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What is energy, and why is it conserved? A review, analysis, and suggested

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What is energy, and why is it conserved?

A review, analysis, and suggested explanation and definition
Harald Mehling
Consultant, Weingartenstr. 37, 97074 Würzburg, Germany, e-mail: harald.mehling@gmail.com

1. Abstract
Despite its importance in science and engineering, available definitions of energy up to now
only comment on its use, e.g. regarding the supply of work or heat, but do not have a real
explanation of what energy is, nor why it is conserved. In this paper, an explanation to
understand both is derived. For this, the concepts and definitions of force and momentum,
including the conservation of momentum, are investigated first as a basis for the discussion of
energy. To understand what energy is, the conservation of energy is of central importance. It is
then shown that a derivation from Newton’s 3rd law, initially for simple mechanical systems,
can be used to understand what energy is and why energy is conserved in a much wider scope.
Keywords: force, momentum, energy, conservation, energy forms, conversion, heat, work

2. Introduction
2.1 Current state
Energy is a key topic today, in science and technology as well as in society in general.
Literature on energy related matters is abundant, and covers scientific and technical aspects.
However, for the majority of people having no scientific or technical degree it is still hard to
find a suitable introduction to the basics. Even for people having a scientific or technical degree,
or studying towards such a degree, the different terms and concepts are often confusing. This is
not surprising, because it is more the rule than the exception that definitions in textbooks are
incomplete, misleading, or even erroneous. In addition, common usage and scientific-technical
usage of terms is often different and thus another basis for misunderstandings.
Regarding energy, a frequently found definition in common literature as well as in textbooks is
“energy is the ability to do work” or slightly more detailed “energy is the capacity of a system
to do work” [Atkins 1990]. This is the original historic meaning, however nowadays incomplete
as it misses “the ability to supply heat”. And even for what is mentioned, the meaning of “work”
and “ability” or “capacity” is not explained. In fact, the concept of energy has been updated
many times in history, starting from energy as the ability or capacity to do work with work
being equal to force times distance (mechanical work), then revised and extended, e.g. by heat,
and later by defining different forms of energy, e.g. mechanical, thermal, electrical. This is one
reason for incomplete, misleading, or even wrong definitions and usage.
Energy can be converted between the different energy forms, while overall energy is conserved.
The conservation of energy is a fundamental concept in physics, like the conservation of mass
and the conservation of momentum. This can be used for another approach to define energy.
[Walker et al. 2014] state “Energy is a number that we associate with a system of one or more
objects.” They continue “If a force changes one of the objects by, say, making it move, then the
energy number changes. After countless experiments, scientists and engineers realized that if the
scheme by which we assign energy numbers is planned carefully, the numbers can be used to
predict the outcomes of experiments and, even more important, to build machines, such as
flying machines.”, thus relating energy to changes. They explain “This success is based on a
wonderful property of our universe: energy can be transformed from one type to another and
transferred from one object to another, but the total amount is always the same (energy is
conserved). No exception to this principle of energy conservation has ever been found.”
Both definitions are quite different; once energy is an ability, once a number. What is it?

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In this paper, an explanation to understand what energy is and why it is conserved is derived.
2.2 General comments on definitions
Before starting the discussion, it is helpful to clarify what a good definition should look like,
especially regarding its content. In general, a definition must always comprise an identification
(what is defined, e.g. name), and can, should, or even must comprise information (if applicable)
like meaning, description, explanation, classification, characterization, and application.
The information in a definition is given for others to use in some context, such that it is
commonly necessary to customize the information in content and wording to a specific group of
people with a certain knowledge and purpose. Thus, definitions can differ from field to field.
Definitions commonly start with “the term to be defined” is (identification), and then add
information like what something is (classification) e.g. something is a vehicle, a tool, an animal,
a concept, what something is used for (application) e.g. for transportation, listing the
characteristics (description), e.g. with 4 wheels, spacious, or the origin (e.g. as an explanation).
As an example, the definition of a school bus could be “a school bus is a large vehicle used for
transportation of large groups of children to school”. This definition is tailored to a general
audience. For specialists with some background knowledge and a certain application in mind, it
would look different. A car engineer would probably use a more technical definition of school
bus than the one above, and because of the background the part “a school bus is a large vehicle”
can be left out. The definition then could be “a school bus is a bus that can transport between 10
and 50 children, and is especially designed for the transportation to school. For this purpose, a
school bus must have special technical equipment, as defined by law, like lights, mirrors,
colouring and inscription”.
A statement that “energy is the ability, or capacity, of a system to do work and supply heat”
describes its use in a special area but only scratches the surface, and the terms work and heat are
often not well known by the audience. For a general understanding, it must be combined with
additional statements, ideally with a real explanation, not simply using the terms capacity,
ability, or any similar that leave the question on the origin and nature of energy open.

3. Review, analysis, and suggested improvements

The analysis starts looking at the term “force”, because it is a necessary basis to understand
“energy”, and as it is the more familiar concept from common experience. The analysis then
continues with the term “momentum”; it is linked to force in a similar manner as energy, and it
is subject to a conservation law, like energy, even having similar origins. Energy conservation
will be in the focus of the discussion here, because it is central in the use of energy. The
conservation of momentum, which in mechanics is a consequence of Newton’s 2nd and 3rd law,
is first used as an aid to understand the origin and basis of conservation of momentum better,
and for improving existing definitions of momentum. Then, the same is repeated for energy,
where the derivation of energy conservation in mechanics is possible from Newton’s 3rd law, for
kinetic energy (energy of motion) in combination with Newton’s 2nd law. It is then shown, that
this derivation is not limited to simple mechanical systems, but can be used to understand
energy, its conservation, as well as conversion in a much wider scope.
3.1 Definition of “force”
A definition of “force”, found in a chemistry textbook [Brown et al. 2015], is as “a push or a
pull.” This could be a good definition for a general audience. However, it is not very specific.
[Atkins 1990] states “we introduce the concept of force (a push or pull), in terms of the
acceleration given to a selected standard body”. This is much more specific through adding
extra information on forces; however, the “selected standard” for the body is misleading. He
continues to specify that “Forces are vectors. They have a magnitude; they have direction.”
[Cleveland and Morris 2009] define force (physics) as “the cause of motion; according to
Newton’s second law of motion, force is equal to the product of mass and acceleration,
measured in Newtons”.

