, the average water infiltrate was ob-
the value

 for

1 1 +the
 infiltrate

2 2 + … was

  about 2130 MCM. tained to be 2249 MCM, and the recharge coefficient was
 = 1

11 + 2 2 + …  calculated to be 0.50. The maximum coefficient is related
= 1 (1)
 (1) to the areas with many karst features, which is consistent
(1)
 =  with the fieldwork evidence (Figure 7).
 = 
where A is the area, R is the recharge coefficient, P is the precipitation, and W is the
10
volume of water recharged into the aquifer.
where A is the area, R is the recharge coefficient, P is the precipitation, and W is the
volume of water recharged
Tableinto the aquifer.
5. Results obtained for the different methods
Table 5. Results obtained for the different methods

Average
Recharge
Method Area (km2) recharge W (MCM)
Collapse Sinkhole
Doline after by [33]
b)
Collapse Sinkholes
c)
Sinkholes
Doline
Figure 7. Final recharge map for karstic aquifer in west of Iran, obtained by the combination of different methods, pho-
Figure 7. Final recharge map for karstic aquifer in west of Iran, obtained by the combination of different
tographs of the high potential groundwater recharge zones area
methods, photographs of the high potential groundwater recharge zones area
Based on Figure 7, the average water infiltrate was obtained to be 2249 MCM,
and the recharge coefficient was calculated to be 0.50. The maximum coefficient is
11
Author Contributions temperate humid areas. Hydrogeology Journal. 15,

433-444.
Z. Najafi conceived the presented idea and investigated [10] Jie, Z., Heyden, J.V., Bendel, D., et al., 2011. Combi-
the analytical methods. G.H. Karami developed the theory nation of soil-water balance models and water-table
and performed the computations and supervised the find- fluctuation methods for evaluation and improvement
ings of this work. Both authors discussed the results and of groundwater recharge calculations. Hydrogeology
contributed to the final manuscript. Journal. 19, 1487-1502.
[11] Scozzafava, M., Tallini, M., 2001. Report net infiltra-
Conflict of Interest
tion in the Gran Sasso Massif of central Italy using
The authors declare that they have no conflict of inter- the Thornthwaite water budget and curve-number
est in the publication of this article. method. Hydrogeology Journal. 9, 461-475.
[12] Zagana, E., Obeidat, M., Kuells, C., et al., 2007.
Funding Chloride, hydrochemical and isotope methods of
This research received no external funding. groundwater recharge estimation in eastern Mediter-
ranean areas: a case study in Jordan. Hydrological
Acknowledgments Processes. 21, 2112-2123.
[13] Radulovic, M., Stevanovic, Z., Radulovic, M., 2012.
This research has been supported by prof. Michel Sch-
A new approach in assessing recharge of highly
neider, we wish to express our sincere gratitude and ap-
karstified terrains–Montenegro case studies. Environ-
preciation to him for his enormous help and support.
mental Earth Sciences. Special issue.
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13

ARTICLE
Petrography and Geochemical Studies of Basement Rocks around
Zango-Daji and Its Environs, North Central Nigeria
Simon D. Christopher Onimisi A. Jimoh* Onimisi A. Martins
Department of Geology, Federal University Lokoja, Nigeria
Article history The geology of the Zango-Daji area was investigated petrographically and
Received: 1 September 2022 geochemically to determine the study area’s rock types and mineralization
potential. The study area is underlain by rocks of the basement complex
Revised: 16 November 2022 characterized by hilly and undulating rocks, which include granitic gneiss,
Accepted: 21 November 2022 migmatite gneiss, biotite hornblende granite gneiss, and pegmatites. Obser-
Published Online: 30 November 2022 vation from the field shows that the study area is dominantly underlain by
granitic gneiss. The granitic gneiss is dark grey, medium-coarse-grained,
Keywords: and characterized by weak foliation defined by the alignment of a streak of
light and dark coloured minerals. They are widespread in the area consti-
Gneiss tuting about 70% of rock types found in the study area. The average modal
Hornblende percentage of minerals in the rocks from petrographic studies shows that
Migmatites granitic gneiss had quartz 45%, plagioclase 10%, microcline 20%, horn-
blende 2%, biotite 10%, muscovite 5%, kyanite 8% and other minerals 5%.
Pegmatite
Also, the pegmatite of the study area has no evidence of mineralization; it
Petrographic contains minerals like quartz, feldspars (microcline and orthoclase), and
micas (mostly muscovite). Geochemical analysis of the granitic gneiss of
the study area shows that silica is by far the most abundant with a value
of 53.5%, Na2O value of 32.5%, Al2O3, and k2O of 6.1% and 4.0%, re-
spectively. CaO value of 2.630% accounts for plagioclase feldspar in the
granitic gneiss. The QAP diagram was used to determine the petrogenesis
of the granitic gneiss. The plot shows the parent rock was a monzogranite
with a low percentage of plagioclase in a thin section with a high percent-
age of quartz and alkali feldspar. The pegmatites of the study area are bar-
ren, as confirmed by the XRD result.
1. Introduction rican craton and northwest of the Congo-Gabon craton

The Precambrian basement complex of Nigeria lies (Figure 1). Evidence from the eastern and northern mar-
within the Pan-African mobile belt, east of the West Af- gins of the West African craton indicates that the Pan-Af-
Onimisi A. Jimoh,
Department of Geology, Federal University Lokoja, Nigeria;
Email: onimisi.jimoh@fulokoja.edu.ng
14
rican belt evolved by plate tectonic processes which a relict product as quartz ridge, their gneissic textures are
involved the collision of the passive continental margin of more exposed around river channels and are largely intrud-
the West-African craton and the active margin of the Phar- ed by pegmatites. Around the western part are pegmatites
usian belt (Tuareg shield), about 600 Ma [1,2]. It lies within intruding massively towards the south and traceable to the
the reactivated part of the belt [3]. The geology of Zango northern region (Figure 2). Some of the rocks exhibit jointing
Daji has been studied to various degrees by some authors, and show strong mineral lineation and foliation. The megas-
including [4]. These authors indicate the major rock groups, copic minerals observed on these outcrops include feldspar,
distribution, and structural relationships. quartz, and biotite.
The major rock types in this area are migmatites, granite
gneiss, and biotite gneiss, while there are minor occurrences
of rock types like pegmatites and quartzo-feldspathic veins.
Migmatites are the most comprehensive spread rock type in
the area and form the country rock in which all other rocks
occur. The Nigerian basement complex rock is classified
into four major groups [5]. His classification was based on
petrological evidence viz; the migmatite complex, the meta-
sedimentary series, the older granites, and the miscellaneous
rock types, including Bauchites and Diorite. Furthermore, the
area comprises basement complex rocks, highly migmatised
gneisses, and granodiorite (biotite hornblende granodiorite,
biotite hornblende granite, porphyritic biotite granite, and
muscovite biotite granite) intruded by the NE-SW trending
pegmatite dykes and covered by medium-grained alluvium
sediments [6].
The study area is a basement terrain; the metamorphic
rock unit includes granitic gneiss, migmatite gneiss, bi-
otite hornblende granite gneiss, and pegmatite intrusions
(Figure 2).
Figure 2. Geological map of the study area
3. Methodology
The major research methods used in carrying out this
research are geological field mapping, petrographic and
geochemical analysis.
The first objective was to carry out a detailed geological
mapping of the study area. This was done using the Global
Positioning System (GPS) to locate outcrops and other ge-
ological features and subsequently followed closely spaced
Figure 1. Geological map of Nigeria highlighting the traverses across rivers and footpaths. Field mapping was
basement complex [7] carried out using a topographic map on a scale of 1:25,000.
Representative rock samples of the rock types encountered in
the study area were obtained using a sledgehammer.
2. Geological Settings
Analyses of rock samples of the study area were done
The migmatite gneisses are highly foliated and generally to determine the mineral types and their comparative pro-
occur as low-lying outcrops, impregnated by quarto-felds- portions in the various rocks through thin sections. Major
pathic and pegmatitic veins; the granitic gneisses in the area element geochemical analyses of the samples were carried
occur as massive plutons affected by intense weathering with out using XRF.
15
3.1 Thin Section Analysis Thin sections made from the rock representative sam-
ples were carefully studied using the polarizing micro-
In the preparation of the thin section, the samples were
scope. The minerals in the thin section were identified
cut into slabs of thin thickness, and the surfaces were
under both crossed and plane-polarized light. Optical
smoothened with carborundum 70 and 90 grit to remove
properties such as colour, twinning, birefringence, pleo-
saw marks from the surfaces after thorough washing.
chroism, and extinction angle were helpful in the identifi-
Then, mounted on glass slides with thin araldite and
cation of some minerals.
pressed together (using forceps) to remove air bubbles.
Furthermore, the mounted samples were allowed to cool 4.1.1 Migmatite Gneiss
to room temperature before reduction to about 3 mm ~ 4
mm on a lapping wheel. The final reduction and thinning This occurs in the central part extending to the north-
of the samples involved grinding and smoothening with western portion of the study area. Migmatite rocks en-
carborundum 600 and 800 grits, respectively. The thinning countered in the study area were grey in colour with large
was done with occasional observation under the petro- crystals of orthoclase feldspar, which are pinkish. The
logical microscope, and the covering of the glass slides pink masses sandwiched by small dark bands rich in bio-
followed this stage with a thin glass slip to preserve the tite mica consist of alternating pink and dark grey bands.
surface. Excess araldite on the glass slides was washed Foliations are pronounced in most outcrops of the study
off with acetone and soap solution. The slides were then area.
rinsed with distilled water using a camel hair brush. The Location N 007° 47’ 56’’and E 006° 37’ 28’’ occurs as
slides were labelled accordingly and ready for detailed low-lying outcrops intruded by quarto-feldspathic veins.
study under a petrographic microscope. The outcrops are weathered in some areas with evidence
of structural elements such as joints and fractures. Line-
3.2 X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Analysis ations and foliations are well developed and preserved in
Selected rock samples from the study area were sub- the rocks of the study area (Figure 3).
jected to X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy using a Rigaku
RIX 3000. Qualitative and quantitative analyses were con-
ducted to determine powdered samples’ major and minor
oxides. The powdered samples were used to make fusion
beads to analyze most major and minor elements.
In preparation for the geochemical analysis, the sam-
ples were first pulverized (ground to a fine powder) using
the Agate mortar. The ground samples were ensured to
pass through the 150 micro mesh sieves to ensure homo-
geneity. Afterward, 5 gm of each pulverized sample was
weighed into a beaker for palletisation. 1 gm of binding
acid was then added to the solution.
The mixture was thoroughly mixed to ensure homo-
geneity and was pressed under high pressure to produce
pellets. This was then labelled and packaged for analysis. Figure 3. Migmatite gneiss outcrop
For the X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis, the pellet was
Feldspar is subhedral and consists of about 39% of the
carefully placed in the representative measuring position
mineral composition. The hornblende is subhedral and an-
on the sample changer of the machine. A given periodic
hedral in shape and consists of about 30% of the mineral
table guided the selection of filters for elemental analysis.
composition, while the microcline is subhedral with cross-
4. Results and Discussion hatching and is 20% of the mineral composition. Quartz
consists of 10% of the mineral composition (Figure 4).
4.1 Field Description and Petrographic Studies of
the Rocks 4.1.2 Granitic Gneiss
The area under study is generally underlain by gran- This occurs in the entire southern part of the study area
ite gneiss, migmatite gneiss, biotite hornblende granite (Figure 2). The study area is underlain predominantly by
gneiss, and pegmatites predominant in the Zango area. granitic gneiss that is fine to medium-grained, poorly fo-
16
fringence with extinction angles at 30° and 80°. Biotite

shows brown colouration with subhedral – anhedral form.
The crystals of feldspar appear colourless in PPL and
grey under XPL (Figures 6 and 7), including Plagioclase,
Microcline, and tartan, and lamella twinning was a diag-
nostic feature used in differentiating the feldspars, with
the microcline displaying a cross-hatch twinning and the
plagioclase lamellar twinning. Quartz and feldspar consti-
tute about 70% of the thin section; Quartz is the dominant
mineral in the slide and indicates that the rock is a product
of acidic magma crystallization
Figure 4. Photomicrograph of migmatite gneiss under

