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Chongqing University, China
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 Volume 4 Issue 3 · July 2022· ISSN 2810-9384 (Online)

Advances in Geological
and Geotechnical
Engineering Research
Editor-in-Chief
Prof. Sayed Hemeda
Prof. Wengang Zhang
 Volume 4 ｜ Issue 3 ｜ July 2022 ｜ Page1-61
Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research

Contents
Articles
1 Bearing Capacity of Defective Reinforced Concrete Pile in Sand-model Study
A. M. Nasr W. R. Azzam K. E. Ebeed
12 Characterization of Subsurface Lithology and Aquifer Parameters Using Vertical Electrical Sounding
(VES) for Groundwater Development in Igbo-Imabana, Southern Nigeria
Philip Obasi Awara Ekinya Chibuike Akpa Emmanuel Edene
32 Source Area Weathering and Tectonic History Inferred from the Geochemistry of the Maastrichtian
Sandstone from Patti Formation, Southern Bida Basin, North Central Nigeria
R. G. Oladimeji O. J. Ojo
49 Geotechnical Properties of Some Clay Deposits in Some Parts of Southwestern Nigeria in Relation to Its
Engineering Implications on Constructions
O. Andre-Obayanju A.J. Edegbai O.J. Imarhiagbe
 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research

https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/agger

ARTICLE
Bearing Capacity of Defective Reinforced Concrete Pile in
Sand-model Study
A. M. Nasr1 W. R. Azzam1 K. E. Ebeed2*
1. Geotechnical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
2. Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history Concrete piles that were poorly constructed or analyzed in their soil
Received: 20 June 2022 analyses may have structural or geotechnical defects. To examine such
defects, an experimental study was conducted to investigate how a defective
Revised: 06 August 2022 reinforced concrete pile behaved. These piles were installed and subjected
Accepted: 11 August 2022 to a compression axial load in the sand that had relative densities of 30%,
Published Online: 16 August 2022 60%, and 80%. The tests were performed using four concrete model piles:
one intact pile and the other three piles had a structural defect (necking)
Keywords: at three different positions of the pile at (0.25 L from the top, center, and
0.25 L bottom). Geotechnical defect (soft layer or debris) was studied using
Structural defect Styrofoam layer at various vertical distances under the pile toe with Y/D =
Geotechnical defect (0, 0.5, 1 and 1.5) D. The test results showed that the bearing capacity of
Debris the structural defect was the most in the case of a neck at 0.25 L from the
bottom, followed by a neck at the center, and finally a neck at 0.25 L from
Necking and soft layer
the top. In the case of a geotechnical defect, the bearing capacity of the pile
decreased with the decrease of the vertical distance between the soft layer
and the pile toe.

1. Introduction due to local concrete failures, fractured zones, weakened

Pile foundations were used when the soil had a low shear
strength and bearing capability. In such cases, piles were
used to shift the load to deep, strong strata. A point to be
noted is that there were two main types of piles: end load
bearing piles and friction piles. Such piles were classified
by their load transmission method. The reduction in a pile’s
cross-sectional area (necking), as one of the structural
defects, can occur during the casting process of the pile
zones, damaged zones in the pile, and geotechnical defects
as debris or soft layer under the pile toe. An important point
to be noted is that poor designs or poor geotechnical studies
were the main causes of geotechnical defects. Moreover,
the load-bearing capabilities were lower than expected at
the lateral friction and the base load [1]. Furthermore, there
were structural defects because of pile execution mistakes,
as it was usual for a pile’s strength and size to deviate from
the design expectations. Another point to be noted is that

*Corresponding Author:
K. E. Ebeed,
Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt;
Email: khaled135245@f-eng.tanta.edu.eg

DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/agger.v4i3.4808
Copyright © 2022 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Co. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022
these defects frequently showed up as a rapid reduction
in a pile’s cross-sectional area, known as necking, and at
weakened zones due to local concrete failures [2]. Another
important point to be noted is that the results of a German
study on defective piles showed that 15% of analyzed
piles had abnormal PIT (pile integrity test) indicators, and
5% of those piles were labelled defective and potentially
intervention-required. Additionally, 30% of these piles
had issues with the quality of the concrete, 21% of them
had insufficient lengths, 14% of them had “necking”, and
35% of them had structural cracks [3]. The behavior of the
reinforced concrete piles when they had discontinuities,
improper end bearings, poor concreting, and clay necking
was studied [4]. Moreover, investigation was done into how
voids and necking defects affected the compression bearing
capacity of sand at various pile positions [5]. A model for
local failure surrounding the pile was simulated in order to
define the effect zone that should be utilized to estimate the
bearing capacity of the piles from the data of the CPT [6].
In addition, the mechanism of a strip footing failure and its
ultimate bearing capacity that was loaded vertically above
a soft pocket on a geogrid-reinforced and unreinforced
sand slope were examined [7]. The effect of the debris at
the pile tip on the axially loaded bored piles was fully
investigated. Model scale laboratory tests at various scales
were conducted, including single pile without raft, single
pile with raft, and pile groups with 2, 3, and 4 piles [8].
Accordingly, it was found that, all investigated models
of the piles used the steel model pile with a defect at
a given zone at the pile or at the concrete pile in sand.
Therefore in this research, reinforced concrete model pile
was adopted to simulate the real behavior of a defective
pile. Such a study was not thoroughly investigated before
in the sand.
Moreover, in the current study, the influence of the defects
on the stress characteristics and the load carrying capacity
of a single defective reinforced concrete pile foundation was
examined. Furthermore, the effect of the geotechnical defect
(the debris or the soft layer) and the structural defect (necking)
in different positions of the pile foundations bearing capacity
were investigated. A point to be noted is that the medium
used for the analysis was a poorly graduated sand. In
addition, the sand density was varied to see how its effect on
the pile foundation bearing capabilities.
2. Experimental Facility and Model
2.1 Loading Frame and Test Tank
The pile load tests were conducted in a steel tank made
specifically for the purpose, which had a wall thickness of
2
4 mm, a depth of 1100 mm, and a plan size of 800 mm by
800 mm. The bottom steel beams were welded with the
test tank. The loading frame was made up of two columns,
fixed with two horizontal steel beams. A manually driven
hydraulic jack was used to progressively apply the axial
compression stresses to a number of model piles. The
loads were observed using a load cell. Moreover, the
applied compression load settlement was recorded with
a digital data log reader. Furthermore, steel flat plate was
placed in the center of the test tank’s width to attach the
dial gauges’ magnetic bases. Two dial gauges were fixed
equidistant from the pile axis. When each increment of
loading became steady, dial gauge readings were recorded
for both dial gauges. The axial displacement of the pile in
response to the applied compression load was determined
as the average value of the displacement obtained from
both dial gauges. The experimental set up is shown in
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Layout of experimental setup.
1-Loading frame, 2-Test tank, 3-Hydraulic jack, 4-Load cell,
5-Read out unite, 6-Model pile, 7-Sand and 8-Dial gauges
2.2 Sand Used
Dry, commercially available sand was used in the
current studies. The sand used in this experiment was
poorly graded, according to the Unified Soil Classification
System (SP). The usage of sand and the round grains
helped to reduce the friction between the soil and the test
tank walls. Table 1 shows the physical characteristics of
the utilized sand. Sand beds were placed in 50 mm thick
layers by using the predetermined weight [9]. To create
situation of sand relative densities, the predetermined
weight of each additional sand layer put was employed
and compacted to the desired thickness, previously
 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

identified by lines drawn on the internal sides of steel should not be less than 1.5 percent or more than 8% [11].
test tank. The sand relative density, achieved during the The piles were reinforced with four 6 mm steel bars at a
tests, was monitored by collecting samples in small cans ratio of 2.25. The pile defect was a neck at 0.25 L from
at the time of filling. Moreover, the volume was placed at the top, center and 0.25 L from the bottom. Furthermore,
different locations in the test tank, and the sand density the dimension of the neck was equal to the desired defect,
was determined [9]. The relative densities of the sand which was formed by heating the PVC pipe mold to
obtained with cans were found to be within the range create a 0.5D necking appearance [12], as seen in Figures 2
of Dr= 30% ± 0.56% in loose sand, Dr= 60% ± 0.9% in and 3. The minimum cement content of the pile shall be
medium dense sand and Dr= 80% ± 1.22% in dense sand. 400 kg/m 3 [13]. Therefore, the mixing ratio used was
Table 1. The physical properties of the sand used. (400 kg/m 3 of cement and 0.8 m 3 of aggregate and
Properties Value 0.4 m3 of sand). A series of compression strength tests
Maximum unit weight, γmax. (kN/m3) were conducted on samples at ages 3, 7. Moreover, the
19.58
O.M.C (%) tests took 28 days to be prepared and tested on cubes with
8.20
Minimum unit weight, γmin. (kN/m3) dimension of 100 × 100 × 100 mm. The results of the tests
15.51
Specific gravity (Gs)
2.64 are summarized in Table 2.
The effective grain size, D10 (mm)
0.16
D30 (mm)
0.27 0.56
Mean grain size, D50 (mm)
0.63
D60 (mm)
3.94
Uniformity coefficient, Cu
0.72
Coefficient of curvature, Cc
SP
Classification, USCS
42.5
Maximum angle of internal friction, φ (degree)
30
Minimum angle of internal friction, φ (degree)
0.702
Maximum void ratio, emax.
0.348
Minimum void ratio, emin.
Dense sand properties
Unit weight, γ (kN/m3) 18.77
Relative density, Dr (%) 80
Angle of internal friction, φ (degree) 39.5
Medium dense sand properties
Unit weight, γ (kN/m3) 17.9
Relative density, Dr (%) 60
Angle of internal friction, φ (degree) 35.4
Loose sand properties
Unit weight, γ (kN/m3) 16.77
Figure 2. The details of defective and intact piles.
Relative density, Dr (%) 30
Angle of internal friction, φ (degree) 32.1

2.3 Model Piles

Model piles were four reinforced concrete piles cast
using PVC pipe as a model. The piles were divided
into three defective ones, and a one with no defect with
diameter of 80 mm and height of 900 mm. An important
point to be noted is that the maximum nominal size of
the aggregate shall not be more than 1/5 of the lowest
dimension in the concrete component. In addition, the
size shall not exceed 3/4 the pure distance between the
reinforcing steel bars [10]. As a result, all of the model
concrete piles were made of coarse aggregate sizes, which
were not larger than 10 mm. The ratio of longitudinal
steel cross-sectional area to cross-sectional area of the pile Figure 3. Model piles with different positions of neck.

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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

2.4 Model of a Soft Pocket Table 3. Properties of Styrofoam.

Property Value
Since Styrofoam is made up of 98% air, which makes
Thermal Resistance per inch (50 mm) 5.0 (.88)
it light and buoyant, a Styrofoam layer was used as a soft
pocket in the current study. Styrofoam was placed beneath Compressive Strength, ASTM D1621, psi (kPa), min. 30 (207)

the pile’s center and parallel to the tank’s width. The Surface Burning Characteristics, ASTM E84 for both
Class A
foam core and finished product
dimensions of Styrofoam were square, and the side length
Flame Spread 25
was 240 mm and 50 mm thickness in all the tests. As seen
Smoke Developed <450
in Figure 4, Styrofoam is a white polystyrene foam. The
Elasticity Modulus (E) kN/m2 0.1200
manufacturer provided the parameters, as shown in Table
3
Density (kN/m ) 0.063
3. The position of the soft pocket according to the bottom
of the pile is illustrated in Figure 5.
3. Installation Steps
After placing the sand at the desired relative density
to the bottom level of the pile, the model precast pile was
placed vertically on the sand surface using a special guide
attached to the test tank edge. Then, the sand was put to
the tank top level. Finally, the axial compression loading
tests were performed via a hydraulic jack. The load was
applied incrementally until the vertical settlement exceeded
50% of the used pile diameter, or reaching failure. Figure 6
After placing the sand at the desired relative density to the bottom level of the pile, the model
summarizes installation
precast pile was placed steps
vertically on the of theusing
sand surface test material.
a special guide attached to the test tank
edge. Then, the sand was put to the tank top level. Finally, the axial compression loading tests were

4.performed
Testing Program
via a hydraulic jack. The load was applied incrementally until the vertical settlement
Figure 4. The model of a soft pocket (Styrofoam layer). exceeded 50% of the used pile diameter, or reaching failure. Figure 6 summarizes installation steps of

Twelve model pile load tests were carried out in the

the test material.
4. Testing Program
sand to study the effect of the existence of necking and
Twelve model pile load tests were carried out in the sand to study the effect of the existence of
soft pocket on the capacity of the piles in the sand. Table
necking and soft pocket on the capacity of the piles in the sand. Table 4 summarizes the experimental
4 testing
summarizes
program. the experimental testing program.

(1) In case of a pile defect

(a) The sand preparation Bed
inside the test tank up to the toe
of pile level.
(b) Placing the model (c) Completing the sand (d) Removing the special guide
pile vertically and preparation inside the test and putting dial gauges and
centrally on the top of tank up to the special load cell then starting the test.
sand using a special guide.
guide.

Figure 5. The details of the position of the soft pocket. (2) In case of soil defect

Table 2. The compressive and the shear strength results of

the used concrete.
Mean
Test type Cube 1 Cube 1 Cube 1
Strength
Compression Strength after (a) The sand (b) Putting Styrofoam (c) Placing the model (d) Completing the (e) Removing the
20.2 19.6 20.8 20.2 preparation Bed layer and completing pile vertically and sand preparation special guide and
3 days (MPa) inside the test tank up the sand preparation centrally on the top of inside the test tank up putting dial gauges
to the level of the soft up to the toe of pile the sand using a to the special guide. and load cell then
pocket. level. 7
special guide. starting the test.
Compression Strength after
26.5 25.5 27.1 26.4 1-Loading frame, 2-Test tank, 3-Hydraulic jack, 4-Load cell, 5-Read out unite,
7 days (MPa)
6-Model pile, 7-Sand, 8-Dial gauges, 9-special guide, and10- Styrofoam layer

Compression Strength after

30.2 29.5 32 30.6
8 days (MPa)
Figure 6. Installation steps for the defective sand and the pile.
Figure 6. Installation steps for the defective sand and the pile.

4 Table 4. Experimental testing program.

Variable parameters
series No. of tests
Kind of defect Relative density (Dr%) Defective position

S1 sound 30 - 1
A)
 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

Table 4. Experimental testing program.

Variable parameters
series No. of tests
Kind of defect Relative density (Dr%) Defective position

S1 sound 30 - 1

S2 necking 30 Ld /L=0.25 1
Group(A)
S3 necking 30 Ld /L=0.5 1

S4 necking 30 Ld /L=0.75 1

S5 sound 60 - 1

S6 necking 60 Ld /L=0.25 1
Pile
Group(B)
defect
S7 necking 60 Ld /L=0.5 1

S8 necking 60 Ld /L=0.75 1

S9 sound 80 - 1

S10 necking 80 Ld /L=0.25 1

Group(C)
S11 necking 80 Ld /L=0.5 1

S12 necking 80 Ld /L=0.75 1

S13 Soft pocket 30 Y/D=0 1

S14 Soft pocket 30 Y/D=0.5 1

Group(D)
S15 Soft pocket 30 Y/D=1 1

S16 Soft pocket 30 Y/D=1.5 1

S17 Soft pocket 60 Y/D=0 1

S18 Soft pocket 60 Y/D=0.5 1

Soil
Group(E)
defect
S19 Soft pocket 60 Y/D=1 1

S20 Soft pocket 60 Y/D=1.5 1

S21 Soft pocket 80 Y/D=0 1

S22 Soft pocket 80 Y/D=0.5 1

Group(F)
S23 Soft pocket 80 Y/D=1 1

S2 Soft pocket 80 Y/D=1.5 1

Total number of series 24

L:total length of pile, Ld: the length from defect to pile toe, Y: distance from soft pocket to pile toe and D: pile diameter