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Summarizing and reorganizing the information gives: a force is a “push or a pull”, force is “a
concept”, it is “equal to the mass times acceleration of a body” due to Newton’s 2nd law, and it
is “a vector”, and forces are “measured in Newtons”. This collection would already allow to
give a better, more specific and comprehensive definition than any of the definitions before.
But it is possible to make it better, actually significantly better with regard to the definition of
energy later. For this, it is necessary to collect more information on the scientific and technical
usage and common usage of the term, and compare them; this also helps to understand where
common misconceptions originate.
The following definitions of “force” can be found in an English dictionary [Hornby 1983],
neither a scientific nor a technical source: a) strength, power of body or mind, physical power,
b) person or thing that makes great changes, c) organized body of armed or disciplined men, and
d) pressure or influence exerted at the point tending to cause movement. This definition shows
that the term “force” is commonly used in a much broader meaning than in science and
engineering. The terms force, power, and pressure, which in science and engineering have own,
different meanings, are here mixed.
Moreover, this definition introduces an aspect that was not included in the definitions before
found in textbooks: “cause changes” and “movement”; just “cause of motion” as mentioned
above is wrong according to Newton’s 2nd law. This relates to Newton’s laws, which were
already mentioned in one of the definitions above. In fact, the scientific and technical usage
mainly refers to Newton’s laws, and when talking about thermodynamics later to generalized
forces. Newton’s laws, being a key to the discussion, are now summarized here.
Newton’s 1st law (“law of inertia”) can be stated as [Halliday et al. 1993] “Consider a body on
which no net force acts. If the body is at rest, it will remain at rest. If the body is moving with
constant velocity, it will continue to do so.” Because constant velocity includes zero velocity (at
rest), this can be written as
r r
∑ F = 0 ⇔ v = const. . Eq. 1

Newton’s 2nd law states that “the vector sum, or net force, of all the forces that act on a body is
equal to its mass times its acceleration”
r r
∑ F = m⋅a . Eq. 2

Newton’s 2nd law thus includes his 1st law as a special case.
Newton’s 3rd law states that if a body A exerts a force on a body B, then body B exerts a force
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on A.
r r
FAB = −FBA . Eq. 3

To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction (action and reaction force).
According to Newton’s 2nd law, forces are not the cause of motion of a body, they are the cause
of changes of the motion. Specifically, a force (unless balanced by another force) causes a
change in motion, and no change in motion without a force. A change in motion is always
caused by a force; a force is never observed itself; “force” is a concept, so basic that it can only
be explained by what it does.
Summarizing again all information, and reorganizing it, gives: a force is “a concept”, in
common words a “push or a pull”, and (unless balanced by another force) it “cause changes” in
the “motion / movement” of “a body / object” (and no change in motion without a force); it is
“equal to the mass times acceleration of a body” according Newton’s 2nd law, it is “a vector”,
and forces are “measured in Newton”.

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Thus, the suggested definition after the analysis here is “A force, in common words a “push
or a pull”, is (a concept introduced in physics to explain) the cause of changes in the
motion / movement of an object (no change without a force). The change of the velocity
with time (acceleration) of an object multiplied by its mass is equal to the applied net
force, according Newton’s 2nd law. A force is a vector, thus having a magnitude (quantity)
and a direction; its magnitude has the SI unit Newton.”
3.2 Definition of “momentum”
The analysis now continues with the term “momentum”, more specifically linear momentum. It
is linked to force, like energy. The derivation of the conservation of momentum, which in
mechanics follows directly from Newton’s 2nd and 3rd law, is used as an aid to understand the
origin and basis of conservation of momentum better, and then for improving existing
definitions of momentum. The same is later repeated for energy.
A definition of “momentum” (specifically linear momentum) given in a textbook [Brown et al.
2015] is “The product of the mass, m, and the velocity, v, of an object.” In fact, more precise,
momentum is also again a vector, thus
r r
p = m⋅v . Eq. 4

A definition of “momentum” given in the “Dictionary of energy” [Cleveland and Morris 2009]
is “a measure of the motion of an object, equal to the product of its mass and its velocity”; it is
somewhat more extensive, adding the aspect of “motion” again and that momentum is a
“measure”. The following definitions of “momentum” can be found in an English dictionary
[Hornby 1983]: a) (science) quantity of motion of a moving body (the product of its mass and
velocity) b) impetus gained by movement.
Part b) introduces an important aspect for understanding what momentum is; for example, it is
common to say “… momentum of a movement of people, for more rights …” in trying to
express that something is not easy to stop. In fact, this is some point that also shows up in
physics: the relation between force and change of linear momentum

r dpr r r Eq. 5
F= , or F ⋅ dt = dp ,
dt

where the force is again the origin of a change in motion. Using Eq. 4 and assuming that the
mass m is constant, Eq. 5 is equivalent to Newton’s 2nd law (Eq. 2)

r dpr d(m ⋅ vr ) r
dv r Eq. 6
F= = = m⋅ = m⋅a .
dt dt dt

Eq. 5 relates to the “impetus gained by movement”, by trying to express that something is not
easy to stop with regard to necessary force and also necessary time. In contrast to a change in
motion with focus on a velocity change, expressed by the acceleration, the momentum includes
the mass. This is what we have in mind when talking about the impetus of a movement of
people; it includes their number, not only their velocity. And the same applies when an
avalanche comes down a mountain, or when a flood comes down a creek.
Summarizing all information, and reorganizing it, gives: “momentum” is “a measure / quantity
of the motion of an object”, “equal to the product of its mass and its velocity”; “a vector”.
Thus, the suggested definition after the analysis here is “Momentum is (a concept introduced
in physics, used as) a measure for the motion / movement of an object. It is equal to the
mass times the velocity of an object (and is thus a vector, having a magnitude / quantity
and a direction). The change of the momentum of an object is equal to the applied net
force multiplied by the applied time (called impulse), according Newton’s 2nd law.”

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At this point, not yet included is the conservation of linear momentum. Due to its importance, it
will give new suitable information and aspects to a comprehensive definition of momentum.
The possibility to derive the conservation of momentum in mechanics from Newton’s 2nd and
3rd law is well known (e.g. Kurzweil et al. 2009). The key for the derivation is that the reaction
force and the action force are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, at any time.
As example, and basis for the following discussion, the derivation for the interaction of two
objects follows. Using the fact that according to Newton’s 3rd law, Eq. 3, the interaction (action
and reaction) has the same F(t) on both sides follows
r r
∫ F ⋅ dt = −∫ F ⋅ dt .
Eq. 7
1 2

Inserting Newton’s 2nd law as expressed by using momentum (Eq. 5), and rearranging gives
r r
dp1 dp 2 Eq. 8
∫ dt
⋅ dt + ∫
dt
⋅ dt = 0 .