XPL Magnification= X10
H=Hornblende, F= Feldspar, MI= Microcline and Qtz= Quartz.
liated with bands of light and dark coloured minerals as

evident in (Figure 5) location N 007° 47’ 56’’ and E 006°
37’ 28’’. Quartz and quartzo-feldspathic veins are running
concordantly and crosscutting the rocks. The minerals in
the thin section generally show low relief; visible minerals Figure 5. Granitic gneiss outcrop
are quartz, feldspars, biotite, kyanite, muscovite, horn-
blende, and other accessory minerals. Most of the crystals
show a subhedral-anhedral form. The quartz mineral is
colourless under plane polarised light and shows no pleo-
chroism; it has a first-order birefringence with extinction
angles at 30° and 80°. Biotite shows brown colouration
with subhedral–anhedral form. The crystals of feldspar
appear colourless in plane polarised light (PPL) and grey
under cross polarised light (XPL); they include plagi-
oclase and microcline, tartan and lamella twinning was
a diagnostic feature used in differentiating the feldspars,
with the microcline displaying a cross-hatch twinning,
and the plagioclase lamellar twinning. Quartz and feld-
spar constitute about 70% of the thin section. Quartz is
the most abundant mineral in the slide, indicating that the
rock is a product of acidic magma crystallization.
The minerals in the thin section generally show low
relief with visible minerals like quartz, feldspars, bio-
tite, kyanite, muscovite, hornblende, and other accessory Figure 6. Photomicrograph of granitic gneiss (viewed
minerals. Most of the crystals show a subhedral-anhedral under plane polarised light)
form. Quartz mineral is colourless under plane polarised H= Hornblende, B= Biotite, K=Kyanite, QTZ= Quartz, MI=
light and shows no pleochroism; it has a first-order bire- Microcline
17
blende, quartz, plagioclase, and feldspar are present, as

shown in Figure 9. The plagioclase is subhedral to an
anhedral shape, while the quartz appears to be anhedral in
form. Also, the biotite is anhedral, and hornblende is sub-
hedral to anhedral in shape.
Qtz
Pl
B
H
Figure 7. Photomicrograph of granitic gneiss (viewed

under crossed polarised light).
Qtz= quartz, Pl= Plagioclase, MI= Microcline, B= Biotite
Figure 9. Photomicrograph of biotite hornblende granite

4.1.3 Biotite Hornblende Granite Gneiss gneiss under XP L. Magnification X10
H=Hornblende, B= Biotite, Pl= Plagioclase, F= feldspar and
This rock type occurs in the study area’s extreme north-
Qtz= Quartz
east (Figure 2). They form a minor part of the granitic
gneiss terrain at location N 007° 48’ 27.7’’ and E 006° 38’
4.1.4 Pegmatites
35.3’’. They occur as grey-black, medium–grained batho-
liths intimately mixed with the granitic gneiss. The pe- Pegmatites were found throughout the study area, most
trography of the gneiss is variable, particularly concerning intruding on the surrounding rocks. They are more con-
quantities of individual minerals, but the rock is character- centrated at the base of the granitic gneisses and are foliat-
ized by biotite and hornblende (Figure 8). ed in the migmatite gneiss (Figure 10). Field observations
show that pegmatite is associated with other rock types,
such as migmatite gneiss and granite gneiss. It is evident
from the geological map (Figure 2) that pegmatite, which
intrudes into the gneiss, is the predominant rock type in
the study area. Pegmatite in the study area trends in the
NE-SW direction and are found in different forms as vein,
irregular bodies, and sometimes as a cross-cutting dis-
cordant dyke. Pegmatite existing as vein and dyke is very
common in other rock units such as granite gneiss and
migmatite gneiss of the study area.
The relationships of pegmatite with the host rock are
cross-cutting, oblique, and sometimes concordant to fo-
Figure 8. Biotite hornblende granite gneiss outcrop liations of the general trend. These pegmatite dykes and
They are primarily mesocratic, coarse-grained, and veins range from a few centimetres to tens of metres. In
equigranular, exhibiting interlocking textures, and sub- some cases, there are abrupt terminations. The pegmatites
hedral to anhedral grains. Oligoclase is colourless and within the mining site at Zango have been extensively
cloudy; hornblende is green and pleochroic from light and deeply weathered, revealing the high resistance of
green to dark green. From the thin section, biotite, horn- fractured quarzitic bodies. The quartzites are of different
18
varieties, with common ones that include transparent rock

crystals, milky white quartz, and smoky quartz, which
could be irregular in shape, while some assume hexagonal
crystal shapes. The topography of the pegmatite mining
site is composed of the sloppy highland, deeply weathered F
pegmatite, and flat-lying unweathered pegmatite outcrop-
ping discontinuously within the mining site. Qtz
Figure 11. Photomicrograph of pegmatite under XPL.

Magnification x10
F= feldspar, Qtz= Quartz and M= Muscovite
Figure 10. Pegmatite in migmatite gneiss (N 07° 47’
43.8’’ and E 06° 37’ 25.5’’) The pegmatite observed in the study area is barren,
The petrographic study of pegmatite in thin sections confirmed by the XRD result presented in Figure 12. Bar-
(Figure 11) shows the predominant minerals are quartz, ren pegmatite has no evidence of mineralization; it con-
microcline, muscovite, plagioclase, biotite, and accessory tains minerals such as quartz, feldspars (microcline and
minerals in varying compositions, with sizes ranging from orthoclase), and micas (mostly muscovite). The Muscovite
veinlet of about a few kilometres to a few millimetres in present here is compacted into dark colouration.
width. Muscovite is the more abundant mica occurring in X-Ray Diffractogram (XRD) analysis (Figure 13) of
the pegmatite of the study area, while biotite is very few. the pegmatite reveals an average mineralogical compo-
Minerals in pegmatite have large crystals identifiable and sition of quartz (36%), albite (18%), orthoclase (29%),
recognizable in hand specimens. chlorite (3.6%), illite (8%) and garnet (4.7 %). Quartz,
Figure 12. XRD of Zango pegmatite
19
orthoclase, and albite are the dominant minerals in the Table 1. XRF result of major oxides
pegmatite of the study area. This result shows that the S/N OXIDES MOL%
pegmatites in this area are simple (barren) pegmatites.
1 SiO2 53.473
4.2 Major Element Geochemistry 2 F 2O 3 0.806

3 Na2O 32.525
Results of geochemical analysis of the granitic gneiss
from the study area, as presented in Table 1, show that 4 Al2O3 6.111
silica is by far the most abundant with values in mole 5 P 2O 5 0.000

percentage of 53.5%, Na2O values of 32.5%, Al2O3 and 6 MnO 0.045
k2O of 6.1% and 4.0% respectively. CaO value of 2.630, 7 K2O 4.092
which accounts for the plagioclase feldspar in the granitic
8 MgO 0.000
gneiss, FeO3 and MnO values are generally low with val-
9 CaO 2.630
ues of 0.806% and 0.045%, respectively, while TiO2 has a
value of 0.225%. 10 TiO2 0.225
Figure 13. Mineralogical Composition of Zango pegmatite determined from Identified Peaks of the X-Ray Diffractogram
Figure 14. QAP diagram classifying the granitic gneiss of the study area.
20
4.3 Protholith and Petrogenesis research seeks to contribute knowledge on the geology of
the area by geochemical and mineralogical observation of
The protolith and petrogenesis of the granitic gneiss rocks around the area.
in the study area were derived using the QAP diagram;
the QAP plot is particularly useful in classifying intrusive Acknowledgment
rocks. The granitic gneiss plotted in the Monzogranite
The authors are grateful to the Geology department,
field (Figure 11) indicates that the parent rock is Mon-
Federal University Lokoja, for providing a petrograph-
zogranite.
ic microscope to analyze the samples to determine the
5. Conclusions mineral types and their relative proportions in the rocks
through the thin section.
This research discussed the petrography and geochem-
istry of basement rocks of Zango-Daji and its environs, Conflict of Interest
a typical example of the Precambrian basement com-
There is no conflict of interest.
plex of Nigeria. It is underlain by the basement complex
rocks characterized by hilly and undulating rocks such References
as granitic gneiss, migmatite gneiss, biotite hornblende
[1] Black, R., Caby, R., Moussine-Pouchkine, A., et al.,
granite gneiss, and pegmatite. The migmatite gneiss is
1979. Evidence for late Precambrian Plate tectonics
highly foliated and occurs as low-lying outcrops; granitic
in West Africa. Nature. 278(5701), 223-227.
gneisses are widespread in the study area and occur as
[2] Burkey, K.C., Dewey, J.F., 1972. Orogeny in Africa.
massive, rugged hills heavily impregnated with pegmatite
Dessavagie, T.F.J. and Whiteman, A.J. (Eds) African
intrusions. Pegmatite occurs as outcrops and intrusions in
Geology, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press. 583-608.
the area with minerals such as quartz, feldspar, micas, and
[3] Rahaman, M.A., 1976. Review of the Basement Ge-
chlorite.
ology of South Western Nigeria. Kogbe, C. A. (ed)
The granitic gneiss is a metamorphosed granite rock
Geology of Nigeria. Elizabethan Pub. Co. Lagos. 41-
that displays light and dark minerals banding. It is com-
58.
posed of mafic minerals such as biotite and hornblende; [4] Imasuen, O.I., Onyeobi, T.U.S., 2013. Chemical
felsic minerals include quartz feldspars (microcline) and Compositions of Soils in Parts of Edo State, South-
muscovite mica. The average modal percentage of min- west Nigeria and their Relationship to Soil Produc-
erals in the rocks from petrographic studies shows that tivity. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmen-
granitic gneiss contains; quartz 45%, plagioclase 10%, tal. 17(3), 379-386.
microcline 20%, hornblende 2%, biotite 10% muscovite [5] Oyawoye, M.O., 1964. The geology of the Nigerian
5%, kyanite 8%, and other minerals 5%. Pegmatite of the Basement Complex – A survey of our present Knowl-
study area has no evidence of mineralization; it contains edge of them. Journal of Nigeria Mining, Geology
quartz, feldspars (microcline and orthoclase), and micas and Metallurgical Society. 1, 87-103.
(mostly muscovite). [6] Ozulu, G.U., Okoro, A.U., Ndubueze, V.O., 2019.
The QAP diagram was used to plot the modal percent- Petrographic and Geochemical interpretation of
ages of minerals in the granitic gneiss rock sample. The source provenance and tectonic setting of the Lokoja
plot shows the possible parent rock was a monzogranite, Sandstone, Bida Basin, Nigeria.
with a low percentage of plagioclase in the thin section [7] Obaje, N.G., 2009. Geology and Mineral Resources
and a high percentage of quartz and alkali feldspar. This of Nigeria. Keffi, Nigeria: Springer.
21