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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022
5. Results and Discussion
5.1 Definition of Failure Load
The ultimate axial capacity of a pile was obtained from
the load-displacement curves. The pile displacement,
S (mm) is expressed in a non-dimensional form in terms
of the pile diameter, D (mm) as a percentage ratio, S/D (%).
In this study, the ultimate axial capacity of the model pipe
pile was obtained from the load-displacement curve, as
the load corresponding to the total axial movement equals
to 10% of the pile diameter [5,14,15].
5.2 Load-Displacement Relationship
Twenty-four tests were conducted using four different
pile models with different positions of defected piles
with lengths equal to 800 mm and 80 mm in diameter
L/D=10. Such tests were performed in order to examine
the behavior of the defective reinforced concrete piles in
the sand [4-12]. Moreover, the geotechnical and structural
defects were discussed that a structural defect was a neck
with diameter 0.5D, and its position was at 0.25 L from
bottom, the pile with neck at center and the pile with neck
at 0.25 L from top [4]. The geotechnical defect was a soft
pocket under the pile in a different position from the pile
toe, with Y/D = (0, 0.5, 1 and 1.5).
A-structural defect
The load-displacement curves were obtained and
presented in Figures 7 to 9 for a pile with structural
defect at different relative density. Figure 7 shows typical
axial compression load versus relative displacement, S/
D (%) for sound pile and different defective model piles
in loose sand (Dr= 30%), in case of sound pile. It is clear
that, linear relationship in the early stages of the loading
up to relative displacement of about 4%, then they are
non-linear in stages of the axial loading up to relative
displacement equal to 12.5%, but afterwards they are
linear. In case of pile with neck at 0.25 L from bottom. It
is clear that, linear relationship in the early stages of the
loading up to relative displacement of about 7.5%, then
they are non-linear in stages of the axial loading up to
relative displacement equal to 22%, but afterwards they
are linear. In case of pile with neck at center. It is clear
that, linear relationship in the early stages of the loading
up to relative displacement of about 5%, then they are
non-linear in stages of the axial loading up to relative
displacement equal to 20%, but afterwards they are linear.
And in case of pile with neck at 0.25 L from top. It is clear
that, linear relationship in the early stages of the loading
up to relative displacement of about 10%, then they are
non-linear in stages of the axial loading up to relative
6
displacement equal to 20%, but afterwards they are
linear. It is also indicated that, Moreover, it is noted that
at the relative displacement, S/D equals10%, the ultimate
capacities (Qult.) were found to be (1259.5N, 1139N,
1070N and 1026.5N) for the sound pile, the pile with neck
at 0.25 L from bottom, the pile with neck at center and the
pile with neck at 0.25 L from top. Figure 8 shows typical
axial compression load versus relative displacement,
S/D (%) for the sound pile and different defective model
piles in medium sand (Dr= 60%). In case of sound pile.
It is clear that, linear relationship in the early stages of
the loading up to relative displacement of about 5%, then
they are non-linear in stages of the axial loading up to
relative displacement equal to 20%, but afterwards they
are linear. In case of pile with neck at 0.25 L from bottom.
It is clear that, linear relationship in the early stages of
the loading up to relative displacement of about 5%, then
they are non-linear in stages of the axial loading up to
relative displacement equal to 15%, but afterwards they
are linear. In case of pile with neck at center. It is clear
that, linear relationship in the early stages of the loading
up to relative displacement of about 5%, then they are
non-linear in stages of the axial loading up to relative
displacement equal to 25%, but afterwards they are linear.
And in case of pile with neck at 0.25 L from top. It is
clear that, linear relationship in the early stages of the
loading up to relative displacement of about 5%, then
they are non-linear in stages of the axial loading up to
relative displacement equal to 15%, but afterwards they
are linear. Another point to be noted is that, at the relative
displacement, S/D equals10%, the ultimate capacities
(Qult.) were found to be (2714.33N,2524.48N, 2386.83N
and 2196.8N) for the sound pile, the pile with neck at
0.25 L from bottom, the pile with neck at center and the
pile with neck at 0.25 L from top . Figure 9 shows typical
axial compression load versus relative displacement,
S/D (%) for the sound pile and different defective model
piles in the dense sand (Dr= 80%). In case of sound pile.
It is clear that, linear relationship in the early stages of
the loading up to relative displacement of about 3%, then
they are non-linear in stages of the axial loading up to
relative displacement equal to 5%, but afterwards they are
linear. In case of pile with neck at 0.25 L from bottom.
It is clear that, linear relationship in the early stages of
the loading up to relative displacement of about 3%, then
they are non-linear in stages of the axial loading up to
relative displacement equal to 6%, but afterwards they
are linear. In case of pile with neck at center. It is clear
that, linear relationship in the early stages of the loading
up to relative displacement of about 3%, then they are
non-linear in stages of the axial loading up to relative
 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022
displacement equal to 12%, but afterwards they are linear.
And in case of pile with neck at 0.25 L from top. It is
clear that, linear relationship in the early stages of the
loading up to relative displacement of about 3%, then they
are non-linear in stages of the axial loading up to relative
displacement equal to 20%, but afterwards they are linear.
Furthermore, it is noted that, at relative displacement,
S/D equals 10%, the ultimate capacities (Qult.) were
found to be (4830N, 4260N, 4060N and 3680N) for the
sound pile, the pile with neck at 0.25 L from bottom, the
pile with neck at center and the pile with neck at 0.25
L from top. An important point to be noted is that the
existing of such a neck can distinctly modify the load
displacement response. Load capacity was gradually
reduced with larger settlement relative to the location
of necking. Bearing capacity decrease as necking depth
decrease.
B-geotechnical defect
The load-displacement curves were obtained and
presented in Figures 10 to 12 for a pile with geotechnical
defect at different relative density. A typical pile
constructed on a soft pocket that is positioned differently
in loose sand (Dr=30%) is shown in Figure 10 as an axial
compression load versus relative displacement, S/D. In
case of Y/D=0. It is clear that, non-linear relationship in
the early stages of the loading up to relative displacement
of about 3%, afterwards they are linear. In case of
Y/D=1/2. It is clear that, non-linear relationship in the
early stages of the loading up to relative displacement
of about 5%, afterwards they are linear. In case of
Y/D=1. It is clear that, non-linear relationship in the early
stages of the loading up to relative displacement of about
7.5%, afterwards they are linear. In case of Y/D=3/2. It
is clear that, non-linear relationship in the early stages
of the loading up to relative displacement of about 15%,
afterwards they are linear. It should be noted that the
maximum capacities (Qult.) for Y/D =(0, 0.5, 1, and 1.5)
at relative displacement, S/D equals 10% were obtained
490N, 598N, 684N, and 875N. A typical pile constructed
on a soft pocket that is positioned differently in medium
sand (Dr=60 percent) is shown in Figure 11 as an axial
compression load versus relative displacement, S/D. In
case of Y/D=0. It is clear that, non-linear relationship in
the early stages of the loading up to relative displacement
of about 4%, afterwards they are linear. In case of
Y/D=1/2. It is clear that, non-linear relationship in the
early stages of the loading up to relative displacement of
about 10%, afterwards they are linear. In case of Y/D=1,
it is clear that, non-linear relationship in the early stages
of the loading up to relative displacement of about 8%,
afterwards they are linear. In case of Y/D=3/2. It is clear
that, linear relationship in the early stages of the loading
up to relative displacement of about 2%, then they are
non-linear in stages of the axial loading up to relative
displacement equal to 6%, afterwards they are linear. It
should be noted that the maximum capacities (Qult.) for
Y/D =(0, 0.5, 1, and 1.5) at relative displacement, S/D
equals 10% were obtained 1405 N, 1676 N, 1876 N, and
2292 N. Typical axial compression load versus relative
displacement, S/D (percent), for a pile based on a soft
pocket with a different position in dense sand (Dr=80
percent), is shown in Figure 12 in case of Y/D=0. It is
clear that, linear relationship in the early stages of the
loading up to relative displacement of about 1%, then they
are non-linear in stages of the axial loading up to relative
displacement equal to 2%, afterwards they are linear. In
case of Y/D=1/2. It is clear that, linear relationship in the
early stages of the loading up to relative displacement
of about 2%, then they are non-linear in stages of the
axial loading up to relative displacement equal to 8%,
afterwards they are linear, in case of Y/D=1. It is clear
that, linear relationship in the early stages of the loading
up to relative displacement of about 3%, then they are
non-linear in stages of the axial loading up to relative
displacement equal to 10%, afterwards they are linear.
In case of Y/D=3/2. It is clear that, linear relationship in
the early stages of the loading up to relative displacement
of about 3%, then they are non-linear in stages of the
axial loading up to relative displacement equal to 5%,
afterwards they are linear. It should be noted that the
maximum capacities (Qult.) for Y/D=(0, 0.5, 1, and 1.5)
were found to be (2394N, 2930N, 3225N, and 3725 N) at
relative displacement S/D equals 10%. It is evident that
piles capacity in dense sand are more resistant than those
erected in medium- and loose-grained sand. And the axial
pile capacity has been observably shown to be greatly
affected by the position of geotechnical defect according
to pile toe.
Figure 7. Relationship between axial compression load
and relative displacement, S/D (%) for the sound pile and
different defective model piles in the loose sand (Dr= 30%).
7
 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022
Figure 8. Relationship between axial compression load
and relative displacement, S/D (%) for the sound pile and
different defective model piles in the medium dense sand
(Dr= 60%).
Figure 9. Relationship between axial compression load
and relative displacement, S/D (%) for the sound pile and
different defective model piles in the dense sand (Dr= 80%).
Figure 10. Relationship between axial compression load
and relative displacement, S/D (%) for a pile based on soft
pocket with different positions (Dr=30%).
Figure 11. Relationship between axial compression load
and relative displacement, S/D (%) for a pile based on soft
pocket with different positions (Dr= 60%).
8
Figure 12. Relationship between axial compression load
and relative displacement, S/D (%) for a pile based on soft
pocket with different positions (Dr= 80%).
5.3 Effect of Structural Defect (Necking)
The influence of the existence of necking in a pile
and the ultimate axial load reduction factor = [(B.C of
sound pile – B.C of defective pile)/B.C of sound pile] for
different model piles were studied and presented in Figure
13. This figure indicated the relation of the load reduction
factor for model piles with different positions of necking
in different relative density. In the loose sand (Dr=30%)
reduction factors were found to be (9.57%, 15.05% and
18.5%) for the pile with a neck at 0.25 L from the pile toe,
the pile with a neck at center and the pile with a neck at
0.25 L from the pile toe in the medium sand (Dr=60%),
and the reduction factors were found to be (6.99%,
12.07% and 19.07%) for the pile with a neck at 0.25 L
from pile toe, the pile with a neck at the center and the
pile with a neck at 0.25 L from the pile toe. Furthermore,
in the medium dense sand (Dr=80%), the reduction factors
were found to be (11.8%, 15.94% and 23.81%) for the
pile with a neck at 0.25 L from the pile toe, the pile with a
neck at the center and the pile with a neck at 0.25 L from
the pile toe. According to this figure, one the one hand,
it was clear that the ultimate axial load reduction factor
pile was greater when the neck was present at the top of
the pile, followed by the neck in the middle, and finally
by the neck at the bottom of the pile. It can be concluded
that, our results agreed with results [5,16,17]. According to
Al-Mosawe and Al-Shakarchi, the decrease in the bearing
capacity was (21%). Furthermore, the decrease in the
bearing capacity was found to be (14%) and (10%) when
the defect was at (L/2) and (2L/3), respectively. And
this is agreed with or conclusion in that, the influence
of necking in reducing the load carrying capacity of the
pile was more when the neck was present near the top of
the pile. The existence of necking made a loss of the side
friction resistance. The axial load distribution of the pile
 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022
was maximum on the top and then it decreased with depth.
Therefore, the presence of necking on the top of the pile
was more effective on the reduction load bearing capacity,
and on the presence of necking at the bottom of the pile,
respectively. On the other hand, this figure also indicated
that, the values of the reduction factors were more in the
dense sand due to increase in soil friction angle.
Figure 13. Relationship between axial compression load
reduction factor (%) and relative displacement (Dr), in
different positions of necking.
5.4 Effect of Geotechnical Defect (Soft Pocket)
To study the effect of the existence of the soft pocket,
Figure 14 indicates the reduction factor = [(B.C of the
sound pile – B.C of the pile with geotechnical defect)/
B.C of the sound pile] for different positions of the
soft pocket. This figure indicates the relation of the
load reduction factor for the model piles with different
positions of the soft pocket in different relative densities.
In the loose sand (Dr= 30%), reduction factors were
found to be (61.1%, 52.52%, 45.69% and 30.53%) for
the pile with a soft pocket at (Y/D=0, Y/D=1/2, Y/D=1
and Y/D=3/2) respectively. In addition, in the medium
dense sand (Dr=60%), reduction factors were found to
be (48.24%, 38.25%, 30.89% and 15.56%) for the pile
with a soft pocket at (Y/D=0, Y/D=1/2, Y/D=1 and Y/
D=3/2) respectively. Furthermore, in the medium dense
sand (Dr=80%), reduction factors were found to be
(50.43%, 39.34%, 33.23% and 23.81%) for the pile with
a soft pocket at (Y/D=0, Y/D=1/2, Y/D=1 and Y/D=3/2)
respectively. An important point to be noted is that the
ultimate axial load reduction factor a pile was greater
when Y/D=0, followed by Y/D=1/2, Y/D=1 and finally by
Y/D=3/2 from the bottom of the pile. However, this figure
also shows that the reduction factor values were higher
in the loose sand. It can be concluded that the effect
of geotechnical defect decrease whenever the distance
between the geotechnical defect and pile toe increase
agreed with [7]. According to Eslami and Fellenius, the
failure zone includes a depth below the pile toe ranging
from 1.1 b to 1.5 b, and a horizontal extent ranging from
2 b to 4 b. Therefore, the greater the distance between the
defect and the body of the effect, the less its effect is until
it reaches a small degree value it exits out of failure zone.
Figure 14. Relationship between axial compression load
reduction factor (%) and relative displacement (Dr), in
different positions of the soft pocket.
Influence of Sand Relative Density
Figures 15 and 16 show the effect of the sand relative
density (Dr) on the ultimate axial pile load in the case
of a structural defect and a geotechnical defect. This
figure shows the relation between the ultimate axial load
of sound and defective piles and different sand relative
densities in different positions of defect. According to
this figure, it is noticed that, in case of a structural defect,
the ultimate axial load of different model piles increases
with the increase of sand relative density. It was noticed
that ultimate axial load of the model piles in the medium
dense sand increased by (1.16, 1.22, 1.23, and 1.14) and
in case of dense sand increased by (3.83, 3.74, 3.79, and
3.58), respectively for the sound pile, the pile with a neck
at 0.25 L from the pile bottom, the pile with a neck at the
center, and the pile with a neck at 0.25 L from the pile
top respectively in comparison to the ultimate axial load
of model piles in the loose sand. On the one hand, it was
noticed that the influence of the sand relative density was
most in case of the sound pile followed by the pile with
a neck at 0.25 L from bottom, the pile with a neck at the
center, and finally the least in the pile with a neck at 0.25
L from the top it can be concluded that bearing capacity
increase with increase of relative density as a result of
increase of soil friction angle and the surface area of pile.
On the other hand, in the case of the geotechnical defect,
the ultimate axial load of different model piles increased
with the increase of the sand relative density [16,17]. The
ultimate axial load of the model piles in the medium dense
sand were increased by (2.87, 2.8, 2.74 and 2.62) and in
case of dense sand were increased by (4.89, 4.90, 4.71 and
4.26) compared with the ultimate axial load of the model
piles in the loose sand for the pile with a soft pocket at
(Y/D=0, Y/D=1/2, Y/D=1 and Y/D =3/2) respectively. A
9
 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022
point to be noted is that the influence of the sand relative
density was most in case of Y/D=0 followed by Y/D=1/2,
Y/D=1, and finally the least when Y/D =3/2).
Figure 15. Relationship between ultimate axial Qult (N)
load and relative dense, Dr (%)in different position of
necking.
Figure 16. Relationship between ultimate axial Qult (N)
load and relative dense, Dr (%) in different position of
soft pocket.
6. Conclusions
The results showed that the structural and the geotech-
nical defect of a pile had a great effect on the reduction
of the pile load capacity and on increasing the settlement.
Such defects can be summarized as follows:
A. Structural defect:
The results clearly show that the existence of necking
reduced the load carrying capacity of the pile.
Based on the experimental results, the influence of
necking in reducing the load carrying capacity of the pile
was most when the neck was present at the top of the pile
followed by a neck at the center and a neck at the bottom
of the pile.
The results of the study also show the load carrying
capacity of the pile increased with the increase of relative
density due to the increase of the pile skin friction force
and the end bearing.
The results indicate that the influence of sand relative
density was most in the case of the sound pile followed
10
by the pile with a neck at 0.25 L from the bottom, the pile
with a neck at the center, and finally the least in the pile
with a neck at 0.25 L from the top.
B. Geotechnical defect:
The existence of the soft pocket reduced the load
carrying capacity of the pile.
The influence of the soft pocket in reducing the load
carrying capacity of the pile was greater when Y/D=0,
followed by Y/D=1/2, Y/D=1 and finally Y/D =3/2 from
the bottom of the pile.
The load carrying capacity of the pile increased with
the increase of the relative density due to the increase in
the pile skin friction force and the end bearing.
The influence of the sand relative density in increasing
the relative density was most in case of Y/D=0 followed
by Y/D=1/2, Y/D=1, and finally the least when Y/D =3/2).
Conflict of Interest
There is no conflict of interest.
References
[1] Poulos, H.G., 2005. Pile behavior—Consequences of
geological and construction imperfections. Journal
of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering.
131(5), 538-563.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241
(2005)131:5(538)
[2] Poulos, H.G., 1999. Behaviour of pile groups with
defective piles. International Conference on Soil Me-
chanics and Foundation Engineering. pp. 871-876.
[3] Klingmüller, O., Kirsch, F., 2004. A Quality and
Safety Issue for Cast-in-Place Piles-25 Years of Ex-
perience with Low-Strain Integrity Testing in Germa-
ny: From Scientific Peculiarity to Day-to-Day Prac-
tice. Current Practices and Future Trends in Deep
Foundations. pp. 202-221.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/40743(142)12
[4] Sakr, M., 2000. “Load Transfer Characteristics of
Model Defective Piles in Clay” 8ASEC. pp. 1037-
1051.
[5] Al-Mosawe, M., Al-Shakarchi, Y., 2021. Behavior of
Defective Cast in Place Piles. Journal of Engineering.
27(4).
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31026/j.eng.2021.04.08
[6] Eslami, A., Fellenius, B.H., 1997. Pile capacity by
direct CPT and CPTu methods applied to 102 case
histories. Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 34(6), 886-
904.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1139/t97-056
[7] Elsawwaf, M.A.E., Azzam, W.R., Kassem, E.M.,
 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022
2021. An Experimental Study of the Behavior of a
Strip Footing Adjacent to Reinforced Sand Slope
Above a Soft Pocket. GEOMATE Journal. 21(87),
118-127.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21660/2021.87.j2369
[8] Xu, M., Ni, P., Ding, X., et al., 2019. Physical and
numerical modelling of axially loaded bored piles
with debris at the pile tip. Computers and Geotech-
nics. 114, 103146.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2019.103146
[9] Azzam, W.R., Al Mesmary, M., 2010. The behavior
of single tension pile subjected to surcharge loading.
Ned University Journal of Research. 7(1), 1-12.
[10] ECP (Egyptian Code of Practice), 2007. Egyptian
code for design and construction of reinforced con-
crete structures. ECP 203-2007, Housing and Build-
ing Research Centre, Cairo.
[11] American Concrete Institute, 2000. Design, Man-
ufacture, and Installation of Concrete Piles (ACI
543R-00), American Concrete Institute, Michigan,
USA.
[12] Rao, S., Nasr, A., 2010. Behavior of vertical piles
embedded in reinforced sand under pullout oblique
loads. International Journal of Geotechnical Engi-
neering. 4(2), 217-230.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3328/IJGE.2010.04.02.217-230
[13] IS 2911 Part 1/Sec 1, 2010. Indian standard design
and construction of pile foundations-code of practice:
concrete piles.
[14] Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B., Mesri, G., 1996. Soil me-
chanics in engineering practice. John Wiley & Sons.
[15] Meyerhof, G.G., 1976. Bearing capacity and settle-
ment of pile foundations. Journal of the Geotechnical
Engineering Division. 102(3), 197-228.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/AJGEB6.0000243
[16] Krishnamurthy, P., Hariswaran, S., 2017. Numerical
Studies on the Load Carrying Capacity of Defective
Pile. Indian Geotechnical Conference.
[17] Sarvesh, E.A., Hariswaran, S., Premalatha, K. Influ-
ence of presence of defective pile in the load carrying
capacity of pile group. Indian Geotechnical Confer-
ence.
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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research

https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/agger

ARTICLE
Characterization of Subsurface Lithology and Aquifer Parameters
Using Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) for Groundwater Develop-
ment in Igbo-Imabana, Southern Nigeria
Philip Obasi● Awara Ekinya Chibuike Akpa*● Emmanuel Edene
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES) using Schlumberger array was carried
Received: 20 July 2022 out at fifteen (15) different points to evaluate aquifer characteristics within
Igbo-Imabana, Abi L.G.A of Cross River State. Resistivity meter and its
Revised: 25 August 2022 accessories were used for data acquisition. The maximum current and
Accepted: 30 August 2022 potential electrode distance were 400 m and 20 m respectively. The field
Published Online: 20 September 2022 data were interpreted using Interpex software and three to five geo-electric
layers encountered within the study area. The dominant curve type was
Keywords: H followed by K. From the result, geo-electric layers delineated were
sandstone, clay, saturated sandstone, sandy shale, clayey shale, and shale
Groundwater with average apparent resistivity values of 2249.94 Ωm, 2.86 Ωm, 365.28
Aquifer parameters Ωm, 222.69 Ωm, 14.60 Ωm and 59.02 Ωm respectively. The top geo-
Vertical electrical sounding (VES) electric layer was dominantly lateritic topsoil, with variation in degrees
of compaction and having an average resistivity of 876.33 Ωm with depth
Igbo-Imabana
and thickness generally less than 5 m. The calculated aquifer parameters
hydraulic conductivity (Kc), transmissivity, longitudinal conductance, and
transverse resistance from the VES results show ranges values; 3.86×10–4
to 4.69×10–2 m/day, 2.95×10–3 to 2.82 m2/day, 2.95×10–3 to 2.81 Ωm and
484.33 to 19444.83 Ω2m respectively. The aquifer thickness and depth
values range from 3.60 m to 68.05 m and 5.20 m to 76 m respectively.
The study reviewed that the area is made of heterolithic/heterogenous
lithofacies, confined aquifer(s), shallow and deep aquifer. Also, from
the models and aquifer parameters, the area is characterized by semi-
pervious materials. This integrally explains why the area have have low
transmissivity and majority of boreholes drilled in the area failed.