Using the fact that integration adds an integration constant results in

r r
p1 + p 2 = const. . Eq. 9

Equivalently, using Eq. 4

r r
m1 ⋅ v1 + m2 ⋅ v 2 = const. . Eq. 10

Thus, when two objects interact, the sum of their linear momentum is conserved.
An equivalent derivation is by integrating Newton’s 2nd law (Eq. 5) first
r r r
∫ ∫
F ⋅ dt = dp = ∆p . Eq. 11

The left side is called the impulse. Eq. 11 states that the change of the linear momentum of an
object is equal to the impulse that acts on the object. If two objects interact, e.g. by a collision,
then the forces acting on them have the same magnitude but opposite direction according to
Newton’s 3rd law, and consequently the same holds for the impulse and the changes in linear
momentum. As a result, the linear momentum is conserved.
If conservation of momentum holds for a single interaction it must also hold for any number of
particles interacting, as long as all forces originate within the multi-particle system and are not
externally caused. Then, for any number of particles
r
∑ p = const. . Eq. 12

While Newton’s 2nd law, expressed using momentum in Eq. 5, relates the change of the
momentum of an object to a force acting on the object, the conservation of momentum relates
the momentum and its changes for more than one object interacting with each other.
To include the conservation of momentum the following should be added to above definition
“The changes of momentum of more than one object interacting with each other are
interrelated, and cancel out as a direct consequence of Newton’s 3rd law. Consequently, the
vector sum of the momentum of all objects is constant, which is called conservation of
momentum.”

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Summary, conclusions, and comments
The concept of momentum has been introduced in classical mechanics because it includes the
mass and thus relates motion as well as force with the impetus; the term helps to avoid saying
“product of mass and velocity” all the time. The term is useful for discussing specific things as
well as general issues.
The conservation of momentum in mechanics is a simple, direct consequence of Newton’s laws,
specifically Newton’s 3rd law (to every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction).
This is easy to understand and accept, as it is common experience.
The derivation from Newton’s laws is widely valid. Newton’s laws hold for the fundamental
forces, which are gravitation, electromagnetic, and strong and weak nuclear force. Newton’s
laws also hold for very different objects like cars, atoms, protons, neutrons, electrons. The
derivation thus holds for interactions between very different types of objects interacting by very
different forces. But the derivation did not look at quantum-mechanical effects. And, when
referring to m⋅v (instead of p directly), it is limited to objects having mass.
Despite the limitations of the derivation, the validity of the concept of momentum as well as its
conservation goes far beyond purely mechanical systems and common experience; it is valid
also in systems with quantum-mechanical effects like electrons in atoms, particles without mass
like photons, and even quasi-particles like phonons.
The fact that the conservation of momentum holds for any number of particles, and with such a
variety of objects and forces, is very useful to discuss many-particle systems. But when talking
about few objects in mechanics, e.g. the collision of two objects, it is possible and common to
just write down the equations using mass m and velocity v without using the term “momentum”.
To describe and predict the relation between cause and changes in the motion / movement of a
body or many bodies in mechanics Newton’s laws are sufficient. The strength of the concept
becomes clear when talking about many particles, and when leaving classical mechanics. When
talking about energy, this will be even more important.
The part “The changes of momentum of more than one object interacting with each other are
interrelated, and cancel out …” resembles the conservation of energy. This is the reason why
momentum has been discussed here before energy. Now, the same is repeated for energy, where
the derivation of energy conservation in mechanics is possible from Newton’s 3rd law, for
kinetic energy (energy of motion) in combination with Newton’s 2nd law. It is then shown that
the basis of this derivation is not limited to simple mechanical systems, but can be used to
understand energy, its conservation, as well as conversion in a much wider scope.
3.3 Definition of “energy”
A reason for many problems in understanding energy is that the concept of energy was updated,
meaning revised and extended, many times in history. In addition, there are several different
fields in science and engineering with a different focus regarding energy and their own terms.
Energy is commonly subdivided in different ways: kinetic and potential energy, external and
internal energy (thermodynamics), energy forms, and last but not least, when energy is
exchanged it is subdivided into work and heat.

Derivation of energy conservation from Newton’s laws

To understand the concept of energy better it is necessary to understand energy conservation
better, especially its origin and basis. The situation is very similar to linear momentum and its
conservation. Again, the key is that the reaction force and the action force are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction. However, instead of focussing on the time that a force acts,
as was the case for momentum, it is now the distance that a force acts.

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As example and basis for the discussion, a simple derivation for a single object follows. From
Newton’s 3rd law follows for the integral of the action force and the reaction force along a
distance dx (changing the locating the object), that
r r r r
∫ F ⋅ dx = − ∫ F ⋅ dx , Eq. 13
1 2

or by reorganizing
r r r r
∫ F ⋅ dx + ∫ F ⋅ dx = 0 . Eq. 14
1 2

Thus, the integral of the acting force along a change in distance and the integral of the reacting
force along the same change in distance added up gives zero. This is already the basis for energy
conservation; anything else is related to specific cases and viewpoints.
If e.g. the force accelerates the object, then Newton’s 2nd law has to be inserted in one term.
Using a=dv/dt and dx=v⋅dt the term takes the form
r
r r dv r r r 1 Eq. 15
∫ (m ⋅ a)⋅ dx = m ⋅ ∫ ⋅ v ⋅ dt = m ⋅ ∫ v ⋅ dv = ⋅ m ⋅ v + const.
2
dt 2

Thus, for the case that the force accelerates the object Eq. 14 becomes

r r 1 Eq. 16
∫ F ⋅ dx + 2 ⋅ m ⋅ v
2
= const.

If two moving objects collide, then Eq. 14 becomes

1 2 1 2 Eq. 17
⋅ m1 ⋅ v1 + ⋅ m2 ⋅ v 2 = const.
2 2

The term “energy” is used in many ways. First, the different contributions are called “energy”.
The sum of all contributions is called “total energy”; the fact that it is constant is called
“conservation of energy” (better would actually be to say “conservation of total energy”).
Energy contributions by an object related to its location are called “potential energy”, if related
to motion “kinetic energy”. The term “potential” is a synonym for “possible” or “latent”.
Originally, the term energy started meaning kinetic energy, which is directly visible. Later it
was extended to include potential energy as a kind of “hidden source” of kinetic energy.

Energy of objects in simple situations

Fig. 1 shows examples of the energy of objects in simple situations.

x
½⋅ m1⋅v12 ½⋅ m2⋅v22
F

Fg Fg F F
x

½⋅m⋅v2

Fig. 1 Examples, from left to right: a force lifts an object a distance x against the force of
gravitation, an object falls a distance x due to the force of gravitation and is accelerated, and two
objects colliding with each other.