ARTICLE
Aeromagnetic Interpretation of Basement Structures and Geometry
in Parts of the Middle Benue Trough, North Central, Nigeria
Esho Oluwaseyi Olatubosun1 Osisanya Olajuwon Wasiu2* Ibitoye Taiwo Abel3 Ajibade
Femi Zephaniah3 Tokunbo Sanmi Fagbemigun4
1. Department of Geology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
2. Department of Physics, University of Benin, Benin, Nigeria
3. Department of Petroleum Engineering and Geosciences, Petroleum Training Institute, Effurun, Nigeria
4. Department of Geophysics, Federal University, Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria
Article history The research of an analysis of aeromagnetic data collected in the middle
Received: 8 October 2022 Benue Trough in north-central Nigeria is presented. A detailed analysis
of basement structures is conducted in order to identify regions with high
Revised: 9 November 2022 hydrocarbon potential that is different from those discovered by earlier
Accepted: 18 November 2022 researchers. Aeromagnetic data were filtered by using the Butterworth
Published Online: 30 November 2022 and Gaussian filters, transformed by engaging the reduction to the equator
technique, and subsequently enhanced. To estimate magnetic basement
Keywords: depths at various places throughout the basin, the Euler deconvolution
depth weighting approach was used. Eleven (11) sub-basins with depths
Aeromagnetic data ranging from –2000 m to –8000 m were also identified by Euler’s findings.
Euler deconvolution The sub-basins trend in the NE-SW direction while the average sediment
Basement structures thickness is found to be more than 3 km. The extracted structural features
indicate areas like Kadi Blam and Kado areas in the southeastern part and
Hydrocarbon potentials
Ogoja and Obudu in the southern part of the study area as regions with high
Middle Benue Trough structural densities. These areas coincide with the areas delineated as the
sub-basins. The cross-sections generated reveal depressions caused by the
action of some tectonic activities in the area. This study identified undulat-
ing basement topography believed to be due to tectonic activities as well as
five areas that are possible targets for hydrocarbon exploration.
covery in large quantities in 1956. Abubakar [1] discovered