1. Introduction water. Many workers have emphasized on water and its

use for domestic, industrial, agricultural, and aesthet-
Water is essential for life. It occurs as surface or ground- ics purposes [1-7]. Water is an important and necessary

*Corresponding Author:
Chibuike Akpa,
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria;
Email: akpachibuike@gmail.com

DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/agger.v4i3.4939
Copyright © 2022 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Co. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

12
 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022
commodity to the sustenance of life (both plants and
animals). Its shortage is of great concern especially during
dry season to the people of Igbo-Imabana. Igbo-Imabana
(Figure 2) is located between latitudes 5.50° N and 6.00°
N of the Equator and longitudes 8.05° E and 8.12° E of the
Greenwich Meridian within Cross River State, Nigeria.
The area comprises of six villages; Mboti, Itaghoghor,
Ebor, Lehangha (Igbo Beach) and Ikpalegwa. The shortage
of water in these communities cannot be overemphasized.
The indigenes have to trek long distances of about 4 km
to rivers and streams which are often degraded in quality
due to its exposure to physical, biological and chemical
contaminants [8]. Also, the distance between Igbo-Imabana
and Itigidi/Ediba Water Board Stations located in the
Local Government Area has made it difficult to extend
pipe-borne water to the community [8]. More deteriorating
is the menaces of outbreak of cholera dysentry, typhoid
fever and the transmission of certain viral diseases in the
area has been traced to the consumption of water from
the River Cross, which is a major source of water in the
area [9]. Consequently, groundwater resource in Igbo-
Imabana is the only source of potable water for domestic,
industrial and other uses. However, efforts by government
agencies like Rural Water and Sanitation (RUWATSA)
to drill boreholes in the area have failed because of
poor knowledge of the aquifer characteristics within
the area. Moreover, these agencies drill without proper
considerations of aquifer parameters and geophysical
survey which have led to borehole failures in the area. In
addition, most boreholes and hand dug wells have either
partially or totally failed because of drilling (groundwater)
was not supported by any professional prospecting
for the location of water bearing horizon. Locally, no
research has been published on the characterization of
subsurface lithology to give adequate understanding of
groundwater potential in the area. This work has derived
the resistivity of the sub-surface geo-electric layers from
their conductivities. Correlating the geo-electric sections
at various sounding points aided evaluation of depth to
the aquiferous units within the study area, hence giving
an overview of groundwater trend in the area. As water-
table may not apply in the area following geological
constrains.
Electrical resistivity method(s) has become one of
the most useful groundwater exploration techniques,
following the sensitivity of rocks resistivity to their ionic
content and fluid characteristics [10-13]. The method enables
a quantitative assessment of groundwater by using a
controlled source of specific dimensions which account
for superiority over other electrical methods. Resistivity
studies using Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) have
been employed by so many authors for delineating
groundwater potentials [14-16] . The works of several
researchers, are also supportive of the fact that electrical
resistivity using VES can be used to locate water bearing
formations which when exploited will yield sufficient
volume of water for the people of Igbo-Imabana,
hence the need for this research [8,17-25]. It is against this
background that this research focused on providing the
general knowledge about geology of the area. Combing
it with geophysical approach aided defining aquifer units
and aquifer characteristics like aquifer depth, thickness
and transmissivity at some selected sites in the area.
Hence, providing a comprehensive data of Igbo-Imabana
area geologically and geophysically for subsequent
exploitation of groundwater resources in order to meet the
water needs of the people.
2. Geology, Physiography and Hydrogeologi-
cal Settings
Regionally, Igbo-Imabana is located within the Ikom-
Mamfe embayment [26]. The embayment is the Northwest to
Southeast segment of the Northeast to Southwest trending
Benue Trough [27]. It extends laterally into parts of Western
Cameroon covering an area of about 2,016 km 2 [28].
The basin originated following failed arm (Aulacogen)
during the separation of South America from Africa as the
Atlantic Ocean opened at the site of an RRR junction [29-33].
After which the Trough was filled by sediment from the
several depositional cycles which accumulated up to
6,000 m of fluvial, deltaic and marine sediments [31]. The
sediments consist dominantly of Albian, Cenomanian and
Turonian lithofacies and were affected by the Santonian
Tectonic episode which resulted in folding, faulting,
fracturing and igneous activity [32]. The sedimentation
within the Benue Trough was controlled first by the
progressive eustatic rise of sea level from the Albian,
local diastrophism and the consequent widespread down
warping of continental margins and the creation of vast
interior seaways during the Cenomanian and Turonian [33].
These resulted in the transgressive-regressive cycles
that characterized of deposition sediments in the Benue
Trough [33]. The stratigraphy of the Trough was thus di-
vided into three unconformities bounded depositional
sequences. An Albianic–Cenomanian sequence includes
the emplacement of the Abakiliki Pyroclastics and the
deposition of the Asu River Group [35]. Secondly, the
Turonian–Coniacian sequence which marked the folding
and erosion of the Asu River Group, the deposition of
the Eze-Aku Group, Agwu Shales and lateral equivalents
followed by a period of Santonian folding. The Santonian
deformation and magmatism was followed by the
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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022
displacement of the Benue Trough westward leading to
the subsidence of the Anambra Basin, the smaller Afikpo
Syncline, and the Abakiliki Anticlinorium [31].
The three major lithostratigraphic units dominant around
Ikom-Mamfe axis of the Trough comprised of Asu River
Group (ARG), Eze Aku Group (EAG) and Post-Santonian
Nkporo Group. These cretaceous lithostratigraphic units
overlaid the Precambrian basement rocks around the
area, with the ARG (Albian Age) directly overlie the
Precambrian basement and is the oldest sedimentary rocks
within the study area. The sediments within the ARG are
made up impervious shales, limestones with intercalation
of sandstone and ammonites. The sediments are marine to
marginal marine in character [35,36].
The EAG overlies ARG comprising of thick flaggy
impervious calcareous and non-calcareous shales, sandy
shaly limestone and calcareous sandstone [35,36]. The EAG
is overlain by the post Santonian Nkporo Group sediment
(Shale) and the major lithologic units in the formation are
sandstone, mudstone and shale [35,36].
Two principal climatic conditions, the wet and dry
seasons are common in the area and portray a humid
climatic condition with relative humidity of ~80%, annual
precipitation of ~2,200 mm and temperatures dropping
to as low as 23 °C in the wet season and rising to ~35 °C
in the dry season [37]. The wet season begins in March
when moisture-enriched tropical maritime air mass that
originates from the Atlantic Ocean blows northward
across the area. The air mass usually begins the gradual
process of temporal termination of constant blowing
activity in the area around October which symbolizes
the end of the rainy season. The beginning of dry season
in the area starts around November and it is marked by
sudden increase in ambient temperature, heat and aridity,
a condition that persist till march. This season is also
characterized arrival of tropical air mass usually blowing
southwards from Sahara Desert across the area [37,38].
3. Materials and Method
3.1 Data Acquisition
The VES conducted in area was done using Schlum-
berger electrode array for the data acquisition (Figure 1).
Abem Terrameter (SAS 1000), four electrodes, four reels
of Cables, Direct Current Source (12 Volts Car battery),
hammers, field Survey Data sheet, global positioning
system (GPS) and measuring tapes were all used for data
14
acquisition. Resistivity soundings were performed at
fifteen (15) different locations (Figure 2) with maximum
current electrodes separation (A-B) of four hundred (400
m) meters and potential electrodes (M-N) 20 m, though it
was less at some locations due to emplaced structures.
From Ohm’s law which is stated numerically as:
V α R(1)
V = IR(2)
where V is the electrical potential, I is the current and R
is the material resistance to the flow of current. Electrical
resistivity method was used by passing direct current
(D.C.) into the ground through a pair of electrodes (current
electrodes) while the resulting potential difference (Δv)
arising from the current flow is measured through a pair of
electrodes (potential electrodes). The field data acquisition
and subsurface current interaction is schematically
presented in Figure 1. The sensing efficacy of the current
depends on depth of investigation which is function of
the electrode spacing. The greater the spacing between
the outer current electrodes, the deeper the electric
current will flow in the earth, hence the greater the depth
of investigation [14]. The ground responses are integral
functions rock type, fluid content and hydrogeochemical
component the fluid.
Sounding locations were randomly selected such that
it covers the six (6) communities; Ebor, Mboti, Ilike,
Itaghoghor, Lehangha (Igbo Beach) and Ikpalegwa that
make up Igbo-Imabana and also based on the existing
structures in the field as shown in the VES points map of
the study area (Figure 2).
The resistivity of a rock material whose resistance
is R and having a cross sectional area A and length L is
expressed as [39]:
Figure 1. Schematic diagram Illustrating basic
arrangement for Electrical Resistivity Measurement
Modified after [38].
 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022
VES 1
VES 2
VES 5
VES 11
VES 3
VES 12
VES 9
VES 8
VES 4
VES 7
VES 10
VES 13 VES 15
VES 14
Figure 2. Geologic Map of the Study Area showing
Lithostratigraphic unit and VES points of the study area.
AR
ρ = L (3)
where,
R = the resistance measured between two equipotential
surfaces;
L = distance separating the two equipotential surfaces.
3.2 Aquifer Parameters
The hydraulic characteristics of aquifers are important
properties for both groundwater and contaminated
land assessments and as well for safe construction
of engineering structures [40] . Application of field
hydrogeological method in aquifer parameter estimation
is time consuming and capital intensive. In the alternative,
surface geophysical method may provide rapid and
effective techniques for groundwater exploration and
aquifer evaluation. The resistivity readings were processed
to produce geo-electric sections of the thickness and
resistivity of subsurface electrical layers [41].
Hydraulic conductivity and aquifer depth are among
the fundamental properties describing and characterizing
subsurface hydrology. Many investigation techniques are
commonly employed with the aim of estimation of spatial
distribution of hydraulic parameters [42]. Field estimations
of these parameters are always available and surface
resistivity parameters extracted from surface electrical
measurements can be highly effective not only for aquifer
hydraulic conductivity estimation but also for group of
hydraulic parameters. Correlation between hydraulic
and electrical aquifer properties can be possible, as both
properties are related to the pore space structure and
heterogeneity of the medium under study [43-45].
Transverse resistance of the aquifer R = hρ (4)
and the
Longitudinal conductance S = h/ρ (5)
ρ and h are the resistivity’s and thicknesses of the
individual layers respectively, the parameters S and R are
VES 6
commonly called Dar-Zarrouk parameters [46].
3.2.1 Hydraulic Conductivity
VES Points
Hydraulic conductivity is symbolically represented as
K, which is a property of rock that describes the ease with
which water can move through pore spaces or fractures [42].
It depends on the intrinsic permeability of the material
and on the degree of saturation. Saturated hydraulic
conductivity, Ksat, describes water movement through
saturated media.
Kc=1/p (6)
where Kc is the calculated hydraulic conductivity, and p is
the resistivity of the saturated layer from VES.
3.2.2 Transmissivity
Transmissivity is a measure of how much water can
be transmitted horizontally. It is directly proportional
to the hydraulic conductivity (K) and aquifer thickness
(b). Expressing K in m/day or cm/s and b in m, the
transmissivity (T) is found in units m2/day or cm2/s.
T=Kb(7)
The transmissivity (T) of aquifer is related to the field
hydraulic conductivity (K) by the equation above.
According to Niwas, S. and Singhal, D. C., in a porous
medium transmissivity is calculated by;
TC = KCb(8)
where,
TC = Calculated transmissivity (m2/day) from VES data.
KC = Calculated hydraulic conductivity (m/day) from VES
data.
b = Thickness of saturated layer (m) [47].
4. Discussion
The acquired resistivity values for the respective
VES points were plotted and modelled as shown in the
respective graphs (Figure 3 to Figure 17), geo-electric
layers, apparent resistivities, depths, thickness and in-
ferred lithologies (Table 1). The geo-electric correlation
of the fifteen (15) VES points (Figure 18 (a & b)) revealed
heterogeneous subsurface lithofacies in the study area.
The geo-layers ranges from two (2) to five (5) across the
study area. Apart from the apparent resistivity parameter,
thickness and depth has critical impactful role to play
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on functionality of the borehole and otherwise. Usually,
recorded variation in depths of aquifers from place to
place is as a result of variation in geo-thermal and geo-
structural occurrence, subsurface stratigraphic successions,
aquiferious unit thickness, presence of impervious layers
and past geodynamics (such as tectonic and magmatic
events where such applied) [13]. Hence, delineation of
aquiferous zone is integral function of thickness, depth
and apparent resistivities of the subsurface geo-electric
layers (Table 1). The top soil/first geo-electric layer is
dominantly laterite rich in sand content, clay and shaley
materials in order of abundance with an average apparent
resistivities of 876.33 Ωm, 19.44 Ωm and 62.70 Ωm
respectively. The thickness and depth ranges from 0.293
m to 4.193 m with an average 0.820 m (See Table 1).
Basically six (6) geo-electric layers were found in the
area are interlayering; clay, sandstone, shale, clayey shale,
sandy shale and/or saturated sandstone. The summary of
the average, minimum and maximum apparent resistivity,
thickness and depth as presented in Table 2, show case
troubling lithofacies (Aquicludes and Aquifuge) relative
to groundwater accumulation following their porosity and
permeability. Generally, the geo-electric layers thickness,
depth, apparent resistivity and inferred lithologies (Table 1
and Figure 18) designated that the study area is underlain
by heterolithic units/formations. Also, the thin (thickness)
nature of the aquifer units in the study further impact
negatively on the groundwater development of the area as
indicated by some of the VES points.
Compositely, the confinement of most of the aquifer
units as indicated by geo-electric model (Figure 18) will
further accentuate potential failure rate of the borehole,
as the aquifer will be limited to base flow as means of
recharge where such is even obtainable. This implies that
the probabilistic function of discharge exceeding recharge
will be eminent via-z-via, drawdown, head loss and
damaging of submersible pump will be at high echelon,
hence frequent borehole failure as it has been the case in
the study area. Keeping in mind that borehole failure is
not only occasion by insufficiency of groundwater, though
no doubt that it stands at front line of factors responsible
for borehole failures.