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They can be described by the equations just derived. Fig. 1, left, shows a force lifting an object
against the force of gravitation, where Fg⋅x+F⋅x=const. applies. Fig. 1, centre, shows an object
which is subject to the force of gravitation and let to fall free; then Fg⋅x+½⋅m⋅v2=const. applies
and the kinetic energy increases at the expense of potential energy, commonly called conversion
of energy. Fig. 1, right, shows two objects colliding, where ½⋅m1⋅v12+½⋅m2⋅v22=const. applies.
Like with momentum and its conservation, in simple situations it is possible, and common
practice, to describe things without talking about energy and its conservation. But looking at
these simple situations allows some important conclusions.
The origin of energy conservation is not unknown for simple situations. Energy conservation
and the form of the different energy contributions in simple situations is a direct consequence of
integrating Newton’s 3rd law (to every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction)
over distance, for kinetic energy (energy of motion) in combination with Newton’s 2nd law. This
is seen directly and thus easy to understand for the case of a single object exposed to a force (or
a force field of another object not mentioned like for gravitation the earth), or for the case of
two objects interacting with each other e.g. in a collision.
The meaning of energy and its conservation can be understood for simple situations.
Momentum and energy as well as their conservation have many similarities. Energy is nothing
else than the quantity of force times distance, or, when the result is observed as kinetic energy,
½ times the mass times the square of the velocity. Thus energy tells how much the location x
changes at a given force F, for motion how much the velocity v changes at a given mass m. And
energy conservation is nothing else that a convenient way to express that the sum over all
contributions is constant when objects interact. Energy conservation tells how changes of the
location x at a given force F, associated to potential energy, and changes of the velocity v at a
given mass m, associated to kinetic energy, e.g. of different particles are interrelated.
The meaning of energy conversion between different contributions can be understood for simple
systems. Saying “energy can be converted” between energy contributions is misleading! We
would never say “momentum is converted” e.g. to impulse. Better would be to say that “a
change in the amount of energy (quantity) in one energy contribution leads to an opposite
change in another energy contribution”. This would point to the origin in Newton’s 3rd law,
instead of implying that energy is something like a substance that changes in a process of
energy conversion, which is what people thought in the early times of research on energy.
Modifying the definition of momentum suggested above for energy results in
“Energy is (a concept introduced in physics, used as) a measure (quantity) for the net
force applied to or by an object multiplied by the distance the force is applied, called
potential energy. When the force causes the object to move the involved energy can
optionally be given via Newton’s 2nd law as 1/2⋅m⋅v2, which is observable, and called
kinetic energy.” And “The changes of energy contributions of a single object or of more
than one object interacting with each other are interrelated, and cancel out as a direct
consequence of Newton’s 3rd law. Consequently, the sum of the energy contributions of all
objects is constant, which is called conservation of energy.” Because energy is more diverse
than momentum, it can be added that “A change in the amount of energy in one energy
contribution leads to an opposite change in another energy contribution; this is
colloquially called energy conversion. Energy conservation tells how changes of the
location x at a given force F, associated to potential energy, and changes of the velocity v at
a given mass m, associated to kinetic energy, e.g. of different particles are interrelated.”
Newton stated his laws from observations on macroscopic bodies in simple situations, but the
key to energy conservation, Newton’s 3rd law, is a general concept not restricted to such
situations. Thus, energy, and its conservation and conversion can be understood from it in a
much wider scope. This is now successively shown using a series of examples.
Newton’s laws hold for all the fundamental forces: gravitation, electromagnetic, and strong and
weak nuclear force. Fig. 2, left, shows the situation when an object is lifted by a force F against

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the force of gravitation Fg, caused by a force field of another object not shown here. Fig. 2,
centre, shows a pos. charged object lifted by a force against the electrostatic force caused by
another, neg. charge, which in this case is shown here. In simple words, energy from F⋅x results
in (colloquially “is converted to”) energy as Fg⋅x, respectively Fel⋅x.

+ +++++++
x x x
F F F
+ +++++++
Fg Fel Fel
- - - - - - - -
Fig. 2 From left to right: a force lifts an object a distance x against the force of gravitation, a force
lifts a charged object a distance x against the electrostatic force caused by another charge, and the
same for many charges
Fig. 2, right, shows the situation when an object, having many pos. charges, is lifted by a force
against the electrostatic force caused by another object having many neg. charges. All these
cases are simple; that energy is conserved is not surprising after what was said before, and what
it means is also clear.
The strength of the concept of energy is not in describing simple situations; here writing down
the equations directly is still possible, convenient, and giving insight. The strength of the
concept of energy is in describing situations that are complex; so complex that their detailed
description is inconvenient, often even impossible as it is not understood in sufficient detail.

Energy of objects in slightly more complex situations

As an example, the situation discussed before and shown in Fig. 2 on the right is now modified.
The object now consists of two parts, one with pos. charges and an additional part with neg.
charges (Fig. 3, right).

+++++++

- - - - - - -

+++++++ +++++++
x x
F Fel,int
+++++++ +++++++
Fel Fel, ext
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Fig. 3 Left: initial case. Right: object consisting of a part with positive charges and an additional
part with negative charges in an external el. field and moving the part with pos. charges
When the part with the pos. charges is relocated by x, its energy with respect to the force caused
by the external charges changes; at the same time, its energy with respect to the second part also
changes. Thus, energy from external, called external energy, is shifted to internal, called internal
energy, or reverse. This is still simple to understand.

Energy of many-particle systems in somewhat complex situations

Let’s now look at a somewhat complex situation, where the two parts of the object having pos.
and neg. charges exist within the same piece of material. The charges could even distributed
throughout the material.

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What is observed externally is that energy is “supplied to” the material, or “retrieved from” the
material, depending on the external electrical field. Consequently, the internal energy, usually
denoted by U, changes. Using Eel for the applied external field and dx for differential movement
of the charges, the microscopic effects can be summarized in a macroscopic description as
r r r r r r r r
dU = Fel ⋅ dx = q ⋅ E el ⋅ dx = E el ⋅ q ⋅ dx = E el ⋅ dP . Eq. 18

The electrical field Eel, taking the place of the force F, is called a generalized force, and the
change in polarization dP is called a generalized displacement. This is also an energy
contribution which is classified as potential energy; it is related to a change in position, in this
case location. If electrical dipoles are reoriented by an external electrical field it is potential
energy due to a reorientation. In both cases it is called electrical energy.
Magnetical energy is due to magnetic dipoles which are reoriented by an external magnetical
field B. The change of internal energy is then described macroscopically by
r r
dU = B ⋅ dM , Eq. 19

where M is the macroscopic magnetization of the material.