1. Introduction
that at least two potential petroleum system may be found
Petroleum (oil and gas) has been discovered to be a main Nigeria Benue trough; namely (i) the lower cretaceous
jor source of the nation’s revenue generation since its dis- petroleum system which is capable of producing oil and
Osisanya Olajuwon Wasiu,
Department of Physics, University of Benin, Benin, Nigeria;
Email: wasiu.osisanya@uniben.edu
22
gas (ii) the upper cretaceous petroleum system which was ranging from 1.0 km to 4.0 km. He concluded that these
inferred to generate mainly gas which made them very intrusives have adequate sediment thickness (more than 2
reliable in conducting future exploration research in the km) to generate hydrocarbons. To identify probable petro-
basin. The Benue Trough is an inland coal-bearing region leum systems in the Nigerian Benue Trough and Anambra
with extensive hydrocarbon exploration. Despite geosci- Basin, Abubakar [1] conducted an assessment of the geol-
entists’ tireless work over the last two decades to maxi- ogy and petroleum potentials of the basins. He discovered
mize the middle Benue Trough’s hydrocarbon potential, that the basins could have at least two potential petroleum
there is still more to be found. This study intends to carry systems: the Lower Cretaceous petroleum system, which
out a detailed interpretation of basement structures in could generate both oil and gas, and the Upper Cretaceous
parts of the middle Benue Trough in an attempt to discov- petroleum system, which could generate mostly gas. He
er areas of high hydrocarbon potentials different from the observed that the systems are similar in temporal disposi-
ones that have been discovered by earlier researchers. The tion, architecture, sources, and reservoir rocks, and maybe
aim is to assess the possible occurrence of fundamental generation mechanism to those found in Sudan’s Muglad
hydrocarbon potential parameters (such as reservoir thick- Basin and Niger and Chad Republics’ Termit Basin. Lik-
ness) that could serve as a guide to further research and kason et al. [9] conducted a study on the Nigerian middle
subsequent exploratory work in the basin. The aeromag- Benue Trough based on geological applications and anal-
netic survey is an effective method for determining the ysis of the aeromagnetic data spectrum. The radial spec-
regional geology (lithology and structure) of the buried trum and the field’s matched filtered output are compared,
basement area. When the geology of the examined area is and the results of the plot of the log radial spectrum ver-
well understood, the precise aeromagnetic map has proven sus the frequency numbers revealed five discernible linear
to be quite useful [2]. Moreover, aeromagnetic surveys help segments with depths corresponding to magnetic layers
to investigate the depth of magnetic basement rocks in the ranging from 20.62 km (highest) to 0.26 km (lowest). Pat-
sedimentary basin. Major basement features are identified rick et al. [10] compiled a stratigraphic report for the mid-
using an aeromagnetic survey, revealing promising explo- dle Benue Trough in Nigeria, based on petrographic and
ration areas that can be further investigated using the more structural analysis of the Abuni and environs formations,
expensive but more concise and specific seismic approach which are part of the late Albian–Cenomanian Awe and
of geophysical investigation. Intensive geophysical re- Keana formations. Bedding, lamination, huge bedding,
search has been conducted in various regions of the Benue graded bedding, mud cracks, cross-bedding, folds, and
Trough for quite some time. Falconer [3] was the first to joints were among the formations they discovered on the
report on work done in Nigeria’s middle Benue Trough field. The principal structural tendencies are directed in
and also recently by Kasidi and Ndatuwong [4]. He wrote the following directions: NE-SW, NNW-SSE, WNW-ESE,
on the geology of the basement and the Chad basin near- and NW-SE. Hornblende, plagioclase feldspar, olivine,
by. According to him, the Asu River Group contains the and accessory minerals, which include opaque minerals
middle Benue’s earliest sediments. He later coined the term and are thought to be iron oxides due to the high concen-
“Lower Shale” to describe this group. Cratchley and Jones [5] tration of iron in almost all of the samples, are among the
were the first to conduct a major geophysical survey in mineral suites identified from the thin slice of the volcanic.
the Benue depression and also reported by Abubakar [1].
1.1 Location of the Study Area
The majority of the articles published on the subject were
regional. Many geologists, however, have mapped the The study region is located in Nigeria’s middle Benue
area [6]. Ehinola [7] examined the middle Cretaceous black Trough, between latitudes 07°00’N and 09°00’N and lon-
shales for hydrocarbon source potential, thermal maturity, gitudes 08°00’E and 10°30’E covering about 39027 km2. It
and depositional environment using organic facies fea- covers Markurdi, Tanka, Logo and Gboko towns in Benue
tures. He also conducted detailed geological mapping and State. The study area also includes the Wakuri and Donga
geochemical analyses of the Abakaliki anticlinorium’s oil areas of Taraba State. The study area also includes Nassar-
shale deposit to establish its extent, resource estimation, awa State’s Lafia, Doma, and Awe regions (Figure 1). Bali
recovery strategies, and potential environmental conse- is to the east, Apa is to the west, Bokkos is to the north, and
quences. Obi et al. [8] investigated the effects of subsurface Vandeky is to the south. The Gboko road in the southern sec-
intrusive on hydrocarbon appraisal in the Lower Benue tion provides access to the research area. Other minor roads
Trough using aeromagnetic modeling. In the locations link the smaller interior villages from the major road. The
near Nkalagu, Abakaliki, IkotEkpene, and Uwet, they major roads are tarred while the minor roads are best graded
discovered 12 intrusive bodies with sediment thicknesses and may not be accessible at the peak of the rainy season.
23
1.2 Drainage the drier part. Most of the high forest trees were destroyed
due to bush burning and overgrazing, cultivation, and
It is traversed by the Benue River, which is the largest hunting activities in the area over a lengthy period, and
in the study area (Figure 1). It comes from the Adamawa the forest was replaced with a mixture of grasses and dis-
Plateau in northern Cameroon. It enters Nigeria from the persed trees.
south, passing through Garoua and the Lagdo Reservoir
on its way to the Mandara Mountains. It then travels 1.4 Geologic and Tectonic Evolution of the Benue
through Jimeta, Ibi, and Markurdi before arriving in Trough
Makurdi on the Niger. The NE-SW lineaments appear to
The Benue Trough is one of Africa’s most significant
direct its path. These rivers have a significant flow differ-
rift structures, and it is thought to have been produced
ence between peak flow (usually at the end of the rainy
during the Cretaceous by rifting of the central West Afri-
season) and ebb flow (at the end of the dry season), when
can basement. The circumstances that led to the develop-
they are reduced to a trickle. Their banks provide in the
ment of the Benue Trough and its constituent subdivisions
dry season, very good exposures of the shale units other-
have been thoroughly chronicled [11-17]. The Nigerian
wise hidden in other locations. Other smaller streams are
Benue Trough (Figure 1) is an intracontinental basin that
also controlled by the ridge and swale topography giving
runs from north to south in Central Africa.
a rough trellis drainage pattern.
It has a length of over 1000 kilometers and a breadth
1.3 Climate and Vegetation of over 150 kilometers Its southern outcropping limit is
the northern boundary of the Niger Delta Basin, while it’s
The study area has a warm tropical climate with rela- northern outcropping limit is the southern boundary of the
tively high temperatures (27 °C on average) all year and Chad Basin, which is separated from the Benue Trough
two seasons: the rainy or wet season, which runs from by the “Dumbulwa-Bage High”, an anticlinal structure [18].
March to November in the south and May to October The Benue Trough has up to 6 kilometers of Cretaceous
in the north, and the dry season, which runs the rest of deposits, some of which are volcanic. It’s part of the West
the year. The rainy season is divided into two periods of and Central Africa Rift System, a mega-rift system that
high rainfall, separated by a brief time in August that is spans the continent (WCARS). The WCARS includes
comparatively dry (the August break). The study area has Niger’s Termit Basin and western Chad, southern Chad’s
evolved Guinea savannah with a relict forest as its vege- Bongor, Doba, and Doseo Basins, the Central African Re-
tation. Originally, this region of the high woodland was public’s Salamat Basin, and Sudan’s Muglad Basin.
Figure 1. Geology map of Benue Trough
24
1.5 The Middle Benue Trough are particularly important water aquifers surrounding Kea-
na and Awe, despite the lack of reservoir quality data.
The Middle Benue Trough stretches northeastward as
far as the Bashar-MutumBiyu border. 2. Materials and Methods
The Gombe and Keri-Keri Formations reach their
southern limit at this point, while the Upper Benue 2.1 Data Acquisition and Instrumentation
Trough’s earlier sediments undergo lateral facies shift. Fugro Airborne Surveys Limited gathered aeromagnetic
data on behalf of the Nigerian Geological Survey Agency
1.5.1 The Structure of the Middle Benue Trough
as part of a nationwide high-resolution airborne geophys-
The middle Benue Trough’s axial basement high [19], ical survey aimed at supporting and promoting mineral
(Keana ridge) coincides with the Keana anticline, which exploitation in Nigeria (NGSA). The data were gathered
runs NE-SW. Benkhelil [13,20] used gravity and aeromag- methodically by dividing the country into segments
netic data to locate the high sedimentary sub-basin on ei- (blocks) with different measurement parameters for each
ther side of the basement. A minor “Shendam Basin” and block, with the result being the creation of an aeromagnet-
a more important “Kadarko Basin” with sediment thick- ic map of the entire country. Three Scintrex CS-3 Cesium
nesses of 2.4 km to 5.3 km on the south-eastern flank, and Vapour Magnetometers were utilized to collect data dur-
a “Wukari” and a MutumBiyu Basin with inferred sedi- ing the survey. The data were obtained at a nominal flying
ment thicknesses of 1.9 km to 3.8 km on the north-west- altitude of 152.4 meters along two N-S flight lines that
ern flank. The Cretaceous era produced the middle Benue were about 2 kilometers apart. The magnetic data were
Trough (Figure 1). compiled into 12-degree aeromagnetic maps with a scale
of 1:100,000. For simple reference and identification, the
1.5.2 The Stratigraphy of the Middle Benue Trough maps were numbered, and place names and coordinates
(longitude and latitude) were written. Before plotting the
The middle Benue Trough encompasses the research
contour map, the real magnetic data were scaled down by
area. Several scholars have written about the geologic suc-
25,000 gamma. All of the maps have an epoch date of Jan-
cession in the middle Benue Trough [5,6,21-23]. The middle uary 1, 1974, and a correction based on the International
Benue Trough is split into six (6) formations, according to Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF). The National Geo-
these scholars. graphic Society ofAmerica (NGSA) published a report in
1974 on the subject of Fixed-wing (Cessna) aircraft also
1.5.3 Hydrocarbon Potential of the Middle Benue
took part in the survey, which covered a total of 235,000
Trough
line kilometers with a flight spacing of 200 meters and
The Central Benue Trough is a valley in central Benue. terrain clearance of 80 meters. The flight was headed NW-
The shales and limestones of the marine AlbianAsu River SE, with a 200-meter tie-line spacing and a NE-SW tie-
Group (Gboko, Uomba, and Arufu Formations) could be line orientation. The flight line and tie-line trends were
potential source rocks, the sandstones of the Cenomanian 135° and 45°, respectively, and the magnetic data record-
Keana and Awe Formations could be potential reservoirs, ing interval was 0.1 seconds. Within UTM Zone 36S and
and the shales of the basal Ezeaku Formation could act using the Clark 1880/Arc 1960 coordinate system, a grid
as a regional seal in the possible Lower Cretaceous Pe- mesh of 50 meters was used in the World Geodetic Sys-
troleum System in the Central Benue Trough [24]. Because tem of 1984 (WGS84). The followings are the sources of
organic geochemical data on the potential petroleum information used in this study:
source rock (Asu River Group) for this system is scarce i) Aeromagnetic grid covering sheets 209-213, 230-
to non-existent, the author was unable to obtain any raw 234, 250-254, and 270-273 making a total of 19 sheets.
data on organic matter quantity or quality. Obaje et al. [24] (ii) Oasis Montaj Software;
suggested that values over 1.25 percent to indicate late (iii) Surfer 13 Software;
gas window stage to over maturity on maturity. The Asu (iv) Geological map of Nigeria (soft copy) (iv) Linea-
River Group could be up to 1800 meters thick on average [24]. ment map of Nigeria (soft copy).
Flaggy medium coarse-grained calcareous sandstones and
2.2 Data Processing
fluvial-deltaic cross-bedded coarse-grained feldspathic
sandstones, respectively, are prospective reservoir rocks in In a defined coordinate system, digitized data were
the Awe and Keana Formations. In certain locations, the gridded into an evenly spaced lattice. Interpolating data
Awe Formation can be 100 meters thick. These formations taken along with parallel profiles but at random places
25
along the profiles was done using the minimal curvature lies centered over their causative bodies, simplifying the
gridding approach. Using Briggs’ method, this method fits resultant aeromagnetic map, which bears a simple and
minimal curvature curves to the data point (which is the direct relationship with t [27].
smoothest possible surface that would suit the supplied
data values) [25]. Because the data collected in the field are 2.2.3 Data Enhancement
a mix of signal and noise, it must be processed to remove Horizontal Derivative: To refine the edges of mag-
the undesirable information that could lead to erroneous netic anomalies and better determine their positions,
subsurface interpretation. Data processing’s overall goal derivative filtering techniques are applied [28]. This filter
is to reduce noise and improve the signal-to-noise ratio. was employed to increase deep-seated abnormalities to
To achieve this purpose and obtain a refined dataset, the see a sharper picture of them, thereby isolating magnetic
following filters were used: anomalies near the surface. This filter was used to con-
struct two maps, one in the x-direction and the other in
2.2.1 Combined Gaussian and Butterworth the y-direction. As a result, high-frequency variations in
These two filters were used to reduce the impacts of potential field data are amplified. Faults and/or geological
the regional anomaly on magnetic bodies (a model of the unit borders could be the source of such fluctuations [29].
earth’s core field based on the I.G.R.F. epoch date of data This technique employed an order of differentiation of 1
acquisition: 1st January 1974) [26]. Following the I.G.R.F because higher values would result in noise amplification.
reduction technique, the Butterworth filter, which is a low- This filter also decreases the intricacy of anomalies, al-
pass filter, was used. This was used to remove regional lowing for better imaging of the causal structures. The up-
impacts from total magnetic intensity data by removing all ward continuation filter was employed to investigate the
frequencies over the cut-off frequency and leaving those regional propagation of the inherent anomalies. At 2 km
below unaltered. The fitting method generates a surface altitudes, the anomalies’ trending trends were compared.
(called the regional field) that has the best fit to the mag- The analytic signal was gathered to create an analytic sig-
nal map of the study area, which is normally determined
netic field.
by a combination of horizontal and vertical gradients of
2.2.2 Data Transform the magnetic anomaly [30]. The resulting map delineated
the forms and boundaries of the geologic sources that
Because the study area is at a low magnetic latitude, caused the anomalies.
and the Earth’s field intensity decreases from the poles to As a result, the magnetization map was utilized to pin-
the equator, peaks of magnetic anomalies are likely to be point the magnetic bodies (as well as their boundaries)
incorrectly or improperly positioned over their sources, as that were responsible for the observed magnetic anoma-
well as skewed along a particular direction, usually visible lies as shown on the magnetic intensity map [30]. To map
as abnormal elongation of anomalies along the E-W direc- the shallow basement structures and mineral exploration
tion, this filter was used in the Fourier domain to migrate sites, the tilt derivative was applied [31]. The tilt angle’s
the observed field from the observed magnetic inclination amplitude is positive over magnetic sources, crosses
and the observed magnetic inclination. The study site has through zero at the source’s near edge, and is negative
a low magnetic equator of about 150, which can make outside of the source. The signatures of the linear struc-
anomaly interpretation difficult if not corrected. The peaks tures were used to identify them. The structures that were
of magnetic anomalies are centered over their sources in continuous and those were not were identified by a com-
this operation. prehensive examination of the structures. The orientations
Any asymmetry in the reduced-to-equator field can of the mapped lineaments were also detected by this filter.
then be attributed to source geometry and/or magnetic Where VDR and THDR are the first vertical and total
properties, which helps with interpretation. With a dec- horizontal derivatives of the total magnetic intensity T,
lination of –3.50, an inclination of –14.70, and a field respectively. In the initial stage of this process, the stand-
strength of 31533.7 nT, the data were reduced to the mag- ard deviation approach was applied. The method creates a
netic equator. Reduction to the magnetic equator filter was smoother representation of the degree of unpredictability,
applied to the magnetic intensity data to center the peaks which eliminates the data’s intrinsic noise.
of the magnetic anomalies over their geologic sources by VDR
TDR = tan −1 (1)
recalculating the total magnetic intensity data as if the THDR
inducing magnetic field had a 900 inclination and trans- as proposed by Verduzco et al. [31], where VDR and THDR
forms dipolar magnetic anomalies to monopolar anoma- are first vertical and total horizontal derivatives, respec-
26
tively, of the total magnetic intensity T. deconvolution solutions to accept a maximum depth lim-
The standard deviation method was used in the first it of 10000 m, maximum % depth of tolerance of 10%,
phase of this process. The method provides a smoother thus depth uncertainty (dz in %) greater than 10% were
representation of the degree of randomness that over- rejected. Similarly, horizontal uncertainty (dx in %) was
comes the inherent noise in the data. set to 20%. This assigns masks to solutions with outcomes
outside the chosen window [34]. To identify the depth of
(2)
the magnetic source, processed aeromagnetic data was
where σ is the standard deviation. applied to Euler’s deconvolution algorithm [33,35-37]. Decon-
The smallest wavelength filter employed was 5, the ro- volution was done using both conventional and Located
bustness was 3, and the orientation was all-encompassing, Euler techniques. The traditional technique looked at
with a total of five filter scales. The resulting map depicts every grid position and kept only those with good solu-
the lineaments’ orientation. The structural complexity map tions, whereas the localized method calculates the analytic
was created to help discover locations with a high density signal, discovers peaks in the analytic signals, and then
of junctions. It also uses the standard deviation principle uses the determined locations for Euler deconvolution.
to create a database with straight line segments. The local- The latter offers a benefit over the usual method in that
ized junctions were chosen using a contact voting influ- solutions are only approximated over anomalies that have
ence of 3 and the orientation entropy was then calculated been identified, resulting in more accurate results [30].
for all directions. Because the Euler plot depicts the spatial distribution of
The vectorized standard deviation grid was used as the depth to magnetic sources across the entire area, regions
input grid to create this map. The proximity was set to be with significant depths were isolated for further investi-
within 5 cells, the angle of deviation was set to be greater gation. Furthermore, the depths of these isolated regions
than 300, the contact voting influence radius was reduced ranged from 3 km to 8 km, which aided in the selection
to 3 (to pick localized junctions), the window size was process. This method is preferred over others because of
20 cells, and the entropy bins were set to 6. The obtained its unique ability to produce credible results even when
map from the Euler deconvolution plot was used to identi- the geological model is incorrectly/inappropriately repre-
fy the sub-basins in the study area.
sented. It can also generate solutions in areas where there
Total magnetic field measured at a point (x, y, and z)
are no anomalies or at their edges.
due to a point/line source located at x0, y0, z0 can be ex-
pressed as 2.3 Generation of 2-D and 3-D Models
(x −x0)dF/dx +(y −y0)dF/dy+(z −z0)dF/dz= N(B –F) （3)
The final step in properly visualizing the sub-basins
as proposed by Milligan et al. [32], N is Euler’s structural
shown by the Euler deconvolution graphic was the crea-
index, and B is the whole field’s regional value. It’s an
tion of the 3-D model. This was accomplished using the
exponential factor that represents the pace at which a
Surfer 13 program. The Euler deconvolution method gen-
source’s field diminishes with distance for a certain geom-
erated over 120,000 solution sets, which were then export-
etry. N is the source geometry’s prior information input.
ed into the Surfer worksheet. Each solution set’s longitude
For geologic contact, N = 0.0, 1.0 for dike, 2.0 for hori-
zontal or vertical cylinder, and 3.0 for magnetic sphere. (easting), latitude (northing), and depth to the top of the
The Euler deconvolution algorithm was used in this study magnetic source (Z) were recorded in the three-column
to determine the location and depth of causative anoma- set utilized in the Surfer worksheet. The data was first
lous bodies from gridded aeromagnetic data using Oasis gridded, and then the model was built. Smoothing and
Montaj TM. The resulting map depicts the locations of de-peaking techniques were used to improve the model
geologic sources as well as their estimated depths. further A contour map was created using Surfer 13 soft-
In addition, profiles were used to determine the depth ware and the above-mentioned gridded data collection.
to the magnetic basement using Extended Euler deconvo- A 2-D profile was generated for each of the suspected
lution. This is consistent with Reid et al.’s findings [33]. The sub-basins by drawing four profile lines across them. The
Windowing Technique was used to refine the resulting geography of the magnetic basement was represented
answers and decrease uncertainty to the bare minimum. considerably more clearly in each 2-D model, which was
This was achieved by constraining the obtained Euler exhibited as a cross-section (Figure 2).
27
Figure 2. Simplified flow diagram of aeromagnetic data processing (Modified after Osinowo, 2013)
3. Results and Discussion The RTE map of the study area is shown in Figure 4.
The graphic depicts the elongation effects imposed on
The residual map of the study area is shown in Figure anomalies near the equator, as well as the correction in
3. The study area’s magnetic intensity distribution has val- the distribution of the anomalies to locate them over their
ues ranging from –68.597 to 132.362 nT. On the residual sources and lessen the elongation effects imposed on
magnetic intensity map, prominent high amplitude mag- anomalies near the equator. The asymmetry in the anom-
netic intensities can be seen, which mostly trend in the alies has been removed, indicating that they have been
NE-SW and NNE-SSW directions. The high amplitude appropriately aligned over their causal bodies, as seen by
magnetic strengths can be seen in the Benue State areas of a comparison of the total magnetic intensity map and the
Katsina-Ala and Zoki Bam, Taraba State’s Donga, Ibi, and RTE map. The low-frequency anomaly around the Ogoja
Banlaji, Nassarawa State’s Obi, and Cross River State’s area of Cross River state in Figure 4 became more pro-
Ogoja. The dominant trends that have been observed in nounced after the data had been reduced to the equator in
these areas are NE-SW. Magnetic anomalies with a high Figure 5. Also, there is a high demarcation of individual
positive amplitude correspond to locations with a high high amplitude anomalies around the northern part of the
magnetic mineral composition, such as magnetite. Since study area which initially looked like a massive linear fea-
the area under study is in a basin, volcanic intrusions ture before this process. Figure 5 shows that the regions
could give a high response of magnetic intensity. High around Oboko and Kado have magnetic intensities in the
negative amplitude magnetic anomalies also character- range of 125 to 190 nT. The values of these regions when
ized Tokum and Wukari areas of Taraba State, BojuEga, the data had not been reduced to the magnetic equators
Bokem, and Alade areas of Benue State as well as some were in the range of –38.3 to 7.4 nT. The anomaly has
parts around the western part of the study area. been aligned over the causal body thanks to the RTE filter.
28
Figure 3. Residual aeromagnetic map of the study area (Source NGSA)
The magnetic intensity ranges of this region before and anomaly types are obvious and distinct, enhancing signals
after the application of the RTE filter are –68.6 to 52.0 nT from deeper sources and showing a rise in the amplitude
and 57.0 to 115.7 nT, respectively, at Mahanga, the central and spread of the magnetic sources responsible for the
part of the study area. In the two aforementioned cases, high magnetic intensity signals that spread throughout key
the color changed from blue (low value of magnetic inten- portions of the research area.
sity) to pink (high value of magnetic intensity) as can be Figures 6 and 7 present the results of horizontal de-
seen on the maps (Figures 3 and 4). rivative maps of the study area in the x and y direction
A structural analysis must be taken into account for respectively. The magnetic values are very low and range
a full understanding of the basement complex [38]. As a from about –0.0710 to 0.0752 nT. Eight regions of pos-
result, the study’s enhanced Residual Magnetic Intensity itive anomalies were identified in Figure 7 (x-direction)
map will need to be processed further. with the highest value of 0.0454 nT while nine regions of
The RTE map was extended upwards to 2 km (Figure such were detected in Figure 8 (y-direction), the highest
5) to emphasize the response of the basement rocks. The value being 0.0752 nT. Although with an uneven distri-
most essential consequence of this filter on the map is that bution of anomalous bodies across the study area, there is
it smoothies it out and makes it more regional, allowing a concentration of such around the northeastern part. The
regional basement abnormalities to be seen. Furthermore, region with the highest positive anomaly in Figures 7 and
shallow-seated abnormalities are muted, allowing the 8 is around Ogoja, the central part of the study area. The
deep-seated ones to shine. The short-wavelength anoma- maps further helped, as indicated with different colors, to
lies have begun to fade at the 2 km continuation (Figure delineate the edges of the deep-seated anomalies that have
6), allowing longer wavelength anomalies to consolidate; been enhanced by the horizontal derivative filter [16]. The
anomaly units are increasing. Concrete linkages between regions of high anomalous behavior (pink and red color)
29
Figure 4. Reduced to the equator map of the study area
Figure 5. Upward continuation map at 2 km
30
Figure 6. Horizontal derivative map (x-direction)
are identified as the sub-basins and this agrees with the work impression that the area is structurally controlled. Some of
of Abubakar [1]. A close look at Figures 7 and 8 shows a NE- the faults intercepted the suspected sub-basins while some
SW trend of the identified anomalous zones [16]. aligned with the edge of some of the sub-basins.
The delineated linear characteristics in the research In the graph, the estimated average power spectrum is
area were visible on the tilt angle derivative map (Figure shown on a semi-log graph of amplitude against spatial
9). A careful observation of the trends of the lineaments wave number (Figure 10). It distinguishes between two
shows that most of the faults present in the study area separate sources, one with a low amplitude but a higher
align NE-SW direction but except for some trending in the wavenumber and the other with a low amplitude but a
NNW-SSE, NNE-SSW, and NW- SE directions [39]. The higher wavenumber. The negative slope of a straight line
tilt derivative map’s dominant fault trend corresponds to fitted to the two radial power amplitudes was calculated
the whole Benue trough, Benkhelil’s axial NE-SW trend- to be twice the depth to the centre of mass of the bodies
ing (1988, 1989). Figure 9 shows the research area’s line- creating the magnetic anomalies [26]. Figure 10 further
ament map, which was derived from a Nigerian lineament shows that the deepest area is 5.2 kilometers deep, where-
map. A large degree of similarity was obtained when com- as the shallower parts are 0.5 kilometers deep on average.
paring the faults/trends obtained from the tilt derivative According to the plot of average radial power, deep struc-
map and that of the lineament map of Nigeria. From these tures have a longer wavelength than shallow sources. The
maps, it could be seen that a major fault runs from around spectral solution also offers information about the aver-
Oturkpo in Benue state across Bantaji in Taraba state. age anomaly size (wavelength and amplitude), predicted
Another conspicuous major fault could be seen running depths (maximum and minimum), and window size, all of
from the same Oturkpo to Dep in Nassarawa state. A good which are required to constrain Euler deconvolution [33].
number of minor faults dominate the study area giving the The analytic signal derivative map (Figure 11) was created
31
Figure 7. Horizontal derivative map (Y- direction)
Figure 8. Tilt angle derivative map of the study area
32
Figure 9. lineament map of the study area (Extracted from Lineament map of Nigeria: Source, NGSA)
Figure 10. Radially averaged power spectrum with depth estimate
33
Figure 11. Analytic signal map of the study area
using the analytic signal grid, which was created by tak- In Figure 12, you can see the vectorized standard devi-
ing the first-order derivatives of two horizontal gradients ation map. On this map, the orientation and length of the
and one vertical gradient of the mapped area’s magnetic lineaments are shown, resulting in geographical distribu-
strength [30]. The map emphasizes the magnetic source tion of lineaments that aids in understanding the structural
magnetization fluctuation in the research area, as well as control directions in the studied area. Linear features were
discontinuities and anomaly texture. Magnetic zones with discovered on the map that corresponded to those found
high intensities of 0.09 nT ~ 0.2 nT (pink) are inconspicu- on the tilt derivative map (Figure 9). Magnetic contour
ously isolated places in the research area, whereas regions lineation typically follows regional geology, according
with low magnetic intensities of 0.01 nT (green) occupy to Dobrin and Savit [41]. The extracted lineaments reveal
a larger percentage of the study area. A through G are the NE-SW, NNE-SSW, and NW-SE trends, as well as minor
names of seven significant magnetic zones, or high mag- ENE-WSW and E-W directions. The majority of these
netic anomaly zones.The number of magnetic minerals trends were consistent with recent work by Ajakaiye [42], in
present in the magnetic sources is thought to be respon- the Benue Trough and areas of the surrounding Nigerian
sible for the high amplitude signal anomalies [40]. The basement complex (1991). Figure 13 shows the structural
contrast between the greatest and minimum signatures complexity map. The densities of structural connections
enhances these abnormalities, allowing the causal bodies’ and diversities in the strike were measured, allowing for a
limits to be traced out. When compared to the rest, the sig- better selection of potential regions. The map’s beginning
nals in Regions A, B, F, and G have a higher amplitude. data was reduced to a pole grid, and the map was designed
34
to correctly depict ridges or margins of geologic features. total of 3565078 solution points were collected. In com-
From the structural complexity map below, the thick parison to the results from the analytic signal map, the
black lines correspond to the points where the junction high output of the Euler deconvolution solution plot shows a
density is greatest. This marks the side flanks of the trough high level of similarities. On the Euler Deconvolution
indicating the existence of a higher mass of the body as com- solution plot, most of the locations identified as having
pared with the surroundings. The circled areas in the figure high amplitude by the analytic signal map were also sig-
correspond to the areas with high density which are capable nificant. The depth estimates within the area of investi-
of hosting deposits of interest. The result obtained from this gation range from –176 m (highest portion) to –6951 m
map agrees with that obtained from the vectorized standard (lowest part) according to the Euler Deconvolution solu-
deviation map of the study area (Figure 12). For example, tion plot (deepest part). The Minna Datum in Nigeria was
KadiBlam and Kado areas of Benue state fall within these used to plot depth solutions, and the fact that all depths
circles whereas the place was also depicted as having high are less than zero confirms that the research area is below
analytic signals (Figure 11). sea level (sedimentary basin). As a result of this fact, nine
The study area’s Euler solution map is presented in points were isolated from the study area as sub-basins
Figure 14. A gridding interval of 14 line spacing was uti- within the main basin. They have depths ranging from
lized to improve the detection of shallow seated anomalies –3376 m to –6951 m. The suspected sub-basins have their
due to their tiny amplitudes. The gridding interval allows locations around Ibi, Takum and Bantaji areas of Taraba
for the detection of any anomaly with a wavelength of up state, Ogoja and Obudu areas of Cross River state, and
to 75 m, resulting in a large number of solution points; a Gboko and Zakiblam areas of Benue state.
Figure 12. Vectorized standard deviation map of the study area
35
Figure 13. Structural complexity map of the study area.
Figure 14. Euler deconvolution solution plot of the study area (S.I = 3.0)
36
Figure 15 presents the map showing the topographic of the micro-basin will be adequate to serve as reservoirs
nature of the area of study. A corresponding contour map because of the thickness of their sediment cover (greater
was also generated and this is presented in Figure 16. than 3 km) [44]. The identified sub-basins appeared clearly
From the two maps, it could be shown that the topography on this map. Figure 16 shows the basement topography
of the magnetic basement is undulating and irregular, con- map represented on a contour map.
firming the results of earlier workers [43,39]. The topography Four cross-sections (Figure 17 a-d) were generated
of the basement surface also exhibits a general trend from from the profile lines A-B, C-D, E-F, and GH drawn on
shallow in the northeast and southwest regions to deep in the contour map (Figure 16). From these sections, it could
the northwest section of the area, according to the surface be seen that the topography of the magnetic basement of
plot. The magnetic basement map depicts a succession
the area of study is very irregular, which conforms with
of ridges and troughs throughout the area, with a few de-
the result obtained from the basement topographic map
pressions thrown in for good measure. In the northeastern
(Figure 16). In cross-section A-B, three (3) sub-basins
section of the research area, population density is higher
exist and range in depth between 2500 m and 3400 m.
in these micro-basins. The magnetic basement surface
The second cross-section (C-D) presents five sub-basins
beneath the basin appears to be shallow and low relief,
based on the basement depth measurements. The magnetic with depths ranging from 2000 m to 3900 m. The third
basement can be found at depths ranging from 300 m to 8 cross-section (E-F) shows two sub-basins that are relative-
km, which corresponds to the sub-basin depth range. ly deeper than those found in the cross-section discussed
The general trend in sedimentation as seen from the earlier. These sub-basins have a depth range of 3000 m to
plot implies that the basin is thickest at the southwestern 6000 m. Due to the result presented in cross-section G-H
and central parts of the study area. The configuration of with one of the sub-basin having the highest depth of 8000
the basement is very irregular; a series of depressions m, it is believed that tectonic activities must be highest on
that could have been a result of tectonic activities. If all the south-eastern part of the study area; Kado and Zoki
other hydrocarbon producing factors are constant, some Bam areas of Benue state to be precise.
Figure 15. Magnetic basement topographic map of the study area.
37
Figure 16. Contour map showing the sub-basins and profiles
Figure 17. Cross-sections along with profiles A-B, C-D, E-F, and G-H
38
4. Conclusions Survey and Mining Authority (EGSMA), Aero-Ser-