Figure 3. Sounding curve for VES 1 at PCN Prim. Sch. Lehangha, Igbo-Imabana

Figure 4. Sounding curve for VES 2 at Jehovah’s Witness Church, Lehangha Road, Igbo-Imabana

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Figure 5. Sounding curve for VES 3 at PCN Prim. Sch. Ebor, Igbo-Imabana

Figure 6. Sounding curve for VES 4 at Ebor Playground, Igbo-Imabana

Figure 7. Sounding curve for VES 5 at Itakongho Prim. Sch., Igbo-Imabana

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Figure 8. Sounding curve for VES 6 at Ilike Playground, Igbo-Imabana

Figure 9. Sounding curve for VES 7 at Mboti Prim. Sch., Igbo-Imabana

Figure 10. Sounding curve for VES 8 at Community Sec. Sch., Igbo-Imabana

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Figure 11. Sounding curve for VES 9 at New Layout, Ikpalegwa Road, Igbo-Imabana

Figure 12. Sounding curve for VES 10 at Community Prim. Sch., Ikpalegwa, Igbo-Imabana

Figure 13. Sounding curve for VES 11 at Egbakili, Igbo-Imabana

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Figure 14. Sounding curve for VES 12 Behind Sec. Sch., Igbo-Imabana

Figure 15. Sounding curve for VES 13 at Ozomozo, Igbo-Imabana

Figure 16. Sounding curve for VES 14 at Litakpa, Igbo-Imabana

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Figure 17. Sounding curve for VES 15 at Lehoma, Igbo-Imabana.
4.1 Correlation of the VES Point and Their Pa-
rameters in the Study Area
The geo-electric correlation sections (Figure 18)
alongside with other aquifer parameters (Table 2) showed
vertical and lateral variations in layer resistivity and
thickness, which is a revelation of the lateral and vertical
lithological changes in the study area varies significantly.
Three to six subsurface layers were identified from geo-
electric layer section. Virtually all the VES points have
clay layer except for VES 7, 10 and 13. It is difficult to
assign a specific depth point to groundwater occurrence
in the area following the non-uniformity and contrasting
heterogenous subsurface lithofacies. It was also observed
that not all the VES points have litho-unit that has textural
characteristics that enhance accumulation and discharge
of groundwater. Such as it were case at VES 1, 5, 14 and
15. The aquifers across the area was found basically to be
sandy shale/shaly-sand and sandstone. The sandy shale
average apparent resistivity value of 222.69 Ωm, the
sandstone is of two categories in the area with average
apparent resistivity values of 365.28 Ωm and 2249.94
Ωm for saturated sandstone and unsaturated/fresh water
bearing sandstone respectively. The presence and impact
of shale litho-facie within sandy-shale aquiferous unit in
some locations is highly suggestive that primary porosity
will be very low such that water transmission and storage
will be very poor [48]. Whereas the sands are usually
saturated with water and forms dependable aquifer [49,50].
4.2 Curve Types
Following the three layers subsurface classification
model on basis of apparent resistivity contrast the curve
types were established [51]. The VES curve types identified
in the study area include K, H, A, QHK, KH, QK, HK,
HA and KHK. The curve H type is the most frequent
sounding curve type in the study area followed by K curve
type (Table 3 and Figure 19). The diversity in curve types
also affirms the heterogeneity of the subsurface litho-units
in the area.
4.3 Aquifer Parameters Characterization of the
Study Area
The aquifer parameters/hydraulic characteristics of
the study area were established using the concept of Dar-
Zarrouk parameter. The aquifer hydraulic conductivity
obtained from the study area (Figure 20(a) and Table
4) ranges from 3.86×10 –4 to 4.69×10 –2 m/day with
average of 6.42×10–3m/day. From the values obtained,
the area are characterized by semi-pervious relative
permeability according to Bear, J. classification [52]. Its
further portrays that area is dominantly underlain by fine-
very sand, silt and shale such that aquifer attribute/yield
will likely be good to poor in term of water discharge.
This lithology characteristics might have affected the
hydraulic conductivity of a porous rock varying with the
volume (thickness) and arrangement of the pores (textural
characteristics of layer) as well as amount of fluid contain.
Here, mineral content (mostly clay minerals) and pore
size distributions will be very impactful on indirect/direct
aquifer characterization.
The apparent resistivity contrast of the aquiferous zone
ranges from 21.31 Ωm to 2588.7 Ωm and an average of
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786.04 Ωm. These units are indicated in the geoelectrical
model of subsurface layers and apparent resistivity
contouring (Table 4, Figures 18 and 20(d)) characteristic of
aquifer materials ranging from saturated fine sand, medium,
to very coarse sand with vary degree of fluid saturation.
The variation in conductivity of these saturated zones may
be due to the varying concentration of dissolved impurities,
and high water resistivities and small grain sizes, knowing
that electrical current is not only conducted by the pore
fluid but also by the grain matrix [53,54].

Table 1. Summary of Interpreted VES Data

No. of Layers Thickness (m) Depth (m) Apparent Resistivity (Ωm) Inferred Lithology

VES 1

1 0.37 0.37 13.29 Clayey top soil

2 0.359 0.729 1.02 Clay

3 ND ND 101.1 Shale

VES 2

1 0.989 0.989 105.8 Lateritic top Soil

2 13.72 14.71 14.19 Clay/Shale

3 6.62 21.34 1405.1 Sandstone

4 ND ND 14.19 Clay/Shale

VES 3

1 1.34 1.34 764 Sandstone

2 5.76 7.1 484.3 Saturated Sandstone

3 1.09 8.2 1.24 Clay

4 ND ND 210.7 Sandy Shale

VES 4

1 0.316 0.316 115.7 Lateritic Top soil

2 1.95 2.26 236.4 Sandy Shale

3 1.53 3.8 2.38 Clay

4 ND ND 1219.5 Sandstone

VES 5

1 0.689 0.689 22.54 Clayey top soil

2 0.0886 0.778 2232.3 Compacted laterite

3 0.612 1.39 0.177 Clay

4 60.04 61.43 21.31 Shale

5 ND ND 0.215 Clay

VES 6

1 1.29 1.29 2398.2 Compacted Lateritic Soil

2 2.59 3.89 15.89 Clay/Shale

3 26.26 30.15 1573.7 Sandstone

4 ND ND 15.89 Clay/Shale

VES 7

1 0.3863 0.3863 176.44 Sandy Soil

2 0.222 0.608 23853.4 Dry Sandstone

3 2.793 3.401 65.48 Shale

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Table 1 continued

No. of Layers Thickness (m) Depth (m) Apparent Resistivity (Ωm) Inferred Lithology

VES 7

4 68.29 71.69 1131.4 Sandstone

5 ND ND 446.08 Saturated Sandstone

VES 8

1 0.39 0.39 28.38 Clayey Top soil

2 5.26 5.65 1.334 Clay

3 ND ND 157.91 Sandy Shale

VES 9

1 4.193 4.193 65.68 Shaley Top Soil

2 11.13 15.32 4.916 Clay

3 ND ND 719.78 Sandstone

VES 10

1 0.468 0.468 39.7 Clayey Top soil

2 1.49 1.96 3930.4 Sandstone

3 11.49 13.45 39.7 Shale

4 ND ND 396.4 Saturated sandstone

VES 11

1 0.545 0.545 59.71 Shaley Top soil

2 13.99 14.54 13.99 Clayey/Shale

3 0.43 14.97 0.37 Clay

4 19.49 34.46 2588.7 Sandstone

5 ND ND 26.14 Shale

VES 12

1 0.293 0.293 179.19 Lateritic Top Soil

7.429 7.722 1.643 Clay

2 0.232 7.954 2.046 Clay

3 ND ND 285.76 Sandy/Shale

VES 13

1 0.643 0.643 239950 Dry Sandy Soil

2 32.96 33.6 134.33 Saturated Sandstone

3 ND ND 6072 consolidated Sandstone

VES 14

1 0.383 0.383 6.26 Clay Soil

2 ND ND 12.72 Clay/Shale

VES 15

1 0.374 0.374 6.46 Clay Soil

2 4.826 5.2 100.4 Shale

3 ND ND 6.8 Clay

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The aquifer transmissivity ranges from 2.95×10–3 to
2.82 m2/day with an average value of 2.78×10–1 m2/day
(Table 4 and Figure 20(b)). At the minimum depth of
aquifer unit in the area (about 5 m), the boreholes have
high likelihood of failing mostly when the thickness is
below 5m also accentuated by confining nature of most of
the aquifers. This defines the aquifer yield relationship to
be proportionate to thickness and hydraulic conductivity
(See Equation (8)). Compering Figure 20(a-c) shows that
the contour map of transmissivity is much more similar
to that of aquifer thickness, which is an indicative that
transmissivity in confined aquifer (like the study area)
is much more related to aquifer thickness than hydraulic
conductivity. These are indicative of the productive
potential of the aquifers. Relatively, aquifer depth varies
from 5.20 m to 76 m and thickness range of 3.60 m to
68.05 m with an average of 27. 29 m. The depth range is
suggestive of occurrence of both shallow and deep aquifer
in the area, this further explained reasons for borehole
failures as the shallow aquifer(s) thickness are small hence
borehole has high likelihood of failing in such scenario.
The transverse resistance varies from 484.33 Ω 2m to
19444.83 Ω2m having an average of 47192.76 Ω2m in the
area (Figure 20 (f)).
These hydro-geophysical isopach maps of the aquiferous
layer (Figure 20 (a-f)) shows that one major significant
fact why majority of boreholes drilled in the area fails
anchors on heterogeneity of the subsurface litho-units and
aquifer thickness which are high variability in the study
area. Following this, water transmission and percolation
into the underlying aquiferous units in the area will be low.
Presence of clay also implies that the underlying aquiferous
units are vulnerable to contamination due to the seemingly
low values of the aquifer longitudinal conductance which
is far less than unity (S < 1) except for VES 5 whose
longitudinal conductance ranging from 2.95×10–3 to 2.81
Ohm–1, having an average of 0.278 Ohm–1 and also clay at
the top and bottom which acts as protective cover. Such that
the lithologies encountered very much changes laterally and
vertically from one VES point to another.
The summary of the study area groundwater supply/
productive potential, protective capacity rating, transmis-
sivity and percentage area coverage is presented in Table
5 (a-c), modified after specified standards [55-59].

Table 2. Geo-electric layers and their Average parameters for Aquifer Delineations

Parameter C Sst/Sh C/Sh Sst Sat. Sst Sh

Average ρ values (Ωm) 2.862 222.69 14.60 2249.94 365.28 59.022

Average depth (m) 5.115 NA 10.87 26.82 20.35 20.87

Average thickness (m) 1.630 NA 10.10 20.58 19.36 19.70

Minimum ρ (Ωm) 0.177 285.76 12.72 716.78 134.33 21.31

Maximum ρ (Ωm) 6.80 157.91 15.89 6072 484.3 101.1

Minimum depth (m) 0.37 2.26 3.89 1.340 7.1 3.401

Maximum depth (m) 15.32 NA 14.97 71.69 33.6 61.43

Minimum Thickness (m) 0.232 1.95 2.59 1.340 5.76 2.79

Maximum thickness (m) 11.13 NA 3.89 68.29 32.96 60.04

VES with Unknown depth and thickness 5&15 3,8&12 2,6&14 4,9&13 7 & 10 1&11

C =Clay, Sst/Sh = Sandy Shale, C/Sh = Clayey shale, Sst = Sandstone, Sat. Sst = Saturated sandstone, Sh = Shale, NA = Not
Applicable

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a b
Figure 18. a: Geo-electric correlation of VES 1 to VES 8; b: Geo-electric correlation of VES 9 to VES 15

Table 3. Classification of VES Curve Types in the Study Area

S/N VES Curve type VES N0 VES curve characteristic Frequency % Values

1 K 15 ρ1<ρ2>ρ3 1 6.67

2 H 1,8,9,13 ρ1>ρ2<ρ3 4 26.67

3 A 14 ρ1<ρ2<ρ3 1 6.67

4 QHK 11 ρ1>ρ2>ρ3<ρ4>ρ5 1 6.67

5 KH 4, 10 ρ1<ρ2>ρ3<ρ4 2 13.33

6 QK 3 ρ1<ρ2>ρ3<ρ4 1 6.67

7 KHK 5, 7 ρ1<ρ2>ρ3<ρ4> ρ5 2 13.33

8 HK 2,6 ρ1>ρ2<ρ3>ρ4 2 13.33

9 HA 12 ρ1>ρ2<ρ3>ρ4 1 6.67

Figure 19. Pie Chart Classification of Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) Curve type of study Area

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Table 4. Summary of Results of the aquifer Parameters Integrated from the Geo-electric Sections in the Study Area
Apparent Transverse Longitudinal Hydraulic
VES Depth to Aquifer Transmissivity
resistivity resistance Conductance conductivity
NO Aquifer (m) thickness (m) (m2/day)
(Ohm-m) (Ohm-m2) (Ohm–1) (m/day)
1 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
-4
2 21.34 6.62 1405.1 9301.76 0.00471 7.12 x 10 4.71 x 10-3
-3
3 7.10 5.76 484.3 2789.57 0.0119 2.07×10 1.19 ×10-2
4 7.4 3.6 1219.5 4390.2 0.00295 8.20 x 10-4 2.95 x 10-3
-2
5 61.43 60.04 213.1 1279.45 2.82 4.69×10 2.82
-4
6 30.15 26.26 1573.7 41325.36 0.0167 6.36×10 1.67×10-2
-4
7 71.69 68.29 1131.4 77263.31 0.0604 8.84×10 6.04×10-2
-3
8 15.8 10.15 157.91 1602.79 0.0643 6.33 x 10 6.43 x 10-2
9 45.21 29.41 719.70 21168.73 0.0409 1.39×10-3 4.09×10-2
-3
10 32.81 19.36 396.4 7674.304 0.0488 2.52 x 10 4.88 x 10-2
11 34.46 19.49 2588.7 50453.76 0.00753 3.86 x 10-4 7.53 x 10-3
12 76.00 68.05 285.76 19444.83 0.238 3.45 x 10-3 92.38 x 10-1
13 33.6 32.96 134.33 4427.52 0.245 7.44 x 10-3 245 x 10-1
14 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
15 5.20 4.826 100.4 484.33 0.0481 9.96 x 10-3 4.81 x 10-2

ND = Not Determined

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Figure 20. (a) Aquifer Hydraulic Conductivity Map, (b) Aquifer Transmissivity Map (c) Aquifer Thickness Map, (d)
Aquifer Depth Map, (e) Aquifer Longitudinal Conductivity Map, (f) Aquifer Transverse Resistance of the study area.

Table 5a. Characterization of Aquifer Transmissivity Potentials of the area (after Standard of [55])
Transmissivity Rate Transmissivity Potentials VES Locations Percentage (%)

> 500 High Potential - 0

50 – 500 Medium Potential - 0

5 – 50 Low Potential 12, 13 13.33

0.5 – 5 Very Low Potential 5 6.67

< 0.5 Negligible 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13 & 15 80

Table 5b. Aquifer Transmissivity and Longitudinal Conductance Standard for Groundwater Characterization (Modified
Aquifer Transmissivity Standard [56])
Groundwater Supply
Transmissivity (m2/day) Designation VES Location Percentage (%)
potential
Withdrawal of great regional
>1000 Very High - -
importance
Withdrawal of lesser regional
100 -1000 High - -
importance
Withdrawal of local water
10 – 100 Intermediate 13 6.67
supply (small Communities)
Smaller withdrawal for
1 – 10 Low local water supply (private 12, 5 13.33
Consumption)
Withdrawal for local
0.1 – 1 Very Low water supply with limited - -
Consumption
Source for Local water
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
< 0.1 Impermeable supply are difficult, if 80
14, & 15
possible, to ensure

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Table 5c. Modified Aquifer Productive Capacity Rating [57-59]
Longitudinal conductance (Ωm) Protective Capacity Rating
>10 Excellent
5 – 10 Very Good
0.7 – 4.9 Good
0.2 – 0.69 Moderate
0.1 – 0.19 Weak
< 0.1 Poor
5. Conclusions
The identification of aquiferous layers and aquifer pa-
rameter functions (conductivity, transmissivity, thickness,
depth etc.) in the study area can be made possible through
application of vertical electrical sounding (VES) method
which in turn has been used to characterize the area. Find-
ing of this research indicated that Igbo-Imabana area has
generally low to impermeable lithologic units, which can
only sustain borehole drilled for the purpose Withdrawal
of local water supply (small Communities) and withdrawal
for local water supply with limited consumption. Larger
part of the area has difficult source for local water supply,
if possible. The transmissivity potential of the area is
relatively moderate to negligible, having weak to poor
protective capacity. Aside the heterogeneity of subsurface
lithology in the area, diagenetic processes, porosity
alterations, tectonic events within the area also altered the
primary porosity and permeability of the rocks in the past,
hence semi-impervious nature of rock units dominate
the area. Very high variation in lithologies, as depicted
by geo-electric correlation, has impacted significantly,
laterally and vertically on the porosity and permeability
of the subsurface units (rock) in the area. This enhances
heterogeneity of the lithology of the area. The depth to
aquiferous units within the area is not precise (because
from the result there is no uniform depth and thickness
for the aquiferous units across the VES). There are also
interlayering of shale, sandy-shale, clay and sandstone
at the subsurface which was not evenly distributed.
However, integrated geophysical approach still stands
better ground of aquifer delineation in the study area.
Hence geophysical survey has to precede borehole drilling
in the area as far as drilling of sustainable productive
borehole remains the cardinal priority.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no competing
interests.
VES Locations Percentage (%)
- -
- -
5 6.67
12, 13 13.33
- -
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, & 15 80
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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research

https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/agger

ARTICLE
Source Area Weathering and Tectonic History Inferred from the
Geochemistry of the Maastrichtian Sandstone from Patti Formation,
Southern Bida Basin, North Central Nigeria
R. G. Oladimeji1* O. J. Ojo2
1. Department of Geological Sciences, Osun State University, Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria
2. Department of Geology, Federal University, Oye Ekiti State, Nigeria

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history Sandstones sampled from Patti Formation, Southern Bida Basin, were
Received: 29 July 2022 studied geochemically using Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission
Spectrophotometer (ICP-AES) and an Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass
Revised: 08 September 2022 Spectrometry (ICP-MS) technique to evaluate their weathering and tectonic
Accepted: 14 September 2022 setting as well as to deduce the paleo-climatic conditions that existed during
Published Online: 27 September 2022 their deposition. Geochemically, SiO2 range from 73.9% to 86.2%, Al2O3
(6.7%~17.1%), Fe2O3 (1.1%~1.9%), K2O (0.1%~0.7%) while MgO, CaO,
Keywords: Na2O, P2O5, MnO and TiO2 were <1%. Enriched in Ba (Av. 622.94), Sr (Av.
153.63), Rb (Av. 55.08) and Zr (Av. 51.86) relatively similar in composition
Patti formation sandstone to UCC. High SiO2 but low other major oxides signify high mobility during
Chemical weathering processes of weathering. This was confirmed by high value (>80%) for indices
Passive margin like chemical index of alteration, chemical index of weathering, plagioclase
index of alteration, mineralogical index of alteration and relatively lower
Continental drift
values for weathering index of parker, recently used alpha indices (αAlE) of
Climatic condition sodium (326.17αΑlNa<344.40), magnesium (100.54αΑlmg<398.55), calcium
(12.07αΑlCa<198.99), potassium (4.43αΑlK<64.33), strontium (0.84αΑlE<21.40),
barium (0.45 αΑlBa<10.52) and rubidium (0.0008αΑlRb<0.06), supported
by AI2O3-(CaO*+Na2O)-K2O and CIA vs. SiO2 plots that imply intense
weathering in the source area. The obtained high CIA values (>80) indicates
a steady-state of weathering under a warm/humid climate as confirmed by the
SiO2 vs. Al2O3+ K2O + Na2O plot. High average SiO2 (75.41wt%) with K2O/
Na2O ratio >1 (15.63), low Fe2O3 (1.27wt %), Al2O3 (15.82wt%) and TiO2
(0.46) suggest passive margin tectonic setting. This is supported by enriched
ΣREE (209.64 ppm), ΣLREE (195.78), LREE/HREE (27.78) and negative Eu/
Eu* (0.68), plots of log (K2O/Na2O) vs. SiO2 and SiO2/Al2O3 vs. K2O/Na2O.
Major elements discriminant-function multi-dimensional diagram, DF1 (arc-
rift-col) vs. DF2 (arc-rift-col), for high-silica sediments revealed a continental
rift tectonic setting. Thus, the Patti Formation sandstone underwent a high
degree of weathering under a humid climatic condition within a continental rift
tectonic setting.