Another example is an external, directed force acting on a many-particle system (Fig. 4).
F Fint F
x
Fext v

Fig. 4 External force acting on a many-particle system, like a solid (left) or a gas (right).
The particles interact, e.g. by collisions, their velocity direction changes, and disorder occurs
inside the multi-particle system. The force on one of the surface, acting a distance x, just adds
another interaction with the particles in contact with the surface. Knowing that all interactions
are still subject to Newton’s laws, energy conservation is still valid and proved by the derivation
discussed for the simple situation. Thus, while on a microscopic level the situation is complex,
and difficult to describe, energy conservation allows to use a calculation of the energy change
instead by the externally acting force and distance. Macroscopically the description of the
change of internal energy by the external force is simple: if the thickness changes by dx, the
energy contribution, called mechanical energy, from outside is
r
r r F r Eq. 20
dU = F ⋅ dx = ⋅ A ⋅ dx = p ⋅ dV .
A

The change of internal energy can thus be calculated without knowing anything detailed about
the effects going on at a microscopic level. However, for simple situations it can be done. In
general, the total energy is the sum of all kinetic and all potential energies. In an ideal gas, that
means a gas with negligible inter-particle forces and thus no contribution of potential energies,
it is just the sum of the kinetic energy of all particles. For that case a detailed microscopic
descriptions can be written down.
Eq. 18, Eq. 19, and Eq. 20 describe the change of internal energy due to an external, directed
cause: a force acting via an electric or magnetic field or a mechanical force on a surface. In
addition, there is of course internal electrical, magnetical, and mechanical energy even without
such fields by the interactions of the particles within the material.
The examples showed energy conservation for a single object or of many particle systems
exposed to a directed cause. What if changes with disorder occur, only possible with many
particles?

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Energy of many-particle systems in complex situations
A prominent case is friction. Fig. 5 shows a larger particle interacting with a stream of particles;
from left to right: initial situation, after few collisions, and later state. The collisions lead to a
loss of directed motion (velocity) and thus energy of the larger particle, while the small particles
gain undirected, disordered motion and thus energy. Macroscopically, this effect is called
friction.

Fig. 5 Larger particle interacting with a stream of particles. From left to right: initial situation,
after few collisions, later state. The collisions lead to a loss of directed motion and thus energy of the
larger particle, while the small particles gain undirected, disordered motion and thereby energy.
Again, knowing that all interactions are still subject to Newton’s laws, energy conservation is
still valid and proved by the derivation discussed for the simple situation. An important point is
that the directed motion of the large particle is reduced, while the undirected motion of the
many small particles increases: kinetic energy, easily visible, is “lost” and ends up as energy
less visible or not visible at all. This form of energy is called thermal energy, and on a
microscopic level is the sum of the kinetic and potential energy of the particles.
Looking at Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 there is a similarity: in both cases the particles move with disorder.
However, in the first case the container and the piston cause a volume change, and can be used
to regain the directed external energy that was supplied. In the second case, the directed motion
of the larger particle cannot be regained. Energy conversion by friction is irreversible.
Besides by friction, thermal energy can also increase by a second way: the exchange of energy
with another, highly disordered many-particle system by collisions of the particles. Then,
thermal energy of one system changes on the expense of the thermal energy of the other system
of particles. Macroscopically, the external parameter causing the exchange of energy is called
temperature T. The change of internal energy is then given by

dU = T ⋅ dS , Eq. 21

where S is the entropy of the system, which is a measure for the disorder on a microscopic level.
Up to this point, energy of objects with mass related to external effects as well as related to
internal effects was discussed purely on a basis of classical physics. What is missing is first, a
discussion of effects not related to objects having a mass, predominantly electromagnetic fields,
and second, a discussion of quantum mechanical effects, relevant in molecules, atoms, and their
nuclei, as well as chemical and nuclear reactions. In both cases Newton’s laws do not apply,
such that the derivation of energy conservation and the simple model for it also does not apply.

Energy of electromagnetic fields and waves

Electric and magnetic fields, as well as electromagnetic waves carry energy, and are an
important energy contribution in many cases. They have no mass and are not connected to
objects. Even though the energy of electromagnetic waves can be described by particles, the
photons, Newton’s laws do not apply, such that the derivation of energy conservation and the
simple model for it does not apply. A general proof or explanation to understand energy
conservation in this case is thus not possible. It is necessary to believe scientific observations,
showing that energy as well as momentum is conserved.

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There is however an example that can help: the energy of a flat plate capacitor. The electrical
energy stored in such a capacitor is

1 1 Eq. 22
⋅ Q ⋅ U = ⋅ C ⋅ U2 ,
2 2

where U is the potential and C the capacity. Inserting E=U/d and C=ε0⋅A/d gives

1 1 1 Eq. 23
⋅ Q ⋅ E ⋅ d = ⋅ ε 0 ⋅ A / d ⋅ (E ⋅ d) = ⋅ ε 0 ⋅ E2 ⋅ A ⋅ d .
2
2 2 2

The left side is equal to the mechanical energy necessary to bring the plates with charge +Q and
–Q from a distance of zero to a distance d. The right side is equal to the energy density of the
electrical field multiplied by the volume (A⋅d) occupied by it. Thus, the field energy is nothing
else than another way of writing down the energy but without the charges. If the energy is
attributed to the field, or in the charges separated by a distance, is a matter of the point of view.

Systems affected by quantum-mechanics

When photons are emitted from an atom, or in chemical or nuclear reactions, momentum as well
as energy conservation are valid according to observations, and this is widely applied. However,
Newton’s laws are not valid at scales where quantum mechanical effects become relevant. So, at
this level the derivation above definitely does not hold any more.
Again, there is a way to understand energy and its conservation on the atomic and molecular
level, even though scientifically not strict. It is by using Bohr’s atomic model, which assumes
that the electrons in an atom move in circular orbits around the nucleus, like in a microscopic
solar system (Fig. 6). The electrons have kinetic energy, and potential energy due to the
electrostatic force originating from the charge of the nucleus. Their total energy is thus
calculated by classical mechanics; it is then quantized by allowing energy levels only where the
angular momentum has a certain value. Of course this model is very simplified, and quantum
mechanical effects have been included in an improvised way, but it has been the starting point
to understanding atoms, gave some very useful results, and is still the way of teaching the
subject in an introductory course. [Bransden and Joachain 1983] present a calculation and the
agreement of the predictions with observations of the energy of photons emitted or absorbed
when an electron changes from one to another orbit.