vice Division, Houston, Texas, USA, Six Volumes.
The study evolved a detailed analysis of aeromagnetic No.3609.
data acquired to delineate basement topography and relief [3] Falconer, J.D., 1911. The Geology and Geography of
as well as depths to the top of magnetic sources of mid- Northern Nigeria. Macmillian: London, UK. pp. 147-
dle Benue Trough. Using the Oasis Montaj software, the 154.
results of this study have revealed that the basement sur- [4] Kasidi, S., Ndatuwong, L.G., 2017. Analysis of Aero-
faces comprise a successive pattern of crests and troughs magnetic Data Over Middle Benue Trough And Its
which detailed the fact that the magnetic basement is very Adjourning Basement Terrain, North Central Nigeria.
irregular and likely due to a series of tectonic activities IOSR Journal of Applied Geology and Geophysics
that occurred in the study area. Lineaments mainly trend- (IOSR-JAGG). 5(5), 01-08.
ing in the NE-SW directions were identified. The basin [5] Cratchley, C.R., Jones, G.P., 1965. An interpretation
is also found to consist of eleven sub-basins. A display of geology and gravity anomalies of the Benue val-
of the magnetic basement topographic map revealed the ley. Nigeria Geophysics. Pap overseas Geology Sur-
widespread of the identified sub-basins with a large num- vey London, no.1.
ber of them dominating the north-eastern part of the study [6] Reyment, R.A., 1965. Aspects of the geology of Ni-
area. They identified eleven distinct sub-basins (A-K) with geria. Ibadan University press, 205 Spector, A. and
sediment cover ranging from 2 km to 8 km were further Grant, F.S. 1970. Statistical models for interpreting
probed for hydrocarbon potentials. Regions A, B, C, D, E, aeromagnetic data. Geophysics. 35(2), 293-302.
and G have sediment thicknesses of more than 3 km and [7] Ehinola, O.A., 2010. Biostratiraphy & Depositional
might therefore be suitable to act as hydrocarbon reservoirs environment of the oil shale deposit in the Abakaliki
provided all other factors are in place. Aeromagnetic inter- fold belt, Southeast Nigeria. Oil Shale. 27(2), 99.
pretation of basement structures and geometry in parts of the [8] Obi, D.A., Okeke, C.S., Obei, B.C., et al., 2010.
middle Benue Trough has proven efficient in providing use- Aeromagnetic Modeling of Subsurface Intrusives
ful information about the nature of the basement as well as and its Implication on Hydrocarbon Evaluation of the
determining the basement topography and structures which Lower Benue Trough. Nigeria European Journal of
can provide necessary guides to explorationists. Scientific Research. 47(3), 347.
[9] Likkason, O.K., Singh, G.P., Samaila, N.K., 2013. A
Acknowledgement
study on the Middle Benue Trough of Nigeria based
Our special gratitude goes to the Nigerian Geological on geological application and analyses of spectra of
Survey Agency (NGSA) for providing the aeromagnetic aeromagnetic data.
data utilized in this research study. [10] Patrick, N.O., Fadele, S.I., Adegoke, I., 2013. A
stratigraphic report of the Middle Benue Trough,
Funding Nigeria: insights from petrographic and structural
No funding was received to assist with the preparation evaluation of Abuni and environs part of late Albian–
of this manuscript. Cenomanian Awe and Keana formations.
[11] Burke, K., Dessvaugie, T.F.W., Whiteman, A.J.,
Conflict of Interest 1975. Geological History of Benue Valley and Ad-
jacent Areas: Burke and Whiteman (eds.): African
Every corresponding author certifies that there are no Geology, University of Ibadan Nigeria.
conflicts of interest on behalf of all authors. There are no [12] Benkhelil, J., 1982. Benue Trough (auloeagen) a Tec-
actual or potential conflicts involving the work. tonic Model. Geology Magazine. 112, 575.
[13] Benkhelil, J., 1988. Structure Et Evolution Geody-
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40