*Corresponding Author:
R. G. Oladimeji
Department of Geological Sciences, Osun State University, Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria;
Email: oladi21may@yahoo.com

DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/agger.v4i3.4933
Copyright © 2022 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Co. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

32
 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022
1. Introduction
The Mid-Niger Basin, also known as the Bida Basin or
the Nupe Basin, is a structurally depressed shape flanking
the Sokoto and Anambra Basins, situated in Northcentral
Nigeria. It is classified as an intracratonic basin that trends in
a northwest- southeast direction. (Figure 1a; Figure 2) [1-3].
Geographically, the Bida Basin is sub-divided into
Northern Bida Basin (NBB) and Southern Bida Basin
(SBB) with a sedimentary fill of about 4 km, active during
Campanian-Maastrichtian period in Nigeria [4,2] (Figure
1b). The Maastrichtian Patti Formation is sandwiched in
between the basal Campanian Lokoja and the youngest
Agbaja Formations, part of the southern Bida Basin [5]
(Figure1b; Figure 2).
Figure 1. Map of A: Nigeria showing location of the Bida
Basin [6] and B: Geographical division of the Bida Basin [7,6,2]
Figure 2. Regional stratigraphic successions in the Bida
Basin [8].
In addition, although not limited to Falconer [9], Jones [7],
Adeleye [10], Jan du Chene et al. [11], Agyingi [12], Braide [4],
Ladipo et al. [13], Abimbola [14], Obaje et al. [6]; Udensi and
Osasuwa [2]; Akande et al. [15]; Ojo and Akande [8]; Nton and
Adamolekun [16]; Odundun and Ogundoro [3]; Ojo et al. [17]
focused on the geology, stratigraphy, sedimentology,
mineralogy and hydrocarbon potential of the different
formations within the basin with paucity of information
on the geochemistry of the basin most especially the Patti
Formation, Southern Bida Basin to deduce its source area
weathering and tectonic setting.
Ojo and Akande [18] documented facies correlation
and depositional settings for the Upper Cretaceous
Lokoja Formation while Ojo and Akande [19] reported
on the sedimentology and depositional environment
of the Patti Formation within the Bida Basin, focusing
their study majorly on the field relationship, textural and
palaeocurrent characteristic.
Signatures of geochemical compositions in sediments
gives the nature and proportion of their detrital components
that can lead to source area weathering, tectonic setting,
climate and provenance determination as established by
Bhatia [20]; McLennan et al. [21]; Armstrong-Altrin et al. [22];
Dey et al. [23]; Maharana et al. [24]; Tang et al. [25]; Ayala-
Perez et al. [26]. This because, according to Bhatia [20]; Roser
and Korsch [27]; McLennan et al. [21], chemical composition
of clastic sedimentary rocks depend on numerous variables
such as: nature of source rocks, source area weathering
and diagenesis. More also, within a sedimentary basin,
tectonic setting can be considered as the major control on
the composition of sedimentary rocks as different tectonic
setting have distinctive process of sedimentation and
characteristic parent rocks/precursors [28,29].
Siliciclastic deposits can be regarded as excellent
records for past environmental settings [30,31]. That can
provide information principally appropriate for the re-
construction of climatic conditions. Viers et al. [32], put
forward that the fact that most fine-grained sediment
carried in suspension is eroded soil derived from the
source areas whose mineralogy and geochemistry,
namely the levels of depletion in mobile elements relative
to parent rocks, are largely dependent on weathering
intensity suggest a link between fluvial mud composition
and climate. In addition, rate of weathering has a vital
role in response to mechanisms of the system of climate
making its investigations particularly petinent [30].
The current study is focused on the application of
geochemical signatures to unravel the source area
weathering, tectonic setting with paleoclimatic history of
sandstones from Patti Formation, Southern Bida Basin.
This study gives an enhanced understanding of the area,
33
 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022
particularly from a geochemical perception, while taking
into consideration the discriminative compatibility of
various weathering and tectonic indices and plots.
2. Location of Study Area and Stratigraphy
of Southern Bida Basin
The area of study is part of Southern Bida Basin
(Lokoja–Abaji–Abuja; Figures 1a and 1b) and falls within
Federal Capital Territory and Kogi State. It covers parts
of 1:50,000 Sheets 247 Lokoja (NE and NW), 227 Koton
Karfi (NE and SE) and 206 Kwali (SE) (Figure 1). Bida
Basin is an intracratonic basin that stretches northwest -
southeast for about 400Km from Kontagora in Niger
State to Dekina in Kogi State where it merged with the
Anambra Basin. The basin has a maximum width of about
160 km (Figure 3).
Patti Formation
Patti Formation, which is our focus, directly overlies the
Lokoja Formation and consists predominantly of siltstone,
claystone, sandstone and shales inter bedded with biotur-
bated ironstones (Figures 1a and 1b; Figure 2). It is lateral
equivalent of Enagi siltstone in the Northern Bida Basin. The
Patti Formation is well exposed around Ahoko and Abaji. Ar-
gillaceous units predominate in the central parts of the basin.
The siltstones of the Patti Formation are commonly parallel
stratified with occasional soft sedimentary structures e.g
slumps, and other structures such as wave, ripples, convolute
laminations, load structures. Trace fossils (especially Thal-
lasanoides) are frequently preserved. Interbedded claystones
Figure 3. Location map of the study area
34
are generally massive and kaolinitic, whereas the interbed-
ded grey shales are frequently carbonaceous. The subsidiary
sandstone units of the Patti Formation are more texturally
and mineralogically mature compared with the Lokoja sand-
stones. The predominance of argillaceous rocks, especially
siltstones, shales and claystones in the Patti Formation re-
quires suspension and settling of finer sediments in a quiet
low energy environment probably in a restricted body of
water [33]. The abundance of woody and plant materials
comprising mostly land-derived organic matter, suggests
prevailing fresh water conditions. However, biostratigraphic
and paleoecologic studies by Petters [34] have revealed the
occurrence of aranaceous foraminfera in the shales of the
Patti Formation with an assemblage of Ammobaculites,Mil-
liamina, Trochamina and Textularia which are essentially
cosmopolitan. Akande et al. [15], Ojo and Akande [35] studied
the southeastern parts of the Bida Basin, parts of which are
underlain by the Patti Formation and found an abundance of
well-preserved pollens, spores and dynocysts in the shale and
claystone section very well exposed at Ahoko village along
the Lokoja-Abaji road. The pollen and spores are those from
angiosperms, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and palmae. They
are the basis for the assignation of the Maastrichtian age to
the formation. Additionally, the presence of the dynocysts
Dinogymnium acuminatum, Senegalinium bicavatum and
Paleocystodinium australinium indicates marine depositinal
setting for the lower parts of the formation in the early parts
of Maastrichtian. The abundance of the pollen of the palms
Echitriporites and Longapertites as well pteridophytes indi-
cate the predominance of humid tropical paleoclimate.
 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

3. Materials and Methods of Study Placed in an oven, the crucibles were heated for 30 minutes at
980 °C. The cooled bead was dissolved in 5% HNO3 (nitric
A systematic geological mapping was carried out within acid grade ACS diluted in demineralized water). Sample se-
the study area for lithologic characterization and more so to quences were supplemented with calibration norms and reagent
know if the rock units have potential for mineralization, using blanks. The basic set of 34 components including Ba, Co, Cs,
of GPS, measuring tapes, compass clinometers, hammer and Ga, Hf, Nb, Rb, Sn, Sr, Ta, Th, U, V, Y, Zr, La, Ce Pr, Nd, Sm,
digital camera was adopted. Lithologic units were described Eu, Gd and Lu was established for the sandstone samples. Di-
based on their physical attributes such as colour, grain size, gested in Aqua Regia, a second 0.5 g sample was analysed by
geometry, bedding and sedimentary structure as they appear ICP-MS to determine Au, Ag, As, Bi, Cd, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb,
on the outcrop and core samples. The photographs of outcrop Sb, Se and Zn. The ICP-AES (Spectro Ciros Vision) was used
sections were taken and lithologic profiles of the outcrop to determine major oxides and certain trace elements, such as
locations were drawn to scale along Lokoja-Abaji-Abuja SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, TiO2, P2O5, Cr2O5, Ba, Nb, Ni,
express way (Table 1 and Figure 4). Sixteen representative Sr, Sc, Y and Zr. For both packages, loss on ignition (LOI) was
sandstone samples were selected for geochemical analysis. determined by measuring the weight loss following 90 minutes
The initial preparation involving crushing and pulverizing of heating a 1.0 g split sample at 95 °C.
were carried out at National Geosciences Research Laborato-
ries, Kaduna. The samples were then analysed using an ICP- 4. Results and Discussion
MS (Model: Perkin-Elmer Elan 6000) on a powdered 3-5 g
sandstone samples at the Acme Lab. Ltd., Canada for major, Field description
trace and rare-earth elemental compositions. It was digested The lithologic sections of the Patti Formation reveal
in a graphite crucible blended with 1.5 g Lithium metaborate/ alternating sequences of shales, claystone, siltstone and
tetraborate (LiBO2/LiB4O7) flux by weighing 0.2 g aliquot. sandstone with ferruginous mudstone interbeds as shown
in Table 1 and Figure 4.
Table 1. Lithological profile of BDA/03
Sample No Thickness (m) Depth (m) Description
Colour Grain Sorting Diagenesis Geometry Rk Type
1 0.57 0-0.57 R-B Fine M-VI WP Sst
2 1.92 0.57-2.49 Grey MI PP Cst
3 0.23 2.49-2.72 R-G Fine Well M-VI WP Sst
4 0.61 2.72-3.33 Grey MI PP Cst
5 0.32 3.33-3.65 R-G Fine Well MI WP Sst
6 0.65 3.65-4.3 Grey MI PP Cst
7 0.35 4.3-4.65 R-B Fine Well M-VI WP Sst
8 0.83 4.65-5.48 Grey MI PP Cst
9 0.41 5.48-5.89 R-B Fine Well M-VI WP Sst
10 3.29 5.89-9.18 Grey VI PP Cst
11 0.45 9.18-9.63 R-G Fine Well VI WP Sst
12 0.33 9.63-9.96 Grey MI PP Cst
13 0.20 9.96-10.16 R-G Fine Well VI WP Sst
14 1.29 10.16-11.45 Y-G M-VI PC Cst
15 0.48 11.45-11.93 R-G Fine Well MI WP Sst
16 0.44 11.93-12.37 LG MI PP S/st
17 0.81 12.37-13.18 Grey MI PC Cst
18 0.21 13.18-13.39 Grey MI PP Cst
19 0.46 13.39-13.85 Grey MI PP Sh
20 0.33 13.85-14.18 R-G MI PP Cst
21 1.12 14.18-15.3 Grey MI PP Sh
22 0.65 15.3-15.95 Grey MI PP Cst

B= Black M=Moderate WP=wavy planar Sst= Sandstone R=Red V=Very PP= Planar parallel
Cst=Claystone G=Grey I=Indurated PC=Planar cross S/st=Siltstone Y=Yellow Sh=Shale

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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

The sandstone units encountered are characterised with

fine grained variety, although, medium and coarse grained
sandstones cannot be written off. These units consist of
wedged beds between 0.17 m and to relatively over 6 m
thick, exhibiting variety of colours ranging from dirty
white through grey to yellowish and reddish brown. Ob-
served sedimentary structures are cross laminations (Fig-
ure 5a), flaser bedding (Figure 5b), Strike and dip meas-
urement (Figure 5c), liesegang rings and burrows (vertical
and inclined) (Figure 5d) but most of the sandstone units
are conspicuously indurated forming series of intercon-
nected concretions giving the bed a wavy or rippled ge-
ometry (Figure 5e).

4.1 Whole Rock Geochemistry

The whole rock geochemical concentrations of major,
trace, rare earth elements, and values of other geochemi-
cal parameters obtained from the investigated sandstones
are documented in Tables 2, 3, and 4. This concentration Figure 4. 2D strip log of BDA/03 location
is proposed to be dependent largely on the composition of
the precursor/source rocks and suites of sedimentary pro-
cesses (weathering and diagenetic) [36,37].
Major oxides
The major elemental concentration is presented in
Table 2. Observed result revealed that SiO2 and Al2O3
have the dominant element concentration (Table 2).
The SiO 2 concentrations range from 73.9% to 86.2%,
Al2O3 ranges between 6.7% and 17.1%, Fe2O3 concen-
trations range from 1.1% to 1.9%, K 2O concentrations
range from 0.1% to 0.7% and MgO ranges from 0.01%
to 0.03%. However, the following are low in concen-
tration; CaO (0.02%~0.04%), Na 2O (0.00%~0.01%),
P 2O 5 (0.02%~0.04%), MnO (0.00%~0.01%) and TiO 2
(0.31%~0.84%) which led to the removal of ferromag-
nesian minerals and feldspars as a result of weathering.
Figure 5. a) Cross lamination in medium grained sandstone
Low TiO2 implies low presence of Ti-opaque minerals and
near Abaji, along the Lokoja- Abaji –Abuja highway, b)
rutile in the sandstone while lack of MnO is most likely Sandstone with flaser bedding exposed at Ahoko, along
due to dissimulator of manganese diminution by the action Lokoja - Abuja highway, c) Geologist taking strike and dip
of microbes or source-area composition (Table 2). The of siltstone near Ahoko, along Lokoja Abaji-Abuja highway,
recorded low K2O content suggest low amount of illite or d) Liesegang rings in sandstone concretion at Ahoko, along
feldspar present [38]. The MgO content is relatively low the Lokoja-Abaji –Abuja highway, e) Wavy lamination in
indicating non-association with dolomitisation and most sandstones exposed along the Lokoja Abaji-Abuja highway.
samples have low P2O5 content; depletion implying low Trace and rare earth element geochemistry
amount of accessory phases, such as apatite and monazite. The value for the distribution of trace element for the
The ratio of SiO2/Al2O3 for the Patti sandstone indicates Patti sandstone is listed in Table 3. The sandstone re-
high silica to alumina composition, while the low ratio of vealed high variation in concentration of trace elements,
K2O/Al2O3 reveal low K-bearing mineral contents asso- this attribute usually point towards a shared provenance,
ciated with alumina. Obtained Al2O3/TiO2 ratios denote weathering, and tectonic setting [20,40,41]. Patti sandstones
abundance of alumina relative to titanium oxide [39] (Table are enriched in Ba (Av. 622.94), Sr (Av. 153.63), Rb (Av.
2). 55.08) and Zr (Av. 51.86) all in ppm. Ba content account

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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

for the highest in concentration for almost the studied
sandstone samples. The Patti sandstone showed relative
similar composition when compared with UCC (Figure
6).
Obtained high variation in geochemical ratios of Zr/Sc
(0.86 ppm ~ 39.19 ppm) and Zr/Hf (27.77 ppm ~ 103.19
ppm) for the Patti sandstone suggest occurrence of zir-
con enrichment [41,21] (Table 3). According to Bhatia and
Crook [40], Dabard [42], La/Sc ratio can be used for rock
maturity determination, commonly within the range from
3 to 9. The sandstones under investigation, show large
variation in La/Sc ratio, which ranges from 1.27 to 10.91
(Table 3) suggesting the matured nature of the Patti sand-
stone.
The investigated Patti sandstone revealed: ∑REE (82.73
ppm ~ 327.50 ppm; Av. ~ 209.14 ppm), higher light rare
earth elements (LREE) (8.60 ppm ~ 320.20 ppm; Av. ~
192.29 ppm) than heavy rare earth elements (HREE) (2.50
ppm ~ 20.66 ppm; Av. 9.76), high LREE/H- REE ratios
(1.51 ~ 87.69; Av. 29.01) and negative Eu/Eu* (0.33 ~
0.88; Av. 0.67) with chondrite-normalized patterns charac-
terised by light REE (LREE) enrichment, flat heavy REE
(HREE) patterns, and negative Eu anomalies [43] (Table 4;
Figure 7) indicative of passive margin tectonic setting.

Table 2. Major elements concentration (in wt%) of sandstone samples collected from Patti Formation.