+ ↔

Fig. 6 Two atoms reacting to a diatomic molecule, with electron orbits drawn corresponding to
Bohr’s atomic model.
Another important case is the interaction of atoms and molecules in chemical reactions. The
model allows understanding the energy change in a chemical reaction simply as the difference
of the energies of the atoms (kinetic and potential energies, now quantized) before and after the
reaction (Fig. 6).

Summary of the discussion and formulation of a definition of energy

As the analysis shows, energy is a concept developed starting from kinetic energy as ½⋅m⋅v2 and
F⋅x in simple mechanical systems, then expanded including many other contributions. For
energy of systems related to internal effects, called internal energy, the changes are written as

dEint = dU = T ⋅ dS − p ⋅ dV + E ⋅ dP + B ⋅ dM + µ ⋅ dN + ... , Eq. 24

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Mechanical deformation, e.g. by compression, is still very closely related to the initial term F⋅dx
by p=F/A and dV=A⋅dx. Somewhat less close are the electric term and the magnetic term, but
the energy contributions can still be understood as was shown by examples: the fields are the
driving forces, acting via the charges and the dipole moments, and cause a relocation or
reorientation. This is why often the terms generalized force and generalized displacement are
used. For the term T⋅dS, representing microscopic changes with disorder, the temperature T is
the driving force, and for changes in the chemical composition of the particles it is the chemical
potential µ, while the generalized displacement is dS and dN. In contrast to these terms, the
energy of electromagnetic fields, also a contribution to internal energy e.g. in a black body
cavity, does not have a driving force or displacement at all; it does not even refer to an object
having mass (but electromagnetic fields are initially caused by charges having a mass). The
term for the energy of the electromagnetic field is somewhat similar to that for kinetic energy;
both also have a clear zero point of energy.
Consequently, a comprehensive definition of energy in general must cover a wide range of
energy contributions, where the effects in the simple situations are included as a special case.
Thus, the first part in the definition stated for simple situation is modified to “Energy is (a
concept introduced in physics, used as) a measure (quantity) for a variety of contributions. The
different energy contributions, when classified as energy forms, are e.g. gravitational, thermal,
mechanical, electrical, magnetical, chemical, nuclear ... energy. When dealing with an object
having a mass and within limits of classical physics (thus not for electromagnetic fields and
when quantum-mechanical effects are relevant), energy is the measure for the net force applied
to or by an object multiplied by the distance the force is applied, called potential energy. When
the force causes the object to move the involved energy can optionally be given via Newton’s
2nd law as 1/2⋅m⋅v2, which is observable, and called kinetic energy. In many-particle systems,
the product of force and displacement is often replaced in the formulation by so called
generalized ones.”
Besides adapting the previous definition made for simple situations to include the large variety
of contributions there must also be a different way to express energy conservation. For systems
having mass (not electromagnetic fields) and without quantum-mechanical effects, the origin of
energy conservation is Newton’s 3rd law (to every action there is always an equal and opposite
reaction). However this does not hold for situations where quantum-mechanical effects are
significant as there is only an energy change but no force and displacement, and for
electromagnetic fields as there is not even a mass. Moreover, energy is conserved even when
mass is not, e.g. in nuclear reactions. A new formulation should be comprehensive, however
include Newton’s 3rd law in some way as one important case.
Summarizing, energy conservation is the fundamental principle, and actio = reactio for the
forces in Newton’s 3rd law is only a special case when talking about bodies with a mass. So, it
would be better to formulate something like a version of Newton’s 3rd law for energy, like “In
general, to every action associated with a change of energy there is always an equal and
opposite reaction (action and reaction energy), such that energy is overall conserved.”
Thus, the second part in the definition stated for simple situation is modified to “In general, to
every action associated with a change of energy there is always an equal and opposite reaction
(action and reaction energy), such that energy is overall conserved; this is called conservation of
energy. When dealing with objects having a mass, and within limits of classical physics, this
can be understood as the changes of energy contributions of a single object or of more than one
object interacting with each other are interrelated, and cancel out as a direct consequence of
Newton’s 3rd law.”
And the third part in the definition stated for simple situation is modified to “Due to energy
conservation, a change in the amount of energy in one energy contribution leads to an opposite
change in another energy contribution; this is colloquially called energy conversion. The
contributions themselves are related to changes in important values like changes of the location

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x of a mass or a charge at a given force F, associated to potential energy, and changes of the
velocity v at a given mass m, associated to kinetic energy, change of field strength, chemical
composition … Thus, via energy conservation very different values are interrelated, and
affected by energy conversion. This is what makes the concept of energy so useful, and thus so
important in science and engineering.”
Summarizing the definition now gives
“Energy is (a concept introduced in physics, used as) a measure (quantity) for a variety of
contributions. The different energy contributions, when classified as energy forms, are e.g.
gravitational, thermal, mechanical, electrical, magnetical, chemical, nuclear ... energy.
When dealing with an object having a mass and within limits of classical physics (thus not
for electromagnetic fields and when quantum-mechanical effects are relevant), energy is
the measure for the net force applied to or by an object multiplied by the distance the
force is applied, called potential energy. When the force causes the object to move the
involved energy can optionally be given via Newton’s 2nd law as 1/2⋅m⋅v2, which is
observable, and called kinetic energy. In many-particle systems, the product of force and
displacement is often replaced in the formulation by so called generalized ones.”
“In general, to every action associated with a change of energy there is always an equal
and opposite reaction (action and reaction energy), such that energy is overall conserved;
this is called conservation of energy. When dealing with objects having a mass, and within
limits of classical physics, this can be understood as the changes of energy contributions of
a single object or of more than one object interacting with each other are interrelated, and
cancel out as a direct consequence of Newton’s 3rd law.”
“Due to energy conservation, a change in the amount of energy in one energy contribution
leads to an opposite change in another energy contribution; this is colloquially called
energy conversion. The contributions themselves are related to changes in important
values like changes of the location x of a mass or a charge at a given force F, associated to
potential energy, and changes of the velocity v at a given mass m, associated to kinetic
energy, change of field strength, chemical composition … Thus, via energy conservation
very different values are interrelated, and affected by energy conversion. This is what
makes the concept of energy so useful, and thus so important in science and engineering.”
The three parts cover energy contributions, energy conservation, and energy conversion, and
contain information explaining what energy is, why energy is conserved, and its importance due
to the manifold connections between different values by energy conversion.