ARTICLE
Assessment of Subsurface Competency Using Geotechnical Method of
a Proposed Structure F.C.T Nigeria
Osisanya O. Wasiu1* Diyanuwa A. Buduwara2 Korode A. Isaac3 Ibitoye T. Abel3
Ajibade F. Zephaniah3
1. Department of Physics, University of Benin, Benin, Edo, Nigeria
2. Department of Civil and Water Resources Engineering, University of Meduguri, Nigeria
3. Department of Petroleum Engineering and Geosciences, Petroleum Training Institute, Effurun, Nigeria
Article history Structural failure has been recently happenings mostly in the commercially
Received: 11 October 2022 populated states along the coastal line in Nigeria. As a result, an open field
at a chosen location in Abuja, Nigeria, was investigated. For the purpose
Revised: 24 November 2022 of this study, test bores were drilled and Standard Penetration Tests (SPT)
Accepted: 30 November 2022 were conducted at every 1.5 m interval up to a maximum depth of 12.0 m
Published Online: 30 December 2022 with the bearing pressure ranging between 20 kN/m2 and 1000 kN/m2. 3
test bores’ were drilled within the plot location, and samples were obtained
Keywords: at the test bores locations for laboratory analysis. Findings revealed that
subsurface lithology found at the site within the explored depths of 0.0 ~
Bearing 12.0 m is mostly silty sand, laterite, sandy clay, silty clay, clayey sand, and
Test weathered rock. The findings from the sub-soils of the different places and
Soil their bearing pressures were computed with SPT N value. Building foun-
dations may be rigid raft foundations at a depth of 2.0 meters below the
Strength
present ground level, according to bearing capacity values that range from
Depth 20 kN/m2 to 60 kN/m2 at 1.5 to 3.0 meters. The recommended building
foundations take into account the sub-soil’s characteristics at the drilling
places at a depth of between 1.0 and 3.0 meters. The structure might also be
supported by frictional piles buried 10 meters beneath the surface.
1. Introduction
in the cities of Lagos, Abuja, and Port Harcourt, both in
Building collapses have recently become a significant completed buildings and those still being built [3]. Building
problem in Nigeria; the frequency and extent of the losses collapses are occurring at such an unregulated rate that
being reported in terms of life and property are shocking it is almost impossible to keep track of them all. These
and disturbing [1,2]. The majority of the collapses occur structural collapses are frequently linked to the issues of
Osisanya Olajuwon Wasiu,
Department of Physics, University of Benin, Benin, Edo, Nigeria
Email: wasiu.osisanya@uniben.edu
41
subpar building materials, outdated structures, and inade- addition to the likelihood of ineffective layers like peat or
quate foundations investigation before the establishment soft, immature clay, there may also be fissures, fractures,
of high rising structures [4]. Following the transfer of the or voids, all of which are harmful to superstructures. Un-
Federal Capital Territory (FCT) from Lagos to Abuja on der no circumstances may a site investigation be skipped
the 12th day of December 1991, the city’s population has in an effort to reduce the overall cost of an engineering
grown quickly [5]. This has led to the requirement of land project. The nature and characteristics of the subsurface
for infrastructure developments such as the construction conditions can be ascertained with the use of a thorough
of fly-over bridges, sewage treatment and purification site study. The lithology was used as a preliminary basis
facilities, high and low rise structures for commercial and for rock type (top soil layer, weathered layer, and frac-
residential use, and water supply pipelines to all areas of tured basement) identification, in the (FCT) [12], Malomo
the city. Engineers, engineering geologists, and planners et al. [13], Omeje et al. [14] and the lithology of the study
have all expressed severe worry over this. Due to the het- area agree with the earlier study mention. Sedimentary
erogeneous nature of the rocks and soils that these struc- rocks and the Basement Complex make up the majority of
tures are built on, a thorough understanding of the geolo- Abuja’s subsurface geology. About 48% of the entire area
gy and Geo-technical features of the rocks and soils in the is made up of the igneous and metamorphic rocks that
Federal Capital Territory is crucial for planning and build- make up the Basement Complex, while some areas of the
ing all engineering structures. Due to recorded occurrenc- land are covered with hills and dissected terrain [14]. Older
es of structural failure and collapse, particularly in Lagos, granite, gneiss, and schists make up the majority of the
Abuja, and other regions of the country, the significance rocks. It is thought that volcanoes erupted the mountain
of Geo-technical investigation as well as engineering ge- ranges and a few solitary inselbergs during the Tertiary
ology has recently been emphasized and encouraged [6]. period. About 52% of Abuja’s total land area is covered by
Among other things, a Geo-technical site investigation sedimentary rocks, which mostly make up the undulating
entails determining the general suitability, safety, and plains. Though a dynamic attribute, soil structure is chal-
economic design of foundations and temporary works, lenging to define in light of the study area’s geology and
understanding the engineering properties of each stratum soil characteristics. The strength and competency of the
of soil and rock, and anticipating and addressing chal- subsurface host materials must be located and evaluated in
lenges that may arise during construction due to ground order for the engineering structure to have a long lifespan
conditions [7]. The complexity of a site inquiry depends on
and offer safety for people and property. Some type of soil
the type of engineering construction and the nature of the
improvement plan may be advised in regions with poor
ground conditions [8]. Therefore, a site assessment should
subsurface conditions that cannot sustain a superstructure,
aim to anticipate and prepare for challenges that could
but only after a thorough investigation of the underlying
develop during construction due to the ground and/or lo-
conditions. This has made it necessary to conduct in-depth
cal characteristics. Such evaluations should identify the
Geo-technical and geophysical studies of the subsurface
strata that would be severely impacted by the structural
structure in order to construct engineering projects now
load, groundwater quality, the rate and intensity of weath-
and in the future. Cone Penetration Tests (CPT) soundings
ering, and the orientation of the rock masses in terms of
for the Geo-technical sector, particularly at sites having
their structural integrity. The National Building Code of
discrete geological strata or discontinuous lenses, can be
1983 states that locations that were once utilized for mine
highly useful in characterizing the site. It’s a useful tech-
workings are also worth noting and investigating since
nique for determining the subsurface stratigraphy of soft
they could be potential areas for subsidence. Not only do
materials, discontinuous lenses, organic materials (peat),
design mistakes damage foundations, but foundation defi-
potentially liquefiable materials (silt, sands, and granular
ciencies like placing them on subpar earth strata also have
gravel), and landslides.
an impact. A building is seriously threatened by having
its foundation constructed on insufficient levels, which 1.1 Location and Accessibility
can also cause the building to collapse [9,10]. Hence, It is
important to recognize that the most competent is not the The study area is the Federxal Capital Territory (FCT)
one to bid the lowest price and in infrastructure projects neighborhood in Abuja, Nigeria. Between Latitudes
where the fee for Geo-technical investigations is likely to 9°3.30’ and 9°6.30’ N and Longitudes 7°27.30’ to 7°31.0’
be less than 0.01% to 0.02%, more weight age has to be E (Figure 1). An excellent road network connecting the
given to technical competency rather than the price [11]. In city makes the area accessible.
42
1.2 Topography granite, porphyroblastic gneiss, and migmatites. Generally