Al2O3/ K2O/ SiO2/

Major oxides SiO2 FeO3 CaO MgO Al2O3 Na2O K2O MnO TiO2 P2O5 Cr2O3 DF1 DF2
TiO2 Al2O3 Al2O3

BDA /02/A 74.09 1.09 0.03 0.01 16.35 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.41 0.04 0.01 39.88 0.004 4.53 –3.47 –2.19

BDA /02/L 74.07 1.07 0.03 0.01 16.4 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.39 0.03 0.01 42.05 0.004 4.52 –3.36 –2.16

BDA/02/Q 74.01 1.06 0.03 0.01 16.5 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.42 0.04 0.01 39.20 0.004 4.49 –3.44 –1.94

BDA /03/G 74.9 1.1 0.35 0.01 17 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.32 0.04 0.01 53.13 0.003 4.41 –3.07 –2.25

BDA/03/M 73.9 1.12 0.34 0.01 16.9 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.31 0.04 0.01 54.52 0.043 4.37 –7.13 –2.07

BDA/03/U 74 1.09 0.32 0.01 17.1 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.32 0.04 0.01 53.44 0.043 4.33 –6.27 –1.36

BDA /04/D 75.1 1.1 0.04 0.01 16.2 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.31 0.04 0.01 52.26 0.005 4.65 –3.38 –2.19

BDA /04/F 75 1.1 0.03 0.01 16.1 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.32 0.03 0.01 50.31 0.004 4.6 –3.35 –1.85

BDA /05/C 74.9 1.2 0.04 0.01 16.2 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.3 0.04 0.01 54.00 0.006 4.62 –3.52 –2.33

BDA /06/C 75 1.2 0.04 0.01 16.3 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.3 0.04 0.01 54.33 0.005 4.60 –3.53 –2.13

BDA /06/D 75.1 1.1 0.03 0.01 16.1 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.4 0.04 0.01 40.25 0.006 4.66 –7.41 –2.57

BDA /07/A 75.13 1.27 0.02 0.01 16.25 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.31 0.04 0.01 52.42 0.005 4.62 –3.72 –1.57

BDA /07/H 86.24 1.92 0.02 0.03 6.79 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.84 0.02 0.01 8.08 0.012 12.70 –2.60 –2.89

BDA /11/B 75.2 1.8 0.02 0.03 16.3 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.8 0.03 0.01 20.38 0.005 4.63 –3.00 –7.86

BDA /12/A 75 1.6 0.02 0.02 16.4 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.82 0.04 0.01 20.00 0.005 4.57 –2.85 –2.37

BDA /13/E 74.9 1.5 0.02 0.01 16.25 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.79 0.03 0.01 20.57 0.004 4.61 –4.20 –8.09

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Table 3. Trace element concentration (ppm) in sandstone samples of Patti Formation

Sample Ni Zr Hf Be Th U Ba La Co Zr As Cd Sb Sc Sn Rb Sr Ta Nb Zr/Sc Zr/Hf La/Sc

BDA/02/A 10.0 48.5 0.47 4 5.4 2.8 275 17.5 10.6 48.5 2.2 0.11 0.08 2.7 1.4 9.2 135 0.8 10.15 17.96 103.19 6.48

BDA/02/L 2.8 36.9 1.13 1 12 3 87 88.3 0.7 36.9 2.1 0.12 0.11 8.2 1.6 4.2 63 0.4 5.55 4.50 32.65 10.77

BDA/02/Q 2.7 37.0 1.13 2 13 3.2 89 88.4 0.9 37.0 2.0 0.11 0.12 8.1 1.7 4.3 60 0.5 5.65 4.57 32.74 10.91

BDA/03/G 2.9 37.6 1.12 1 14 2.9 85 87.9 0.8 37.6 2.2 0.12 0.10 8.4 1.7 4.4 66 0.5 5.5 4.48 33.57 10.46

BDA/03/M 2.9 37.7 1.14 1 11.2 2.8 87 89 0.8 37.7 2.2 0.11 0.10 8.4 1.7 4.4 63 0.5 5.67 4.49 33.07 10.59

BDA/03/U 4.7 64.3 2.27 1 14.4 4.7 90 27.6 2.0 64.3 11.4 0.11 0.16 6.8 1.7 3.2 15 2.2 16.21 9.46 28.33 4.06

BDA/04/D 67.0 87.4 2.63 2 14.8 3.2 875 45.1 23.2 87.4 7.2 0.26 0.12 19.1 10.0 107.2 223 1.1 16.85 4.58 33.23 2.36

BDA/04/F 75.2 105.5 2.96 4 10.9 2.1 909 29.5 29.3 105.5 6.6 0.35 0.10 23.3 4.2 106.5 167 1.3 18.21 4.53 35.64 1.27

BDA/05/C 40.3 72.0 2.5 2 16.2 5.4 804 37.4 27.0 72.0 0.5 0.10 0.09 16.0 2.9 104.3 363 1.8 17.23 4.50 28.80 2.34

BDA/06/C 49.7 25.8 0.82 3 7.5 2.1 1751 31.5 16.5 25.8 0.8 0.05 0.16 12.4 2.2 60.7 114 1.0 7.09 2.08 31.22 2.54

BDA/6/D 7.5 141.1 4.5 <1 19.6 3.7 88 31.6 2.5 141.1 2.2 0.21 0.16 3.6 2.9 6.7 20 2.5 31.01 39.19 31.36 8.78

BDA/07/A 49.6 25.7 0.79 3 8 2.2 1698 37.5 16.2 25.7 0.6 0.06 0.17 12.5 2.1 60.6 124 1.0 7.05 2.06 32.53 3

BDA/07/H 40.2 72.2 2.6 2 15.5 5.5 750 31.7 27.0 72.2 0.6 0.10 0.08 16.1 2.8 104.4 350 1.9 18.10 4.48 27.77 1.97

BDA/11/B 49.7 25.8 0.81 3 7.8 2.5 1740 52.9 16.5 25.8 0.8 0.05 0.16 12.4 2.2 60.7 116 1.0 7.09 2.08 31.85 4.27

BDA/12/A 8.4 3.2 0.07 <1 4.2 0.3 186 13.6 9.7 3.2 1.7 0.06 0.05 3.7 2.1 35.7 489 0.4 6.58 0.86 45.71 3.68

BBB/13/E 20.2 9.1 0.26 <1 17.4 1.4 453 53.4 7.1 9.1 6.7 <0.02 0.09 5.2 4.4 204.9 90 0.3 5.37 1.75 35 10.27

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Table 4. Rare earth element concentration (ppm) of sandstone samples from Patti Formation.

Light Rare Earth Elements (LREE) Rare Earth Elements (HREE) Ratios

LREE/
Sample La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu  ∑REE LREE  HREE (Eu/Eu*
HREE

BDA/02/A 17.5 37.73 3.6 14.4 2.7 0.6 1.8 0.2 1.8 0.3 0.8 0.1 1 0.2 82.73 78.33 4.4 17.8 0.84

BDA/02/L 88.3 142.6 16.2 55.4 6.8 1.3 5.2 0.6 3.2 0.3 1.4 0.2 1.6 0.2 323.3 315.8 7.5 42.11 0.67

BDA/02/Q 88.4 146.2 16.8 55.5 6.7 1.3 5.3 0.6 3 0.3 1.4 0.2 1.6 0.2 327.5 320.2 7.3 43.86 0.67

BDA/03/G 87.9 145.2 17.1 54.9 7 1.25 5.3 0.7 3.1 0.3 1.4 0.2 1.6 0.2 326.15 318.65 7.5 42.89 0.63

BDA/03/M 89 137.96 15.9 53.3 9.6 2 7.9 1.2 5.2 0.8 2 0.3 1.5 0.2 326.86 315.66 11.2 28.18 0.71

BDA/03/U 27.6 58.52 7.4 26.3 5.1 0.9 4.9 0.5 3.2 0.6 1.6 0.2 1.7 0.2 138.72 130.72 8 16.34 0.33

BDA/04/D 45.1 102.12 12.1 46.2 9.3 2.2 8 0.9 4.8 0.6 1 0.2 1.4 0.2 234.12 225.02 9.1 24.73 0.78

BDA/04/F 29.5 68.19 8 33 6.9 1.6 6.3 0.8 3 0.4 0.6 0.1 1 0.2 159.59 153.49 6.1 25.16 0.75

BDA/05/C 37.4 80.79 8.8 33.4 6.7 1.2 5.1 0.6 3.1 0.4 1.3 0.2 1.6 0.2 180.79 173.39 7.4 23.43 0.63

BDA/06/C 31.5 75.03 8.3 32.2 5.7 1.7 6.4 1.1 7.6 0.5 5 0.8 4.8 0.8 181.43 160.83 20.6 7.81 0.84

BDA/6/D 31.6 74 8.5 33.2 5.8 1.7 6.5 1.2 7.5 0.5 5 0.8 4.8 0.8 181.9 161.3 20.6 7.83 0.85

BDA/07/A 37.5 80.6 8.9 33.5 6.8 1.3 5.6 0.5 3.5 0.4 1.3 0.2 1.6 0.2 181.9 174.2 7.7 22.63 0.67

BDA/07/H 31.7 75.1 8.4 33.1 5.8 1.8 6.5 1.1 7.5 0.5 5.2 0.8 4.6 0.8 182.9 162.4 20.5 7.92 0.7

BDA/11/B 52.9 103.14 10.6 35.8 6.1 0.8 5.2 0.6 2.9 0.4 1 0.2 1.2 0.2 221.04 214.54 6.5 33.01 0.88

BDA/12/A 13.6 32.6 3.9 19.2 4.3 0.6 3.7 0.4 2.7 0.4 1.1 0.2 0.8 0.1 83.6 8.6 5.7 1.51 0.52

BBB/13/E 53.4 99.03 12.4 42 6.7 1.2 4.5 0.4 1.6 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 <0.1 221.73 219.23 2.5 87.69 0.37

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Figure 6. Trace element normalized diagram for the Patti
sandstone samples, normalized against the average upper
continental crust [43]. A horizontal line for sandstone/upper
continental crust value of 1 is included for reference.
Figure 7. NASC-Chondrite normalised rare elements plot
of the investigated Patti sandstone (After Boynton [44]).
4.2 Classification of the Patti Sandstone
For the classification of Patti sandstone, the classifica-
tion diagrams of Heron [45] and Petijohn et al. [46] were em-
ployed. The classification diagram revealed that the Patti
sandstone varied mainly within the region of lith-arenites,
subarkose, and Fe-sands (Figure 8). The observed varia-
tion, according to Lindsey et al. [47] can be attributed to a
wide range in the differences of proportion with relation
to possible matrix, feldspar, and lithic components and
possibly as a result of sedimentary processes [20].
4.3 Source Area Weathering
In the determination and evaluation of chemical weath-
ering intensity, many authors, although not limited to
40
Nesbitt and Young [48]; McLennan et al. [21]; Li and Yang [49];
Roy and Roser [50]; Yang et al. [51]; Dinis et al. [52]; Bal-Ak-
koca et al. [53]; Overare and Osokpor [54]; Bolarinwa et al. [55]
have discovered chemical index of alteration (CIA) as a
potent tool for the degree of chemical weathering deter-
mination. For the sandstone from Patti Formation under
investigation as documented in Table 5 revealed a CIA
range from 98.1% to 99.8%, this suggests intense weath-
ering in the source area. CIA estimate includes the use of
K2O, a mobile oxide; in sediments where potassium has
been leached, its applicability maybe restricted (Condie
et al. [56]). The CIA was followed by the chemical index
of weathering (CIW) with values ranging from 98.11 to
99.97 (Table 5), reflects an intense degree of weathering
in the source area. Also used was the plagioclase index of
weathering (PIA), PIA aids and measures trend in weath-
ering of feldspars to clay minerals [22]. The high PIA val-
ues (97.89 ~ 99.82; Table 5) obtained for the Patti sand-
stones, suggests that almost all of the plagioclase present
have been altered into clay minerals [54,55].
Figure 8. Bivariate chemical classification plot of the in-
vestigated sandstones of Patti Formation based on A) log
(SiO2/Al2O3) vs. log (Na2O/K2O) (After Herron [45]) and
B) Log (SiO2/Al2O3) vs. log (Na2O/K2O) diagram for the
sands (Pettijohn et al. [46]).
 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

Table 5. Calculated geochemical ratios for the investigated Patti sandstone.

Ratios →
CIA MIA CIW ICV PIA WIP αNa αCa αMg αK αBa αRb αSr Al/Mg K/Na Th/U Th/K Rb/K Sm/Na
Sample No:↓

BDA /02/A 99.3 98.6 99.76 0.096 99.75 27.00 331.23 132.56 304.23 44.19 2.84 0.02 2.27 1,442.06 7.85 1.93 0.07 0.02 0.04

BDA /02/L 99.3 98.6 99.76 0.095 99.76 27.00 332.24 132.97 305.17 44.33 9.02 0.04 4.89 1446.48 7.85 4.00 0.16 0.007 0.09

BDA/02/Q 99.4 98.8 99.76 0.094 99.76 35.00 334.27 133.78 307.03 52.03 8.87 0.04 5.16 1455.3 6.73 4.06 0.18 0.009 0.08

BDA /03/G 93.8 87.6 97.93 0.128 98.00 77.00 344.40 11.79 316.33 64.33 10.52 0.04 4.84 1499.4 5.61 4.83 0.19 0.01 0.09

BDA/03/M 94. 88 97.97 0.133 97.89 58.00 342.37 12.07 398.55 4.44 10.22 0.04 5.04 1490.58 80.77 4.00 0.15 0.0007 0.13

BDA/03/U 94.4 88.8 98.11 0.126 98.02 56.00 346.42 12.97 318.19 4.43 9.09 0.06 21.40 1508.22 81.89 3.06 0.19 0.0005 0.07

BDA /04/D 99.3 98.6 99.69 0.093 99.69 29.00 328.19 98.28 301.44 38.31 0.89 0.002 1.37 1428.83 8.97 4.63 0.20 0.16 0.13

BDA /04/F 99.3 98.6 99.69 0.093 99.75 31.00 326.17 130.54 299.58 43.51 0.85 0.002 1.81 1420.02 7.85 5.19 0.15 0.18 0.09

BDA /05/C 99.1 81.2 99.69 0.099 99.69 49.00 328.19 98.28 301.44 34.06 0.94 0.002 0.84 1428.83 10.09 3.00 0.22 0.14 0.09

BDA /06/C 99.2 98.4 99.69 0.098 99.69 45.00 330.22 98.89 384.40 38.55 0.45 0.003 2.68 1437.67 8.97 3.57 0.10 0.09 0.08

BDA /06/D 99.2 98.4 99.75 0.10 99.75 47.00 326.17 97.67 299.58 38.08 8.75 0.03 15.11 1420.02 8.97 5.30 0.26 0.01 0.08

BDA /07/A 98.1 96.2 98.82 0.104 99.81 42.00 329.21 131.75 302.37 38.43 0.46 0.003 2.46 1433.25 8.97 3.64 0.11 0.09 0.09

BDA /07/H 98.4 98.8 99.56 0.424 99.55 45.00 340.15 203.72 103.57 39.71 1.07 0.002 0.90 90.90 8.97 2.82 0.21 0.16 0.08

BDA /11/B 99.3 99.6 99.82 0.099 99.82 44.00 330.22 197.98 100.54 38.55 0.45 0.003 2.64 476.57 8.97 3.12 0.11 0.09 0.08

BDA /12/A 99.3 98.6 99.82 0.106 99.82 43.00 332.24 198.99 151.32 38.79 4.22 0.005 0.63 717.26 8.97 14 0.06 0.05 0.06

BDA /13/E 99.4 98.8 99.82 0.098 99.39 38.00 329.21 197.17 302.37 43.92 1.72 0.0008 3.89 1433.25 7.85 12.42 0.24 0.35 0.09

The CIA= Chemical index of Alteration (100[Al2O3/ (Al2O3+CaO+Na2O+K2O)])

The PIA= Plagioclase Index of Alteration (100[(Al2O3-K2O) / (Al2O3+CaO+Na2O-K2O])
The CIW= Chemical Index of Weathering (100[Al2O3/ (Al2O3+CaO+Na2O)])
The MIA = Mineralogical index of alteration (2*(CIA-50))
The ICV = (Fe2O3+K2O+Na2O+MgO+MnO+TiO2/Al2O3).
The WIP = Weathering Index of Parker (100 [(2Na2O/0.35) + (MgO/0.9) + (2K2O/0.5) + (CaO/0.7)])
α = (Al/E) sample/ (Al/E) UCC, where E = mobile elements (Na, Ca, Sr, Mg, K and Ba).

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Similarly, obtained values for the Mineral Index of Al- imply a lessen activity of tectonism and/or a variation in
teration (MIA) (88.00 ~ 99.60; Table 5) and WIP (27.00 ~ climate from arid toward warm and humid conditions [48].
77.00; Table 5) also revealed intense weathering in the Thus, according to Fedo et al. [60], Tang et al. [63], Overare
source area, and they are unswerving with obtained record and Osokpor [54] stated that CIA values of ≤50, suggests
from the CIA, CIW, and PIA computation. Thus, the indi- cool and/or arid climatic conditions devoid of profuse
ces used are complementary as they show similar trends. rainfall, while values >80 are linked to humid climates
To further determine the degree of weathering in the resulting in a high-degree alteration of source rocks [64].
source area, a more consistent and reliable indices put for- The obtained high CIA values for the Patti sandstones un-
ward by Garzanti et al. [57] was also employed, this made der investigation is consistent with values >80 implying a
use of ratio for a single mobile element (e.g. Mg, Ca, Na, steady-state of weathering, possibly under a warm/humid
Sr, K, Ba) to a non-mobile element with similar magmat- climate. This was confirmed by the bivariate plot of Sut-
ic compatibility (most appropriate-Al), called α value. tner and Dutta [61] to evaluate the maturity of the sandstone
The αAlE values for any element (E) are defined as αΑlE = as a function of climate. On this diagram, the Patti sand-
Al/E sample / Al/E UCC Garzanti et al. [57]. Obtained values of stones plot basically in the region of humid climate (Figure
αΑlE for the investigated sandstone samples in Table 6 re- 10).
vealed that Sodium (326.17 αΑlNa < 344.40) is more mobile
than magnesium (100.54 αΑlmg<398.55), calcium (12.07
αΑlCa<198.99), pottassium (4.43 αΑlK< 64.33), strontium
(0.84 αΑlE 21.40), barium (0.45 αΑlBa <10.52) and rubidium
(0.0008 αΑlRb<0.06). The obtained high variation in value
determined for Mg, Ca, Na, K, Ba, Rb and Sr can be in-
terpreted as a sign of strong weathering control [30,55]. This
was supported with a calculated weathering parameters:
Th/U and Rb/K [58,55] (Table 5).
Also used in evaluating the degree of weathering for
the Patti sandstone is the AI2O3-(CaO*+Na2O)-K2O terna-
ry plot of Nesbit and Young [48], this model monitors the
progress of weathering by illustrating the link between
Al2O3 (aluminous clays), CaO+Na2O (Plagioclase) and
K2O (K- feldspar) [59]. All the sediments plot at the Al2O3
peak suggesting an intense chemical weathering (Figure
9a). This was supported by the CIA vs. SiO2 plot of Nes- Figure 9. Plot of A): Al2O3-(CaO*+ Na2O)-K2O for the
bitt and Young [48] (Figure 9b), which also gave an inter- sediments (Nesbith and Young [48]; Fedo et al. [60]) and B):
pretation in a similar way to the A-CN-K diagram, with CIA versus SiO2 (Nesbitt and Young [48]). B). Note that the
the field of kaolinite representing intense weathering and sediments are clustering around a point.
significant removal of the alkali and alkali earth elements.

4.4 Paleo-climatic Conditions

Studies on paleoclimatic conditions have proven to be
a potent tool in the understanding of processes involved
during weathering of a source area. According to Suttner
and Dutta [61] and supported by Overare and Osokpor [54];
Bolarinwa et al. [55] stated that major elemental compo-
sitions offer useful indications in relation to the climatic
conditions that occurred during the deposition of sedimen-
tary rocks as climate, in general, affects the modification
of minerals, transport, and source rock chemistry. In view
of the fact that the degree of weathering is primarily a
function of climate and tectonic setting, the CIA provides a Figure 10. Bivariate plot of SiO2 vs. Al2O3+ K2O + Na2O
clue on the source rock weathering and paleoclimatic con- for Patti sandstone indicating chemical maturity as a
dition [62], whereby increased degree of weathering might function of climate (after Suttner and Dutta [61]).