Comparison with definitions found in literature

What about definitions for energy found in literature? They have been used for the formulation
of the new definition without being mentioned up to this point, in contrast to the procedure
chosen for force and linear momentum. The reason is that to discuss them afterwards allows a
comparison and to reveal improvements.
First, it is not uncommon that textbooks do not give a definition of energy but instead just use
the term, e.g. Reif 1985, and Çengel 1998. Many definitions on energy in literature refer only to
energy within a system, in thermodynamics called internal energy (Cleveland and Morris 2009,
Brown et al. 2015, Çengel and Boles 2002, Sears and Zemansky 2016), or to energy exchange
between systems as work and heat (Atkins 1990, Cleveland and Morris 2009, Brown et al.
2015). Thus none of them explains what energy really is.
The following is a review, comparison, and discussion of definitions found that are relevant
regarding the question of what energy really is.
A few definitions of energy, collected by David Watson, can be found on his website [Watson
2014]. He surveyed 15 textbooks on thermodynamics, heat transfer, and physics. Only those
helpful in explaining what energy is will now be discussed.

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One definition that he collected, quoted in a book called Energies by Vaclav Smil [Smil 1999],
attributed to David Rose, is: Energy "is an abstract concept invented by physical scientists in the
nineteenth century to describe quantitatively a wide variety of natural phenomena."
Another definition he collected, from the book “Thermodynamics”, written by Virgil Moring
Faires, and Clifford Max Simmang [Faires and Simmang 1978] (a college text book), is "Energy
is inherent in all matter. Energy is something that appears in many different forms which are
related to each other by the fact that conversion can be made from one form of energy to
another. Although no simple definition can be given to the general term energy, E, except that it
is the capacity to produce an effect, the various forms in which it appears can be defined with
precision."
Dave Watson’s own definition is “Energy is a property or characteristic (or trait or aspect?) of
matter that makes things happen, or, in the case of stored or potential energy, has the "potential"
to make things happen. By "happen", we mean to make things move or change condition.
Examples of changes in condition are changes in shape, volume, and chemical composition
(results of a chemical reaction). There are also changes in pressure, temperature, and density
which we call a "change of state" in thermodynamics. Phase changes, such as changing from
solid to liquid, or liquid to vapor, or back the other way, are also good examples of condition
changes. Something happened! Without energy, nothing would ever change, nothing would ever
happen. You might say energy is the ultimate agent of change, the mother of all change agents.
Whenever anything happens or changes there is an energy change.”
Also pointing to changes are the definitions in [Mehling 2016] “… energy is the reason why
things change …“, in [Çengel and Boles 2002] “energy can be viewed as the ability to cause
changes”, and in [Quaschning 2005] “energy is the ability of a system to cause exterior impacts,
for instance a force across a distance”.
A definition by [Cleveland and Morris 2009] for “energy” (physics) is “the use of this capacity
to perform useful functions for humans, such as heating or cooling buildings and enclosures,
powering vehicles and machinery, lighting, cooking foods and so on.”
The following definitions of “energy” can be found in an English dictionary [Hornby 1983]: a)
force, vigor; capacity to do things and get things done b) powers available for working, or as
used in working c) (science) capacity for, power of, doing work: electrical kinetic potential …
[Walker et al. 2014] state “Energy is a number that we associate with a system of one or more
objects.” They continue “If a force changes one of the objects by, say, making it move, then the
energy number changes. After countless experiments, scientists and engineers realized that if the
scheme by which we assign energy numbers is planned carefully, the numbers can be used to
predict the outcomes of experiments and, even more important, to build machines, such as
flying machines.”, thus relating energy to changes. They explain “This success is based on a
wonderful property of our universe: energy can be transformed from one type to another and
transferred from one object to another, but the total amount is always the same (energy is
conserved). No exception to this principle of energy conservation has ever been found.”
Summarizing the content of these definitions roughly gives the following collection
- Energy is an abstract concept, number, measure, or it is a property / characteristic, or it
is a capacity, reason / cause, released / available / needed to … associated with objects,
inherent in matter.
- Energy comes in different forms, it can be converted between the different forms, and
overall energy is conserved (no explanation is given)
- Energy allows to describe qualitatively a wide range of phenomena, or energy allows to
produce an effect / to do things / get things done / to perform useful functions / that
makes (has the potential to make) things happen; to make things move or change in
conditions like shape … why things change

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Based on the previous discussion of energy and energy conservation, the different approaches
are now discussed.
Energy is a concept. While force, and even momentum (by impetus) are rather tightly connected
with everyday experience, and the respective words are commonly used, energy in a scientific
and technical context has a much wider and often different meaning than in common use.
Especially for energy conservation there is no related experience in everyday life. It is the large
variety of effects connected with the different energy forms, and connected by conversion and
conservation, that make the concept of energy so useful and important, but also so hard to
understand.
Energy is a measure. It should not be called a property or characteristic; this would imply
something directly connected e.g. with an object or an amount of a material, but gravitational
energy only exists in relation to the origin of the field of gravitation, or combustion energy only
exists when oxygen is present and depends on pressure. However, if the conditions are clear, the
expressions allow a simple discussion of the changes. The price paid for this is that if somebody
goes beyond a simple discussion by asking about the basics, it leads to misconceptions.
Energy is also not in general a capacity / ability, or reason / cause; e.g. thermal energy at
ambient conditions is still energy, but there is no heat flow and no work can be generated. Also,
to get a change somewhere there must at least be a possible conversion mechanism. But terms
like energy is released / available / needed can be necessary to discuss energy in a wider
audience. Again, they are useful to make a discussion of energy simple, but the simplifications
cause problems when thinking about what energy really is.
Energy is not only inherent in matter or objects, as there is also the energy of electromagnetic
fields. Thus, this limitation should not be part of a definition.
Energy to describe qualitatively a wide range of phenomena, is certainly correct, but not
specific. Energy to produce an effect / to do things / get things done / to perform useful
functions / that makes (has the potential to make) things happen; to make things move or change
in conditions like shape … why things change relates to energy as the origin / cause / reason.
This reflects the use and application of energy for many people, even in science and
engineering, but misses the changes at the origin. Here the new definition is much more
specific, dealing with the energy contributions at any time, origin or use, and pointing not only
to the change of the energy forms but instead to the location, volume, etc. changed with it and
relevant in applications and everyday life.
As discussed in the introduction, the information in a definition is given for others to use, such
that it is commonly necessary to customize the information in content and wording to the
specific group of people addressed. In the case of energy, a practical definition is often
scientifically incomplete, partly incorrect, or misleading, and a scientifically correct one is
usually not practical for many people. Thus, a definition as “energy is the capacity or ability of a
system to do work (mechanical, electrical …) and to transfer heat” misses an explanation, but
serves the need of many people as it reflects what goes on in their daily life as users of energy.