speaking, the Migmatite-Gneiss Complex, the Schist Belt
The topography of the study area varies from place to (Metasedimentary and Metavolcanic rocks), the Older
place, with the lowest altitudes occurring in the region Granites (Pan African granitoids), and the Undeformed
around the extreme southwest at the River Gurara flood- Acid and Basic Dykes make up the Basement Complex
plains. From there, the ground rises erratically in the east,
of Nigeria. Many areas in northern, western and eastern
north, and northwest directions. The highest area of the
Nigeria are covered by rocks of the Migmatite–Gneiss
country is in the northwest, where numerous peaks rise to
Complex. The Migmatite–Gneiss Complex has ages
a height of roughly 760 meters above sea level.
ranging from Pan-African to Eburnean. The Liberian
1.3 Climate (2,700 Ma), Eburnean (2,000 Ma), Kibaran (1,100 Ma),
and Pan-African cycles, which correlate to the four ma-
Similarly to that, from November to March, the area jor orogenic cycles of deposition, metamorphism, and
has its hottest temperatures, which is around 36 °C. The remobilization, are thought to be responsible for at least
temperature dips to a high of 24 °C during the wet season, four of the basement rocks (600 Ma). The Cretaceous and
which lasts from April to October. According to Adeeko Younger Sediments are unconformably overlain by the
and Ojo [15], the yearly rainfall ranges from 1100 mm to Mesozoic calc-alkaline ring complexes (Younger Gran-
1600 mm. ites) of the Jos Plateau, which intrude on the foundation
rocks. The metamorphosed supra crustal exogenetic rocks,
2. Geology of the Study migmatite complex, intrusive coarse-grained granite, mi-
Studies conducted by Truswell and Cope [16], Oyawoye [17], nor intrusions such rhyolites and dolerites, and other tiny
ABU [18], Turner [19], give a brief description of the ge- formations like quartzite, pegmatite, and quartz vein are
ology. The study region is located in the northernmost among the rocks that were included in the study, accord-
portion of Nigeria’s Precambrian Basement Complex see ing to Grant [22]. From field studies and previous research,
Figure 2, which is a component of the Pan-African Mo- numerous structures have been identified in the study
bile Belt that runs between the West African and Congo area, including foliations in mica schist, hornblende and
Cratons [20]. High-grade metamorphic and igneous rocks feldspathic schists, migmatites, and gneisses; layering and
of the Precambrian age almost entirely underlie the study planar orientation of flat xenoliths in migmatitic complex;
region, with a broad NW-SE trend [21]. These rocks include folds in migmatites, gneisses, and occasionally schist;
migmatites, coarse porphyritic biotite hornblende gran- crenulation and elongation of mineral grains or aggregates
ite, medium-grained biotite granite, biotite hornblende in the schist belt; joins and faults trending NNW-SSE and
granite, granite gneiss, quartzite, older undifferentiated SE-NW, respectively [23].
Figure 1. Map of the study area
43
Figure 2. Geological map of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja showing the different rock types
3. Materials and Methods 3.3 Soil Classification Tests

3.1 Field Investigations In order to improve the description and identification,
these were performed on the samples that were acquired.
The rotary drilling rig was used to create three deep
These tests fall under these categories: Particle Size Dis-
boreholes. Using the rotary drilling method, the test
tribution Test, Determination of Moisture Content, Atter-
borings were dug 11 m ~ 12 m below the surface of the
berg Limit, Specific Gravity, and Bulk Density Tests.
ground. Routine and Standard Penetration Tests (SPT)
using the wet drilling method, the test borings were bor- 3.3.1 Soil Strength Tests
ing to the point of refusal. Samples were taken at 1.5 m
intervals throughout each test bore. Standard Penetration These mainly require figuring out the strength charac-
Tests (SPT) were performed at intervals of 1.5 m. As per teristics that can be used to compute the bearing pressure
ASTM D1586–1990 and BS 5930, the sampling method of the soil. Unaltered samples were subjected to a triaxial
involved driving a standard split spoon. This was accom- compression test, whereas disturbed samples were sub-
plished by repeatedly striking a 760 mm-high wall with a jected to a shear box test. These are the tests included in
hammer weighing 63.5 kg. In Appendix B, the relation- this category: (i) Triaxial Compression Test. (Figure 3) (ii)
ship between depth and penetration resistance (N-value) Shear Box Test (Figure 4).
is depicted. Visually categorized samples that were recov-
3.3.2 Soil Deformation Tests
ered from the borings described above were geologically
logged. They were then brought to the lab to have the The one-dimensional consolidation test was used to
parameters determined. calculate the consolidation (settlement over time) and
ascertain how the soil was responding to deformation. (i)
3.2 Laboratory Testing Consolidation Test.
To enhance the accuracy of the field identification and
3.3.3 Chemical Tests
classification tests, laboratory tests were conducted on
chosen disturbed and undisturbed samples taken from This was done in order to gauge the number of chemical
the boreholes. The tests were carried out in line with the components in the soil and see if it would be detrimental to
applicable British Standard, as defined in BS 1377. These the structure’s foundation. (i) PH Value of Water in Soils. (ii)
are the several test types that were performed. Sulphate and Chloride Content of Water in Soils.
44
3.4 Bearing Capacity Analysis
The properties of the soil’s shear strength, as well as

the depth and dimensions of the foundation, determine the
permitted bearing pressure imposed by it. The laborato-
ry shear strength compression tests that were performed
on undisturbed samples resulted in the calculation of the
bearing capabilities for typical digging locations. Equa-
tions (1) and (2) represent computations for common un-
interesting places. Figure 4. Shear Box Test Equipment
BH 1 at depth of 1.5 m
Qulimate = CNc +ϒDNq+ 1/2ϒBNϒ (1) 4. Results and Discussion
2 3
where C = 2 kN/m = 16.00 kN/mg, Ø = 7°, ϒ = 16.00 kN/m , 4.1 Geotechnical Properties
B = 1.0 m, D = 1.50 m. The Bearing capacity coefficients
The studies carried out in laboratories provided in-
(shallow foundations): Nc = 8.15, Nq = 0.27, g = 2.0 N.
formation on the geotechnical characteristics of the soils
Therefore, q (Ult.)= 35.11 kN/m2; Factor of safety = 2.5;
found at the various layer formations of the overburden.
Q (allowable) = 14 kN/m2. The outcomes from the laboratory tests performed on
BH 1 at depth of 4.5 m soil samples from the borehole are displayed below, along
Qulimate = CNc +ϒDNq+ 1/2ϒBNϒ (2) with the minimum and maximum values within each
2 range. (see Table 1)
where C = 33 kN/m = 16.00 kN/mg, Ø = 7°, ϒ = 17.80
kN/m3, B = 1.0 m, D = 4.50 m. The Bearing capacity coef- Table 1. Results of laboratory tests performed on soil
ficients (shallow foundations): Nc= 8.15, Nq = 0.20, g= 2.0 samples from the borehole
N. Therefore, q (Ult.) = 316.53 kN/m2; Factor of safety = Soil Property Min. Max.
2.5; Q (allowable) = 126 kN/m2. Natural Moisture Content (%) 10 29

Liquid Limit (%) 26 46
Plastic Limit (%) 14 28
Plasticity Index (%) 10 18
Passing # 200 Sieve (%) 10.56 50.84
Bulk density (kN/m3) 16.00 19.5
Apparent Cohesion (kN/m2) 0 6
Angle of Internal Friction (Ø) 4 39
Coefficient at Compressibility (m2/kN) 6.1×10–4 3.80×10–3
Coefficient at Consolidation (m2/yr) 2.90×10–1 1.8
Specific Gravity 2.60 2.68
The soil’s plastic limit ranged from 14% to 28%, its

liquid limit from 26% to 46%, and its plasticity index is
in the range of 10% to 18.4% (Table 1). The bulk density
ranges from 16 to 19.5 and the natural moisture content is
between 10% and 29% (see Table 1). According to Table
1, the ranges for apparent cohesion, angle of internal fric-
tion, compressibility coefficient, and coefficient at con-
solidation are 0 to 6 kN/m2, 4 to 39, 6.1×10–4 to 3.8×10–3,
and 2.90×10–1 to 1.8, respectively. Based on field and
lab measurements, soil-bearing capacity calculations are
made. The SPT N30 value obtained from the field data
and the laboratory strength characteristics of the recovered
samples served as the basis for the bearing capacity for
the chosen borings. Table 2 contains the values that were
Figure 3. Triaxial Compression Test Equipment acquired.
45
Table 2. Bearing Capacity Values depth and a certain pressure range are crucial.
Bearing Pressures (KN/m2)
The effective stresses for the various layers are com-
Depth (m) puted below using Fadum’s chart see Table 3.
BH1 BH2 BH3
0.0 - - - Table 3. Consolidation Settlement Analysis
1.5 30 20 40
Layer Mv (m2/kN) dp (kN/m2) H (m) Mv x dp x H (m)
3.0 20 30 60
1 3.45E-4 100 0.5 0.00173
4.5 110 140 90
2 3.80E-4 50 1.5 0.0285
6.0 200 360 110
3 5.65E-4 25 3.0 0.0283
7.5 >1000 >1000 370
ρc - Σ(Mv x dp x H) 0.0247
9.0 >1000 >1000 430
10.5 >1000 >1000 >1000
The estimated average consolidation settlement is 24.7
12.0 EB EB >1000
mm.
EB 4.2.2 Immediate Settlement
EB is End of boring.  The
(−2)
= 100immediate
× ×settlement

( ) was carried out using
Equations (4) (−2)
and (5) respectively.
4.2 Settlement Analysis  = 100 × 
Ip = 0.80 ( )
×
(−2)
 = 100 ×  × (4)
4.2.1 Consolidation Settlement Ip = 0.80
( )
1−0.25 2
 =
Ip = 0.80
100 × 1.0 × × 0.22
3200
The results of the laboratory (oedometer) tests are used Ip = 0.80
1−0.25 2
to estimate primary consolidation settlement on the sandy 

ρi ==0.00644
100 × 1.0 × corner of
m at 0.22 area.
× loaded (5)
3200 2
1−0.25
clay between the depths of 1.5 m ~ and 3.0 m based on the  = 100 × 1.0 × × 0.22
ρi = 0.00644 m at corner 3200 of loaded area.
ρi = 0.00644 m at corner
Settlement of loaded
at the center area. by 4, 6.44 mm × 4 = 25.76 mm.
multiplies
increase in the effective vertical pressure induced by the Settlement at the center multiplies by 4, 6.44 mm × 4 =
ρi = 0.00644 m at corner of loaded area.
loads from the structure. Conventional settlement relation- 25.76
4.2.3 mm.Settlement atTotal
Maximum the center multiplies by 4, 6.44 mm × 4 = 25.76 mm.
Settlement
ship containing coefficient of volume compressibility (Mv) Settlement at the center multiplies by 4, 6.44 mm × 4 = 25.76 mm.
was used in the analysis see Equation (3): 4.2.3
4.2.3 Maximum
Maximum Total
TotalSettlement
It is the summation Settlement
of the immediate settlement and secondary settle
Therefore, 4.2.3 Maximum Total Settlement
It is the summation of the immediate settlement and
S = Mv x Δσ x H (3) Equation It is the summation of the immediate settlement and secondary settle
(6).
secondary settlement as shown in Equation (6).
It is the summation of the immediate settlement and secondary settle
where, Mv = Average coefficient of volume compressibili- Equation
    (6).   +       = (6)
ty obtained for the effective pressure increment in the par- Equation (6).
And it gives a product of 50.46 mm when computed.
ticular layer under consideration. Δσ = Average effective + aproduct
    And itgives =50.46 mm when computed.
   of
vertical stress imposed on the particular layer resulting 