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4.5 Paleo-tectonic Setting
Geochemical records and parameters associated
with siliciclastic sediments are common potential tools
to establish the tectonic setting of known sedimentary
basins [65,66,39,17]. McLennan et al. [65] and Ojo et al. [17],
documented that chemical compositions, sandstones can
be categorized into different tectonic settings; magmatic
island arcs (average SiO2: <58%, K2O/Na2O < 1), Ande-
an-type continental margins (SiO 2: 68% to 74%, K2O/
Na2O < 1), Atlantic-type continental margins (average
SiO2: <89%, K2O/Na2O > 1). Applying this parameter,
the investigated Patti sandstone which ranged in SiO2
from 74.01 wt% to 86.24 wt% (Table 3) and K2O/Na2O
from 5 to 9 (Table 6), suggest an Atlantic-type continental
margins that compares favourably in term of composi-
tional characteristics with continental platform sands.
Also employed in this investigation is the idea proposed
by Bhatia [20] which puts forwards that sedimentary basins
adjacent to oceanic island arcs will naturally demonstrate
high ratios/values of Fe2O3/MgO (8%–14%), Al2O3/SiO2
(0.24–0.33), TiO 2 (0.8%–1.4%) and lower K 2O/Na 2O
(0.2–0.4) ratios while sandstones of basins adjacent to
continental island arcs from oceanic island-arc types have
lower Fe2O3/MgO (5%–8%), TiO2 (0.5–0.75) and Al2O3/
SiO2 (0.15–0.22) and higher K2O/Na2O (0.4–0.8) ratios.
It was stated further that sandstones from basins on active
continental margins have very low Fe2O3/MgO (2%–5%),
TiO2 (0.25%–0.45%) and K2O/Na2O ratio ~1 while the
passive margin sandstones are generally enriched in SiO2
and depleted in Al2O3, TiO2, Na2O, CaO with K2O/Na2O
ratio >1. The investigated Patti sandstones fall into the
tectonic category of passive margin, because they contain
high average SiO2 (75.41 wt%) with K2O/Na2O ratio >1
(15.63) but relatively depleted in Fe2O3 (1.27 wt%), Al2O3
(15.82 wt%) and TiO2 (0.46) (Tables 2 and 6).

Table 6. Ratios of some major elements of sandstone samples from Patti formation

BDA BDA BDA/ BDA BDA/ BDA/ BDA BDA BDA BDA BDA BDA BDA BDA BDA BDA
Major oxides
/02/A /02/L 02/Q /03/G 03/M 03/U /04/D /04/F /05/C /06/C /06/D /07/A /07/H /11/B /12/A /13/E

K2O/Na2O 7.00 7.00 6.00 5.00 72.00 73.00 8.00 7.00 9.00 8.00 9.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 7.00

Na2O+K2O 0.08 .08 0.07 0.06 0.83 0.74 0.09 0.08 0.10 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.08

CaO+Na2O 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.36 0.35 0.33 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03

SiO2+Al2O3 90.44 90.47 90.51 91.90 90.80 91.10 91.20 91.10 91.20 91.30 91.20 91.38 93.03 91.50 91.40 91.15

Al2O3/SiO2 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.21 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.22 0.08 0.22 0.22 0.22

Na2O/K2O 0.14 0.14 0.17 0.20 0.01 0.03 0.13 0.14 0.11 0.13 0.11 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.14

Al2O3/TiO2 39.88 42.05 39.20 53.13 54.52 53.44 52.26 50.31 54.00 54.33 40.25 52.42 8.08 20.38 20.00 20.57

Fe2O3/Al2O3 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.28 0.11 0.10 0.10

Fe2O3/MgO 109 107 106 110 112 109 110 110 120 120 110 127 180 160 150

Al2O3+K2O+
16.43 16.48 16.57 17.06 17.63 17.84 16.29 16.18 16.30 16.39 16.20 16.34 6.88 16.39 16.49 16.33
Na2O
Al2O3/CaO+
408.75 410 412.5 47.22 48.29 51.82 324 402.5 324 326 402.5 541.67 226.33 543.33 546.67 541.67
Na2O

K2O/Al2O3 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.043 0.043 0.005 0.004 0.006 0.005 0.006 0.005 0.012 0.005 0.005 0.004

Fe2O3/MgO/
13.75 13.5 15.29 18.5 1.55 1.49 12.33 13.88 12.10 13.44 11.10 14.22 21.67 20.33 18.00 18.88
Na2O+K2O

Log(SiO2/Al2O3) 0.67 0.66 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.67 0.67 1.10 0.66 0.66 0.66

Log(Fe2O3/K2O) 1.19 1.18 1.25 1.34 1.56 1.49 1.14 1.20 15.00 1.18 1.08 1.20 1.38 1.35 1.30 1.33

Log(K2O/Na2O) 0.85 0.85 0.78 0.70 1.86 1.86 0.90 0.85 0.95 0.90 0.95 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.85

Log(Na2O/K2O) –1.10 –1.10 –1.15 –1.22 –0.08 –0.13 –1.05 –1.10 –1.00 –1.05 –1.00 –1.05 –1.05 –1.05 –1.05 –1.10

Log(Fe2O3+MgO/
1.14 1.13 1.18 1.27 1.55 0.19 1.09 1.08 1.08 1.13 1.05 1.55 1.34 1.31 1.26 1.28
Na2O+K2O)

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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

Presence of REEs in sandstones also give clues to

tectonic setting of a basin. McLennan et al. [65] and
McLennan and Taylor [67] proposed that continental
margin sediments are generally enriched with ΣREE,
LREE and negative Eu/Eu*, while sediments from oce-
anic arcs are low in ΣREE and LREE but lack negative
Eu/Eu*. In this study, obtained average values of ΣREE
(209.64 ppm), ΣLREE (195.78), LREE/HREE (27.78)
and negative Eu/Eu* (0.68) (Table 4) for the Patti sand-
stones suggest is consistent with a passive margin tec-
tonic setting.
Also used for the tectonic setting appraisal are discrim-
ination diagrams based on the bivariate plots of log (K2O/
Na2O) vs. SiO2 and SiO2/Al2O3 vs. K2O/Na2O as proposed
by Roser and Korsch [27], which are very helpful in the dis-
crimination of basins into Oceanic island-arc, Continental
island-arc, Active continental margin and Passive margin
where increasing values of K2O/Na2O and SiO2 implies a
modification from ARC → ACM → PM. Obtained high
values of K 2O/Na 2O and SiO 2 as plotted in Figure 11
suggest a comparatively stable or passive margin tectonic
environment of deposition for the Patti sandstones.
In recent research into tectonic environments of dep-
osition for sediments, many authors although not limited Figure 11. Bivariant paleo-tectonic discrimination plot
to LaMaskin et al. [68]; Verma and Armstrong-Altrin [69]; based on: (A) log (K2O/Na2O) vs. SiO2 and (B) SiO2/Al2O3
Armstrong-Altrin, et al. [70], Zaid [39] cautioned the poor Vs. K2O/Na2O for the investigated sandstones of Patti
presentation of the major element conventional discrim- Formation indicating Passive Margin tectonic setting.
ination diagrams proposed by Bhatia [20] and Roser and
Korsch [40] to deduce accurate tectonic environment of
unknown basins. Verma and Armstrong-Altrin [69] sug-
gested two discrimination function diagrams for tectonic
discrimination of siliciclastic sediments: one for high-sil-
ica rocks [(SiO2)adj = 63% to 95%] and one for low-sil-
ica [(SiO 2) adj = 35% to 63%]. These discrimination
diagrams represent useful binary plots to distinguish tec-
tonic settings such as island or continental arc (Arc), con-
tinental rift (Rift), and collision (Col). This study applied
the discrimination function diagrams for tectonic dis-
crimination of siliciclastic sediments of high-silica rocks
[(SiO2)adj = 63% to 95%] to infer the tectonic setting of
Figure 12. Tectonic discriminant diagram for the Patti
the Patti sandstones (Figure 12). The obtained result from
sandstone, South Bida Basin. DF2 vs DF1 (arc, continental
discriminant function analysis present a striking support
rift, and collision) (After Verma and Armstrong-Altrin [69]).
of deposition in a rift basin (Figure 12). This corroborates
with the assertion made by Obaje et al. [71], that the Bida
5. Conclusions
Basin is an intra-cratonic sedimentary basin. Occurence
of intracratonic and rift-bounded grabens (e.g. the Benue The studied sandstones from Patti Formation, Southern
Trough) are usually associated with a broad continental Bida Basin, is geochemically classified as lith-arenites,
crust that is integrated in the passive-margin tectonic set- subarkose, and Fe-sands enriched in SiO2 but low in other
ting. major oxides that signifies high mobility during processes

44
 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022
of weathering as confirmed by high value of indices like
CIA, CIW, PIA, MIA (>80) and relatively lower values
obtained for the WIP (27.00 ~ 77.00), obtained values
of αΑlE with AI2O3-(CaO*+Na2O)-K2O and CIA vs. SiO2
indicates intense weathering in the source area. High av-
erage SiO2 (75.41 wt%), K2O/Na2O ratio >1 (15.63), de-
pleted Fe2O3 (1.27 wt%), Al2O3 (15.82 wt%), TiO2 (0.46),
enriched ΣREE (209.64 ppm), ΣLREE (195.78), LREE/
HREE (27.78), negative Eu/Eu* (0.68), plots of log (K2O/
Na2O) vs. SiO2 and SiO2/Al2O3 vs. K2O/Na2O with DF1
(arc-rift- col) vs. DF2 (arc-rift-col), for high-silica sed-
iments revealed a continental rift tectonic setting. Thus,
the Patti Formation sandstone underwent a high degree
of weathering under a humid climatic condition within a
continental rift basin that is integrated in the passive-mar-
gin tectonic setting.
Conflict of Interest
There is no conflict of interest.
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[65] McLennan, S.M., Taylor, S.R., McCulloch, M.T.,
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[66] Armstrong-Altrin, J.S., Machain-Castillo, M.L.,
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[67] McLennan, S.M., Taylor, S.R., 1991. Sedimentary
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[68] LaMaskin, T.A., Dorsey, R., Vervoort, J.D., 2008.
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[69] Verma, S.P., Armstrong-Altrin, J.S., 2013. New
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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research

https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/agger

ARTICLE
Geotechnical Properties of Some Clay Deposits in Some Parts of
Southwestern Nigeria in Relation to Its Engineering Implications on
Constructions
O. Andre-Obayanju1* A.J. Edegbai1 O.J. Imarhiagbe2
1. Geology Department, University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria
2. Division of Earth Sciences and Geography, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history Twenty-two clay samples from Oduna, Okada, and Etsako clay deposits in
Received: 13 August 2022 Southwestern Nigeria were subjected to Geotechnical analysis to evaluate
their impact on engineering, especially on construction. The results
Revised: 14 September 2022 revealed that the clays deposits were majorly fine-grained texture (<60%),
Accepted: 19 September 2022 with Plasticity ranging from 23% to 121%, Liquid Limit (25%~205%)
Published Online: 27 September 2022 having plasticity of medium to very high with a specific gravity from 1.93
to 2.58. Using the American association of state highway and transportation
Keywords: office (AASHTO) and Unified system classification scheme (USCS), the
samples fell within A-7-6 (clayey soil) indicating a subgrade that is fair to
Clay deposits poor and within the CL-CH category of fine-grained soil with medium to
Geotechnical very high plasticity. Compaction having maximum dry density (MDD) to
Engineering optimum moisture content (OMC) ranges from 0.94 g/cm3~1.68 g/cm3 to
11.9%~44.5%, Triaxial result with cohesion between 0.33~35 and shear
Edo
strength from 44~120 and California bearing ratio for unsoaked bottom
7.52~40, top 4.82~39.18 and soaked bottom 2.89~30.41, top 4.21~33.53.
The geotechnical properties of the clay deposits do not meet the standard
requirement hence the implication in engineering might be susceptibility to
construction failures.

1. Introduction roads, runways, as support in retaining walls, and quays [1].

The use of soils for Engineering purposes cannot be
overemphasized for soils are part of the essential materials
for life. To an Engineering Geologist, the soil is a material
that can be built on, as in foundations, tunnels, culverts,
These soils in engineering must have certain properties
before they can be considered to be used for construction,
such properties include permeability, strength, compaction
characteristics, drainage, shrink-swell potential, grain
size, plasticity, and reaction. And to understand these

*Corresponding Author:
O. Andre-Obayanju,
Geology Department, University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria;
Email: tomilola.obayanju@uniben.edu

DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/agger.v4i3.4958
Copyright © 2022 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Co. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

49
 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022
properties, we must take into account the origin of the
soils such as geological factors which include the type
of parent material and its mineral composition, the relief
of the area, its exposition, and the groundwater regime.
Whitens and Brooks, defined soils used by the Engineering
Geologist as any soil that is soft, loose, unconsolidated,
and deformable and the clays fall within the categories
but it’s different from other soft soils, in terms of their
size and mineralogy [2]. Clays can be defined in different
terms because of its diversity in meaning and uses, each
having developed over the years. Clays can be defined
as rock term (Claystone), particle size term (<2µ), and
mineral term (clay mineral) [3]. These Clays are formed
by processes of weathering, erosion, and diagenesis. In
Engineering, Miblenz and King emphasized that Clays are
important to the designer and the construction engineer
because their structures frequently rest upon them, such as
clayey formations and excavations which are commonly
made into clayey materials, and vast quantities of earth
materials containing clays are used in embankments and
as linings, and clays are commonly used as constituents
in engineering materials for aggregate, pozzolans, and
grout [4]. Moreover, the presence of clays may cause
unique problems to the engineer primarily because their
physical and chemical instability renders masses of earth
susceptible to collapse due to the repeated change of
form and volume in response to loading or unloading,
vibration, and change in moisture content. As though these
qualities were not sufficiently annoying, the degree to
Table 1. General stratigraphic sequence of study locations(bolded). Modified from [8]
AGE BASIN STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS
Oligocene-recent Ogwashi- Asaba Fm
Niger- Delta Basin Ameki/ Nanka Fm / Nsugbe
Eocene
Sandston (Ameki Group)
Thanetian Imo Fm
Danian Nsukka Fm
Maastrichian Anambra Basin Ajali Fm
Campanian Mamu Fm
Nkporo Fm Nkporo Shale Enugu Fm
Southern Benue
Santonian
Trough
Agwu Fm
50
which clays respond to these actions commonly changes
with the adsorption of ions or molecules from solutions,
precipitation interstitially of granular substances, and
alteration of internal texture and structure. This creates
different properties and compositions of clays influencing
the engineering behavior as well as the quality of its
performances [5]. Owing to its diversity of clays in terms
of mineral species, mineral properties, and behavior, the
industrial applications and their implication and possible
treatment are complex and manifolds [6]. Finally, this
study is to attempt to examine the different types of clays
and their limitations in some parts of Edo because the
soils in some areas in Edo are said to be problematic [7]
for engineering construction. It is inevitable to avoid
construction on clays with the growing development in
the state. Rather adaption to it by knowledge and hence
improvement in the usability of the clay soils.
2. Geology of Study Area
According to age and mode of Deposition see Table 1,
the Mamu formation (Etsako) being the oldest are whitish
in colour with intercalation of coal seams, heterolith,
sandstone, and siltstone, Imo Formation (Okada) is
essentially thick clayey shales, fine textured, dark grey
to bluish in colour with an occasional admixture of clay
ironstone and thick sandstone beds and youngest Benin
formation (Oduna) reddish-brown-yellow, generally white
sands often with clayey and pebbly horizons. Find below
(Plates 1-4) some pictures of the deposit:
Benin Fm
Agbada Fm
Akata Fm
Owelli Ss Afikpo Ss Otobi Ss Lafia Ss
Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

Plate 1. Clay deposit (Oduna) Plate 3. Clay deposit (Okada)

Plate 2. clay deposit (Oduna) Plate 4. Clay deposit (Imiegba, Etsako)

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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

Figure 1. Map of Study area

3. Methodology samples were collected.

Three locations were sampled by carrying out three (3) Table 2. Location points of deposit
processes of analyses to achieve the methodology: LOCATIONS / GPS
1) Field Study and Sample collection; POINTS LONGITUDE LATITUDE
2) Laboratory Analysis; SAMPLE ID
3) Data Collection and Data Analysis. N 06°13'19.3'' E 005°26 '09.3''
Fieldwork was conducted using the traverse method Oduna (upper N 06°13'18.5'' E 005°26 '08.3''
to access the sample locations (see Table 2) and a total Ekenwan) N 06°13'17.9'' E 005°26 '08.8''
N 06°13'17.9'' E 005°26 '08.9''
of twenty-two (22) samples were collected (eight (8)
Okada (ridge ) N 06° 38' 59.1'' E 005° 17' 59.4''
samples from Oduna, seven (7) samples from Okada (A &
(1-2 m Dug Deep) N 07° 38' 21.2'' E 005° 19' 71.5''
B samples were from a pit and 1-5 were from a ridge)
Etsako Afowa (Quarry) N 07° 06' 19.9'' E 006° 18' 56.5''
and seven (7) from Etsako. The soils were gotten from Auchi N 07° 11' 13.0'' E 006° 21' 11.6''
pits dug between 0-1 m and 1-2 m in depth, some were Imiegba (River Akowe N 07° 12' 40.4'' E 006° 27' 36.1''
gotten from the ridge and each soil sample collected Imiegba N 07° 11' 27.8'' E 006° 26' 50.3''
was observed in hand specimen to determine if the clay
The samples collected were sent to the Laboratory for
deposit using the following basic techniques Dry strength
test, Dilatancy, Toughness test, and Dispersion test, after the following analyses.
which the samples were stored in a separate polythene 1) Sieve analysis (particle size),
bag and labeled for easy identification. It is pertinent to 2) Atterberg limits test,
note that topsoil/ cover soil was first removed before fresh 3) Bulk and dry density,