4. Summary and conclusion

Despite its importance in science and engineering, available definitions for energy up to now
have not been completely satisfactory. This is often even pointed out by their authors.
Definitions usually state that energy has different contributions, that energy is conserved, but
without an explanation, that conversion between the different contributions is possible, and that
energy can be used to do certain things. While this information is sufficient for many people as
it describes well how energy is used and for what, it misses an explanation and a clear statement
what energy is. Because of the importance of energy in science and technology as well as for
society, an attempt was made in this paper to close this gap in the definition of energy.

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First, the concepts of force and momentum, including its conservation, were investigated as a
basis for the discussion of energy, resulting also in some improvements in their definition.
To understand what energy is, the conservation of energy is of central importance. Quite early
in history, energy conservation in simple mechanical systems, e.g. a falling object, was
recognized as a consequence of Newton’s laws. Much later in history, materials were
investigated. From macroscopic observations empirical models were derived, e.g. for the
behaviour of a material in an electrical field, or the behaviour of a real gas under pressure and
heated. Here energy conservation was said to be an outcome of macroscopic observations.
There was no understanding of the microscopic basis of the macroscopic observations, which
would have allowed to connect with earlier observations on simple mechanical systems. Thus,
for macroscopic systems energy conservation was just observed, but not understood. The fact
that conservation of energy was discovered in macroscopic systems before understanding the
microscopic background is what made energy such a hard to grasp concept. Many terms like
“heat flow” and “conversion of energy” were introduced early, and nowadays make
understanding hard as they imply wrong ideas and concepts of energy.
Today however, it is known that all macroscopic observations on energy contributions (except
electromagnetic field energy) result from particles on a microscopic level. And for all of them
microscopic models exist. Early ones were for ideal gases, explaining their macroscopically
observed pressure or heat capacity. Such models can be found in many textbooks.
It was shown that as long as Newton’s 3rd law is valid on the microscopic level energy
conservation can be understood, starting with the energy of a single, well-defined particle or
object as a whole, and then increasing complexity to the energy of objects due to effects of the
particles within. If conservation of energy holds for a single interaction, it must also hold for
any number of particles interacting.
Thus, we should rather ask why should energy not be conserved? Where is a point that cannot
be described by Newton’s laws, and is there an option for energy not being conserved?
Centuries ago, when friction was not understood, people believed that a force was necessary for
a continuous movement; then Newton opposed this believe when he stated his 1st law. Later,
people believed that energy was not conserved, because they did not know that friction reduces
macroscopic, observable motion, by transforming the energy to microscopic, not visible motion.
This is why it seems to be natural to believe that energy is not conserved. We often think energy
is not conserved because we focus on an energy form that we prefer, and which is diminished in
a conversion (e.g. use of gasoline), or even “disappears” as it is converted to an energy form we
do not see, like thermal energy. But we should rather ask: why should energy not be conserved?
The new definition suggested here includes the explanation, within its limits, and clearly
specifies how energy is used and why it is so important.
The impressing success of the concept energy comes from combining effects that are
macroscopically so different (el. charges, chem. bonds …) and doing this without the need to go
into any detail. Energy and its conservation relates the changes of so many effects to each other,
understood and not understood, reversible and not reversible, mechanical, thermal, … and it
allows not only to describe, but also to affect, and even control and actively manage changes. In
that respect it is much more widely applicable than momentum, referring only to the product of
force and applied time; momentum connects only motion, while energy connects also
displacements and other things of an incredible variety and meaning for our life.

5. References
[Atkins 1990] Atkins P.W.: Physical chemistry. Oxford University Press, 4th ed., 1990, ISBN 0-19-
855293-1
[Bransden and Joachain 1983] Bransden B.H. and Joachain C.J.: Physics of atoms and molecules. Wiley,
1983, ISBN 0-582-44401-2

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[Brown et al. 2015] Brown T.L., LeMay H.E., Bursten B.E., Murphy C.J., Woodward P.M., and Stoltzfus
M.W.: Chemistry – The central science. Pearson, 13th ed., 2015, ISBN-13: 978-1-292-05771-2
[Çengel 1998] Çengel Y.A.: Heat transfer – A practical approach. Mc Graw Hill, 1998, ISBN 0-
07-115223-7
[Çengel and Boles 2002] Çengel Y.A., Boles M.A.: Thermodynamics – An engineering approach. Mc
Graw Hill, 4th ed., 2002, ISBN 0-07-112177-3
[Cleveland and Morris 2009] Cleveland C.J. and Morris C. (eds.): Dictionary of energy. Elsevier, 2009,
ISBN 978-0-08-096491-1
[Faires and Simmang 1978] Faires V.M. and Simmang C.M.: Thermodynamics. 6th ed., Macmillan
Publishing Co., Inc., 1978, ISBN 0-02-335530-1 (hardbound), ISBN 0-02-978910-9 (international
edition)
[Halliday et al. 1993] Halliday D., Resnik R. and Walker J.: Fundamentals of Physics. John Wiley &
Sons, 4th ed., 1993, ISBN 0-471-59986-7
[Hornby 1983] Hornby A.S.: Oxford advanced learner’s dictionary of current English. Oxford University
press, 14th edition, 1983, ISBN 3-8109-0048-6
[Kurzweil et al. 2009] Kurzweil P., Frenzel B., and Gebhard F.: Physik Formelsammlung. Vieweg +
Teubner, Wiesbaden, 2nd ed., 2009, ISBN 978-3-8348-0875-2
[Mehling 2016] Mehling H.: Technologies of energy conversion, storage, and transport in the energy
system - A brief introduction. Tredition, 2016, ISBN: 978-3-7345-4049-3
[Quaschning 2005] Quaschning V.: Understanding renewable energy systems. Earthscan, 2005, ISBN 1-
84407-128-6
[Reif 1985] Reif F.; Fundamentals of statistical and thermal physics. McGraw-Hill International editions,
1985, ISBN 0-07-085615-X, 1985
[Sears and Zemansky 2016] Sears and Zemansky: University Physics with Modern Physics. Pearson,
Global edition, 14th ed., 2016, ISBN 978-1-292-10031-9
[Smil 1999] Smil V.: Energies - An Illustrated Guide to the Biosphere and Civilization. The MIT Press,
Cambridge Massachusetts & London, England, 1999, ISBN 0-262-19410-4
[Watson 2014] Watson D.: FT Exploring web site, section: What is the Definition of Energy?
http://www.ftexploring.com/energy/definition.html, accessed Nov. 2nd 2016
[Walker et al. 2014] Walker J., Halliday D., and Resnick R.: Principles of physics. 10th ed., international
student version, Wiley, 2014, ISBN: 978-1-118-23074-9

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