4.2.4 
   Differential
  +      =
 Settlement
And it gives a Settlement
4.2.4 Differential product of 50.46 mm when computed.
from the foundation pressure. H = Thickness of the par-
ticular layer under consideration.The foundation level is With a calculated product
And it gives a maximum of 50.46 mm when
settlement computed.
of about 50.46
4.2.4 Differential Settlement
2.0 m. mm, the maximum differential settlement wouldabout
With a calculated maximum settlement of 50.46 mm, the m
be ap-
4.2.4 Differential Settlement
The acceptable limit of the coefficient of volume proximately 50% of the maximum settlement. In reality,
Withwould
settlement a calculated maximum settlement
be approximately 50% of theof maximum
about 50.46 mm, the Im
settlement.
change (Mv) for heavy over-cemented clays, stiff weath- differential settlement, which causes one part of a struc-
With a calculated maximum settlement of about 50.46 mm, the m
ered rocks, and hard clays was given by Carter (1983) ture to rotate
settlement
settlement, or deflect
would
which relative
one parttoofother
be approximately
causes a50% parts,
of the
structure is rotate
to what or
maximumhasdeflect
settlement.
relativeI
as 0.05×10–3 kN/m2. Terzaghi and Peck [22] also looked asettlement
negative impact
would on be aapproximately
structure. 50% of the maximum settlement. I
settlement,
hasThe which
a negative
maximum causes
impact on aone
total part of a of
structure.
settlement structure
aboutto50.46
rotatemmor deflect relative
into the coefficient of consolidation (Cv) of a few Geo-
technical materials, with granular soils such as rock fill while the expected maximum differential settlementorisdeflect relative
settlement, which causes one part of a structure to rotate
has a negative impact ontotal
The maximum a structure.
settlement of about 50.46 mm while the
having a Cv of 0.02+0.01, shale and mudstone having 50.46/2 = 25.23 mm.
has a negative impact on a structure.
a Cv of 0.03+0.01, inorganic clays and silt having a Cv The settlement
differential maximumis total
50.46/2settlement
= 25.23 mm.of about 50.46 mm while the
4.3 PileThe Capacity Computations
maximum total settlement of about 50.46 mm while the
of 0.04+0.01, and organic clays and silts having a Cv of
differential
4.3Taking settlement is Computations
Pile into
Capacity 50.46/2 = 25.23 mm.
0.05+0.01. Results from Table 3 indicated that, except for account the soil overburden found between
differential settlement is 50.46/2 = 25.23 mm.
layer 3, Mv values for layers 1 and 2 were below the per- 0.0 and 30.0 meters below the surface. The end-bearing
4.3 Pile Capacity
Taking
Computations
mitted limits. The low to a moderate value of Mv for layer resistance and into
skinaccount
frictionthe soil portion
of the overburden found
of the shaftbetween
in 0.0 and 3
4.3 Pile Capacity Computations
1 and layer 2 (Table 3) suggests that any structure built on contact with the soil that is supporting the pile are the only
surface.Taking into account
The end-bearing the soil and
resistance overburden foundofbetween
skin friction 0.0 of
the portion andthe3
the soils won’t experience excessive settling that exceeds factors that affect the carrying capacity of piles driven into
Taking into account the soil overburden found between 0.0 and 3
the allowed limit. The low values of Mv at a constant clays andThe
surface. clayey silts. resistance and skin friction of the portion of the
end-bearing
surface. The end-bearing resistance and skin friction of the portion of the
46 15
15
15
The total pile capacity = Qb + Qs support structures that weigh more than 600 kN/m2, while
Qb = base resistance Pressures areas with particularly loose sand, soft clays, and silts
Qb = qb.Ab = Nc×Cub× Ab should not be loaded above 150 kN/m2.
Nc, bearing capacity factor = 9 for clay & Silt
Ab = Area of base of pile (based on diameter of pile) 4.4.2 Lateritic Soil
and
Layers of stiff to extremely stiff reddish brown, fine-
Qs = qs.As = α×CuAs
grained alluvial sands that were mixed with reasonably
where Qs = Skin friction, qs = shaft friction, Cu =
solidified clay that was poor in flexibility and materials
undrained shear strength, and As = area of shaft.
from the lateritic iron crust were found to be between 0.0
The values of the Pile load capacities at the various
and 0.35 meters thick.
boring points are given in Table 4:
4.4.3 Silt-fine Sand
4.4 Chemical Test Result
Between 0.35 and 1.40 meters thick, this layer of per-
The findings of the chemical tests show that the levels
meable loose sand and silts is common.
of sulfate and chloride are between 151.48 and 163.11
mg/L and 170.45 and 185.62 mg/L, respectively, with pH 4.4.4 Clay Sandy
values between 6.37 and 6.50. The pH value is regarded
as slightly acidic, and the levels of sulfate and chloride are These were found between 0.85 and 5.75 meters and
regarded as moderate and within safe limits. are composed of very stiff, somewhat cemented clay and
medium-grained sand.
4.4.1 Subsoil Condition and Groundwater Condition
4.4.5 Silty Clay
From the beginning of the boreholes until their con-
clusion, the stratigraphies of the subsurface deposits as Between 2.50 and 4.0 meters, these are a horizon of
seen from the logs of test bores conducted at this location densely consolidated silts, sands, and alluvial deposits
shared commonalities in type and strength characteristics. material with high mica content of variable degrees and
All of the test borings have shown that silty sand, clayey partially combined with worn rock in some spots.
sand, sandy clay, laterite, and worn rock are among the
components. 4.4.6 Clayey Sand
Lekmang, et al. [24] claim that there are substantial dif-
These were found between 0.0 m ~ 0.75 m and 4.0 m ~
ferences in Abuja’s particle size distribution when analyz-
7.35 m from the various boring locations. They are highly
ed from disturbed soil samples taken from boreholes. The
stiff, fairly cemented clay with medium-grain sand particles.
majority of the soil samples are well-graded, ranging from
clay, silt, sand, and gravels. In certain places, a mixture of 4.4.7 Weathered Rock
two or more of the aforementioned soils is seen. Impor-
tant foundation soils are dense sands and gravels because Extremely to weathered granite rock layers that are
they can support loads greater than 600 kN/m2 with little highly micaceous and found to be combined with clayey
settling [25]. In order to preserve the stability and integrity sandy silt at the surface are reported to have good bearing
of the structure, areas with dense sands and gravel can pressure at depths between 5.50 and 12.0 meters.
Table 4. Safe Load Capacity for Pile (400 mm  & 600 mm  )
Total Safe Pile
Depth of Pile Pile Unit shaft Shaft Shift End
Adhension Pile Capacity
S boring Diameter length friction qs area AS friction Resistance,
Factor Capacity FOS=3.0
(m) (m) (m) (KN/m2) (m2) QS (KN) Qb (KN)
(KN) (KN)
BH1 11.0 0.90 3.142 0.4 10.0 432 12.57 1131 6560 2187
BH1 11.0 0.90 3.142 0.4 10.0 456 12.57 1131 6866 2289
BH1 12.0 0.90 3.142 0.4 10.0 267 12.57 1131 4491 1497
BH2 11.0 0.90 3.142 0.6 10.0 432 18.85 2545 10689 3563
BH2 11.0 0.90 3.142 0.6 10.0 456 18.85 2545 11147 3716
BH2 12.0 0.90 3.142 0.6 10.0 267 18.85 2545 7584 2528
47
4.4.8 Groundwater Table 5. Conclusions

The phreatic surfaces were examined from every bor- By combining laboratory and Geo-technical approaches,
ing point, and pictures were taken 24 hours afterward a study of subsoil competency for the construction of en-
(static). The groundwater tables ranged in depth from 1.60 gineering structures has been conducted in Abuja, Nigeria.
to 2.56 meters at the time this inquiry was finished in Au- This was necessary to offer information about the area’s
gust 2019. Seasonal and annual variations are anticipated. subsoil’s geologic makeup and proficiency. Results showed
Each drilling site’s water level is described in Table 5 that the proposed subsoil examination includes clayey sand
while the SPT results obtained at the test bores are pre- overburden, lateritic material, silty sand, sandy clay, and
silty clay in the studied depth range of 0.0 to 7.35 meters.
sented in Table 6 and Figure 5.
At a depth of between 5.55 and 12.0 meters, where drilling
Table 5. Water Table level was stopped, these were further overlain by worn granite
Co-ordinate
rock. 3 No test bores in total, up to a maximum depth of
S/No Test Water Table 12.0 meters below the surface of the ground, were carried
Easting Northing
out for this inquiry. The water table was found to be be-
1 BH1 333959 1003700 1.30 tween 0.95 and 1.25 meters deep at the time of the exam-
2 BH2 334003 1003675 1.15 ination. The results of the standard penetration test (SPT)
3 BH3 334030 1003648 0.95 showed that at low depths, the bearing pressure of the sub-
soil at the site is average, but increases as depth increases.
Table 6. The result of SPT obtained at the test bores
5.1 Subsurface Concrete Protection
Depth (m) SPT N Value Lithology
BHI BH2 BH3 Since the chemical composition of the subsoil won’t
0.0 - - - Silty sand, laterite, clayey sand have a negative impact of on the concrete, ordinary Portland
1.5 3 2 4 Sandy clay, silty clay cement with a cement content no less than 370 kg/m3 and a
3.0 2 3 6 Sandy clay, silty clay
water-to-cement ratio of 0.40 might be used, and safeguards
are required to safeguard subsurface reinforced concrete.
4.5 11 14 9 Sandy clay, clayey sand
6.0 20 36 11 Clayey sand , weathered rock 5.2 Drainage Management
7.5 100 100 37 Weathered rock
Ample drainage should be provided around the site to
drain away surface and run-off water during and after con-
struction taking into account the topography of the site.
12.0 EB EB 100 Weathered rock
Waterproof material should be utilized at the foundation’s
EB
hardcore level to prevent water intrusion due to the high
EB is end of boring water table level that is located near the surface. In gen-
eral, appropriate filling and a consistent slope should be
used so that water cannot infiltrate around the buildings.
5.3 Recommendations
The material explored beneath the recommended shal-
low foundation level is expected to undergo some degree of
settlement when fully loaded. Generally, the subsoil is ex-
pected to undergo some settlements due to the consolidation
of the materials beneath at shallow depths before the weath-
ered rock strata. The estimated settlement computation in
section 8.0 gives a guide on the settlement pattern expected
under loadings. Considering the high water table level en-
countered within the depth of 0.95 m ~ 1.30 m, waterproof
material should be used at the foundation hardcore level to
BH 1 BH 2 BH 3
prevent the ingress of water. Generally, proper filling and a
Figure 5. Columnar
Figure 5. Columnar sections
sections of ofshowing
the test bore the test
thebore showing
lithology with their the uniform slope be adopted in such a way that water will not
pressure readings
lithology with their pressure readings be able to percolate around the buildings.
5. Conclusions
48 By combining laboratory and Geo-technical approaches, a study of subsoil competency
for the construction of engineering structures has been conducted in Abuja, Nigeria. This was
necessary to offer information about the area’s subsoil’s geologic makeup and proficiency.
Conflict of Interest cambrian Oban Massif, Southeastern Nigeria. Journal

of Applied Geophysics. 36, 95-204.
There is no conflict of interest.
[13] Malomo, S., Olorunniwo, M.A., Ogunsanwo, O.,
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Editor-in-Chief

Prof. Sayed Hemeda

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

2. Materials and Methods 3.3 Aspect (Slope Direction)

Figure 3. Prepared effective layers on aquifer recharge

Figure 4. Schematic sketch showing affective parameters concerning aquifer recharge

3.12 AHP Method 1 Equal importance

Figure 5. The matrix of the AHP method

Calculated weight Calculated weight by

Calculated weight Calculated weight by

High Very high

b) reciprocal influences of parameters method

Table 5. Results obtained for the different methods

Doline after by [33]

Author Contributions temperate humid areas. Hydrogeology Journal. 15,