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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022
4) Soil compaction test,
5) Specific gravity test and,
6) Triaxial Test,
7) California Bearing Ratio.
Particle-size analysis was done with a combination
of wet sieving and hydrometer method. The sieves
were arranged in order of reducing the aperture on the
mechanical shaker. (100 g each of the soil samples was
used throughout the analysis) by a jarring action for 5
minutes. The mass of the soil sample retained on each
sieve was recorded against the sieve aperture size on a
semi-log graph together with percentage fines (known as
particle size distribution curve). The general slope has the
shape of the distribution and it is described by means of
some constants such as effective sizes D10, coefficient of
uniformity (Cu), and coefficient of curvature (Cc) which
was calculated to determine the grading of soil.
The moisture content test was used to determine the
water content of the soil. It is expressed as a percentage
of the weight of water to the dry weight of the soil. A
known weight of sample about 50 grams was taken out
of the preserved samples from the field and weighed. The
sample was oven dried at a temperature of about 110 °C
for about 24 hours.
Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a substance
to that of an equal volume of water at some known tem-
perature (usually 40 °C) and it is dimensionless. Soil sam-
ple which was air-dry weighed 150 g after which it was
filled with distilled water. The pycnometer with the water
was weighed and the bottle was then emptied and dried.
The oven dry samples were introduced into the bottle. The
soil was stirred with a glass rod in order to allow trapped
air to be released. Sufficient air-free distilled water was
added so that the soil in the bottle is just covered and then
weighed.
The Atterberg Limit test, also known as the Consistency
Limit Test is used to determine the effect of moisture con-
tent on fine-grained soil. It defines the boundaries of several
states of consistency of plastic soil. It is used to determine
the plasticity of the soil. Liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity
index, liquidity index, and relative consistency are some
parameters determined. These parameters help to determine
the plasticity and clay content of a soil sample. The
Casagrande method was used.
Compaction tests are carried out with the aim of
determining the moisture density relationships and
changes in soils, increasing unit weight, and shear
strength, and reducing permeability. This makes the
soil less susceptible to settlement under load, especially
repeated loading. This is usually done by mechanical
means, a 2.5 kg method of compaction was used for this
test, a known volume of mould with a removable base
and a detachable collar. Three kilograms of air-dried soil
were used for the test and the test was repeated five times
for each sample. The moisture content used was between
4% and 20% of the weight of the sample, and samples
were mixed thoroughly before compaction. Three layers
of compaction were done for each trial and 25 blows
were used to compact each layer. Graphs of dry density,
ρd against moisture content were plotted to determine the
optimum moisture content.
California Bearing Ratio
This was carried out using air-dried sample mixed
with about 5% of its weight of water (determined from
optimum moisture content). This was in C.B.R mould
with a diameter of 150 mm and 175 mm in height in 3
layers with each layer compacted with 25 blows using 2.5
kg hammer at drop of 450 mm (standard proctor test) and
the mould was weighed and placed under C.B.R machine.
Soaked condition is simulated for the worst conditions
in the field and to achieve this condition the soil samples
were submerged in water for 4 days. Unsoaked conditions
are the normal field condition, and as such the moulding
water content is equal to the equilibrium water content.
The method adopted for this work is the West African
standard method recommended by the Federal Ministry of
Works and Housing FMWH due to its availability (note
it is between the BS light standard proctor and heavily
modified proctor) and others in accordance with British
Standard BS [9-11].
4. Results and Discussion
In determining the suitability of samples for engineer-
ing construction, we need to determine and compare the
geotechnical results individually and collectively. The re-
sults are as follows below:
4.1 Particle Size Analysis
The particle size curve (Figures 2, 3, 4) is extremely
useful in soil classification in terms of understanding
compressibility because uniform soils are more com-
pressible than well-graded [12]. Also, useful in soil stabi-
lization and pavement design. The particle curve of the
study shows the soils are uniformly graded with some gap
graded in some points in Oduna. Indicative of origin from
weathered rocks and compressible soils, also mode of
geologic deposition succession. According to the British
standard BC1377 (1990), if the percentage fines are less
than 35%, its adjudged as a good subgrade material [11].
But only the soils from Oduna fit into this category.
According to the American association of state highway
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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022
and transportation office (AASHTO), they fall within
the A-7-5 to A-7-6 (clayey soil) hence as a subgrade it’s
fair to poor The soils above curves show the soils are
uniformly graded with some gap graded in some points in
Oduna. This distribution can be an attribute of the mode
of deposition. According to the British standard [10,11], if
the Percentage Fines is less than 35%, its adjudged as
good subgrade material. But these soils only from Oduna
fitted slightly into this category. According to AASHTO,
the soil samples are A-7-5 to A-7-6 indicating poor
subgrades.
4.2 Specific Gravity
Specific gravity, which is directly proportional to soil
strength, the higher the specific gravity, the higher will be
the load carrying capacity, and the higher the strength, the
higher the California bearing ratio of soils [13]. It is stated [14]
that a soil is a good subgrade if its specific gravity (Gs)
ranges between 2.50-4.60. The Oduna samples are
between 2.32-2.58, Okada 1.93-2.57, and Auchi 2.26-2.55
respectively. With the except of Okada samples which
were<2.00 which indicates that it is a fine-grained soil (good
subgrade) with fairly high specific gravity mineral and also
correlates with the mechanical strength of subgrade [15]. The
other two fell within the range of 2.26-2.58, Hence better for
road construction and foundation. (Tables 3, 4, 5)
Figure 2. Particle size curve for Oduna
54
4.3 Atterberg and Plasticity Chart
From the result in Tables 3, 4, 5, the liquid limit values
of the samples indicate that they are clays of high com-
pressibility which corresponds with the particle size anal-
ysis [16]. The Shrinkage limits reveal that the soils are fine
because the greater the fines the greater the shrinkage. The
Federal Ministry of Works and Housing FMWH (1997) [8]
standard for Liquid Limit (LL) is 50% max, Plastic Limit
(PL) is 30% max, and Plasticity Index (PI) is 20% max-
imum for subgrade. All the tested soil samples in tables
except those in the Etsako fall out of the stipulated spec-
ification. Hence the Etsako soils are suitable as subgrade
materials.
According to the USCS, all the soil samples exclud-
ing one from Oduna fall above the A-line indicating
an inorganic clayey material. Using, the USCS, all the
soil samples excluding Oduna (Figure 5) fall above the
A-line indicating an inorganic clayey material [17]. They
ranged from medium CI (Etsako), high CH (Oduna) to
very high (Okada) CVH in plasticity. The soils of Oka-
da revealed that they are active (Table 6) and the other
two i.e., Oduna and Etsako areas are Inactive to Normal.
This also corroborates with the very high plasticity from
the Plasticity chart (Figure 5) and particle size telling the
use of the percentages of fines and type of clay, retaining
power as well as weathering.
 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

Figure 3. Particle size curve for Etsako

Figure 4. Particle size curve for Okada

4.4 Moisture Content practically impermeable that, change in volume would

The moisture content helps us to understand the be-
havior of soils in terms of the porosity which tells us
the retaining or holding capacity of a soil and how sus-
ceptible to compaction especially in cohesive soils i.e.,
fine-grained in nature. Fine-grained cohesive soils are
have poor drainage qualities and strength with variations
in moisture conditions. The moisture content of Okada
(48%-60%) was the highest in comparison to Oduna and
Auchi (Tables 3, 4, 5), telling us that the soils of the Oka-
da have the greatest holding capacity.

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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

Table 3. Summary of results for Oduna

P.S (% California Bearing Ratio
Sample S.G Atterberg limits Compaction Triaxial Test
Fines) (CBR)
Angle of
(MDD) Cohesion Shear
LL PL PI SL (OMC) % friction
g/cm3 (C) Strength
(Ѳ)
1 54.00 2.41 65.65 34.61 34.04 12.86 1.32 30.2 3.92 45.14 45.21 2.5M 5.0M 2.5M 5.0M
2 71.00 2.40 60.39 29.98 30.41 10.70 1.39 26.4 6.62 65.00 65.12 Unsoaked Soaked
3 64.80 2.49 68.72 31.09 37.63 8.57 1.38 28.2 5.00 61.25 61.34 Bottom
4 14.45 2.43 70.54 45.28 25.26 11.40 1.40 27.6 0.33 64.43 64.44 9.74 8.77 2.89 3.18
5 20.01 2.41 65.63 29.48 36.15 12.80 1.27 31.2 0.52 120.00 120.01
6 83.90 2.58 65.18 35.91 29.27 15.00 1.37 28.4 24.95 95.00 95.27 Top
7 75.60 2.52 59.01 34.71 24.30 12.10 1.35 29.0 14.80 44.00 44.26 12.72 12.66 4.21 4.88
8 97.53 2.32 72.96 29.50 43.47 13.57 1.39 26.4 7.80 58.00 58.14

Table 4. Summary of results for Okada

P.S (% California Bearing Ratio
Sample S.G Atterberg limits Compaction Triaxial
Fines) (CBR)

Angle of
(MDD) Cohesion Shear
LL PL PI SL (OMC) % friction
g/cm3 (C) Strength
(Ѳ)

1 56.69 1.97 205.37 72.58 132.79 25.70 1.07 30.8 26.00 7.89 26.14 2.5M 5.0M 2.5M 5.0M
2 85.73 2.57 180.71 77.20 103.51 25.00 1.13 16.2 8.00 9.37 8.17 Unsoaked Soaked
3 74.41 2.05 194.66 78.64 116.02 27.86 0.99 44.0 35.00 9.35 35.16 Bottom
4 90.77 1.95 181.29 77.20 104.09 25.00 0.94 38.6 30.00 7.50 30.13 7.52 7.45 3.63 3.01
5 72.09 1.98 206.02 85.61 120.41 26.43 0.94 42.2 12.00 4.66 4.66
A 53.94 2.00 157.46 57.12 100.34 23.57 1.06 44.5 9.50 6.51 9.61 Top
B 76.51 1.93 162.43 73.56 88.87 25.00 1.00 38.8 28.00 8.35 28.15 6.11 4.82 4.21 5.91

Table 5. Summary report for Etsako

P.S
California Bearing Ratio
Sample (% S.G Atterberg limits Compaction Triaxial
(CBR)
Fines)

Angle of 2.5M 0.5M 2.5M 5.0M

(MDD) (OMC) Cohesion Shear
LL PL PI SL 3 friction
g/cm % (C) Strength
(Ѳ) Unsoaked Soaked
AF 1 76.57 2.51 60.05 31.69 28.37 16.40 1.70 16.6 7.55 45.00 45.13 B 29.73 39.35 15.77 30.41

AF2 75.16 2.45 25.22 19.37 5.85 15.00 1.68 13.1 10.20 89.00 89.18

AF3 85.71 2.47 36.20 20.71 15.49 15.00 1.76 11.9 9.41 71.00 71.17 T 21.88 39.18 14.29 33.53

AUCHI 1 81.89 2.26 60.05 31.69 28.37 10.00 1.47 22.8 7.78 60.00 60.14 B 22.30 29.76 11.97 15.29
AUCHI 2 80.83 2.55 27.30 19.31 7.99 10.70 1.70 15.5 9.41 71.00 71.17 T 22.29 32.77 16.60 31.46
B 19.57 19.23 12.55 21.26
IMIEGBA 76.64 2.53 35.51 21.79 13.72 12.85 1.65 17.6 10.31 69.00 69.18
T 23.70 25.21 15.03 21.21
B 20.15 17.37 24.78 27.13
OKPEKPE 56.56 2.43 29.05 7.87 21.18 11.40 1.63 15.6 4.26 40.00 40.07
T 16.10 17.43 16.52 16.22

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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

4.5 Compaction Result
The importance of the compaction test is to improve
the desirable load Bearing Capacity and strength of the
soil by increasing soil density, and removing air thereby
stiffing the soil, increases strength lowers compressibility
and reduces the rate of flow of water through soils. The
higher the Maximum Dry Density (MDD), the lower the
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) and the more suitable.
The compaction curves (Figures 6 & 7) give an indication
of a cohesive soil because cohesive soils have high air
voids and the soil attains a relatively low MDD. Using the
standard proctor test, the clays MDD values were between
1.44-1.685 mg/m3 and OMC between 20%-30% with the
Etsako samples were within the stipulated limit and suita-
ble for engineering purposes (Tables 3, 4, 5) [18].

Figure 5. Cassangrande’s Plasticity chart

Figure 6. Compaction Graph for Oduna

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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

Figure 7. Compaction Graph for Etsako

4.6 Shear Strength Based on this classification after [22] above,

Location % clay Plasticity Index Activity (A)
This analysis was mainly done to ascertain its
ODUNA
durability for road construction. Shear strength it is
ODUNA 1 42.10 31.04 0.73
needed to estimate the load bearing Capacity of soil and
2 55.90 30.41 0.54
stabilization which is determined by the Internal friction
to shearing forces and it is defined by the cohesion 3 50.1 37.63 0.75
and angle of friction. From the result, the clays of the 4 14.06 25.26 1.80
Okada show low shearing as compared to the other two 5 15.52 36.15 2.33
locations. But in general (see Tables 3, 4, 5), the shear 6 75.4 29.27 0.39
strength of the soil samples of Etsako and Oduna would
7 67.7 24.30 0.36
be suitable because of their high shearing Strength. It
8 95.06 43.47 0.46
is noted that the angle of friction is low for clayey soils
OKADA
because of saturation of the soil, mineralogy which affects
clays because the cementation causes the chemical bond OKADA 1 33.69 132.79 3.94
between the particles to cause shear strength to be low 2 80.30 103.51 1.28
especially in expanded soils because of an increase in its 3 66.42 116.02 1.75
clay content and their activity (Table 6). Also, soils with 4 89.6 104.09 1.16
High plasticity tend to have high cohesion and low angle
5 70.18 120.41 1.72
of friction, and low shear strength causing susceptible to
A 52.88 100.34 1.90
construction failure [19-21].
B 71.02 88.87 1.25
Table 6. Clay Activity
ETSAKO
AFOWA 1 74.75 28.37 0.38

ACTIVITY CLASSIFICATION 2 70.44 5.85 0.08

3 80.3 15.49 0.19
AUCHI 1 78.77 28.37 0.36
Less than 0.75 Inactive AUCHI 2 79.17 7.99 0.10
0.75 -1.25 Normal
Greater 1.25 Active IMIEGBA 76.64 13.72 0.18
OKPEKPE 56.27 21.18 0.38

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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022

From Table 6 above, the soils of Okada are active

and the other two are Inactive to Normal. This also
corroborates the very high plasticity from the Plasticity
chart and the shear strength. In the case of road especially
those with heavy traffic movement, soil that are active
especially when water is encountered would cause a
reduction in soil strength causing it to stiffen, and create
problems such as undulation in the road (Plate 5), cracks
in building, and even lead to collapsibility.

4.7 California Bearing Ratio

The California bearing ratio is used in estimating
the bearing capacity of subgrade, sub-base, and
base materials [23-25]. There soaked and unsoaked ratio
was carried out. Unsoaked conditions are the normal
field condition likely to attained after construction of
pavements while soaked condition is needed being in
a Tropical zone, simulation of the worst conditions is
required. Soaked CBR was between 16.10%-39.35%,
and unsoaked CBR 12.55%-31.46% using the Federal
Ministry of Works and Housing [9] and [26] standard, with
the exception of Okada and Oduna, the Etsako samples
are suitable for road construction as subgrade and sub
base. In comparison with clays of other authors within
the Southwestern region (Table 7), they exhibit similar
geotechnical properties owing to similar geology. This
means this can be used as a knowledge example of clays
within this region. For these clays to be used they would
be enhanced or used as a binding material in construction Plate 5. Road Undulation

Table 7. Comparison with some Clays in Southwestern Nigeria

Parameters Samples i. [27] ii. [28] iii. [5]

Oduna 22.76-30.39

Moisture content Okada 48.10-60.61 - 23.40- 30.60 4.6-10.5

Etsako 7.31-11.97

Oduna 2.41-2.58

Specific gravity Okada 1.93-2.57 2.66-2.68 2.6-2.71 2.60-2.70

Etsako 2.26-2.55

Oduna 14.45-97.53

% fines Okada 56.69-90.77 55-74 24.29-32.42 26-62

Etsako 56.56-85.71

Oduna 59.01-72.96

LL Okada 157-46-206.02 42.2-50.5 63.0-77.4 27.9-72.0

Etsako 25.22-60.05

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 Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Volume 04 | Issue 03 | July 2022
Table 7 continued

[27] [28] [5]

Parameters Samples i. ii. iii.

Oduna 29.43-35.91

PL Okada 57.12-85.61 21-3-25.8 29.3-37.65 17.9-24.0

Etsako 7.87-31.69

Oduna 25.26-43.47

PI Okada 88.87-132.79 20.8-24.7 33.80-46.45 10.0-48.5

Etsako 5.85-28.37

Oduna 8.57-15.00

SL Okada 23.57-27.86 - 10.70-17.90 -

Etsako 10.00-16.40

Oduna 1.27-1.40

MDD Okada 0.94-1.13 - 1.40-1.75 15.6-19.1

Etsako 1.47-1.76

Oduna 26.4-30.2

OMC Okada 16.2-44.5 - 17.70-24.00 18.0-29.0

Etsako 11.9-17.6

Oduna 4.82-7.52

Unsoaked Okada 3.63-5.91 - 10-18 -

Etsako 16.10-39.35
CBR
Oduna 8.77-12.72

Soaked Okada 2.89-4.88 - 1-3 -

Etsako 12.55-31.46

5. Conclusions good shearing strength, which is the basic requirement for

The Okada clays has a high moisture content with
very high plasticity indicating a high retaining capacity
(repeated swelling and contraction during the dry and wet
season) which is a characteristic of clays. Furthermore,
the Shearing Strength of the soil sample was low for
Okada clays than those of the Oduna and Etsako, which
collaborates with having percentage fines of less than
35%, with low to medium Plasticity (low swelling
potential). This makes the Okada clays active soil which
causes instability in engineering construction observed in
the undulation of the roads and cracks in some buildings
within the area but the clays of Okada and Oduna can
be used as materials for stabilization. The Etsako area
exhibited the most suitable for construction purposes,
with better specific gravity performance which influences
the strength and adsorption, CBR, and compaction with
construction, especially for roads.
Acknowledement
This research was funded by TETFUND Institution
Based Research Fund (2021-2022 Merged).
Conflict of Interest
There is no conflict of interest.
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