EMM3614 – INDUSTRIAL

SAFETY, HEALTH
Professor Dr. Wong Shaw Voon
wongsv@upm.edu.my

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• This course covers the concepts and methods of
safety and health in the industry. Emphasis are
given on the sources of hazards and its control and
solutions.

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 Learning Outcomes

Able to:

• analyse industrial hazards and appropriate control

methods (C4, CTPS)

• build safety and health programs in the workplace

(C5, EM)

• propose probable sources of damage that harm

health and safety (A5, CS)
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 Evaluation

• Test (20%) and Quizzes, assignments 40% (CA with Group

Project 20%)

• Final 40%

• Class participation (including Q&A, pop quizes)

Students are expected to participate in the class
discussion. Marks will be awarded
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References:

• Asfahl, C.R. & Rieske, D.W. (2010). Industrial Safety and Health
Management (6th Edition). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

• Brauer, R.L. (2016). Safety and Health for Engineers (3rd

Edition). New Jersey: Wiley

• Goetsch, D.L. (2015). Occupational Safety and Health for

Technologists, Engineers and managers (8th Edition/Global
Edition). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.

• Occupational Safety and Health Act and Regulations 1994 (Act

514) (2003). Kuala Lumpur: MDC Publishers Sdn Bhd.

• Reese, C.D. (2015). Occupational Health and Safety

Management: A Practical Approach (3rd Edition). Boca Raton:
CRC Press
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CASE STUDY

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 What is happening?
Discuss

What if something
could have been different?

What else is exposing risk to

workers and others?

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRO TO
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY
AND HEALTH

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 Occupational Safety and Health

• Preserving and protecting human and facility resources

in the workplace.

• Preventing needless deaths and injuries to workers &

others who can be affected by organisation activities

• More than rst aid activities and is far-reaching in both

scope and practice.

• Helping people by preventing them from being injured

or becoming ill due to hazards in their workplaces.
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• Occupational safety and health is also a eld wherein

professionals attempt to prevent catastrophic losses.
When they conduct pre-inspections, safety
professionals may prevent explosions or res that
could destroy entire buildings.

• Occupational safety and health is also the

management function in an organization concerned
with improving its quality and ef ciency. Safety
professionals consider the way products are moved
from place to place and are concerned with reducing
lifting injury exposures, while minimizing product
movement. They attempt to eliminate property and
facility damage, waste, and costs that lessen an
organization’s ability to operate pro tably.
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• Occupational safety and health includes moral and
economic issues.

• There is also a legal compulsion for companies to

promote occupational safety and health. Malaysian
government and governments worldwide require
protection of employees from hazards that may
result in injury, illness, or death.

• Under the Occupational Safety and Health Act of

1994, commonly known as the OSHA, every
employer is required to provide a safe and healthful
workplace.
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• For some employers the responsibility to protect human life is

not as important as other goals. A company may focus on
productivity and pro ts to the exclusion of safety and health.

• Its managers may view illnesses and injuries as a routine part of

the job. In reality the amount of production required to cover
costs associated with accidents in the workplace can be
substantial and may far outweigh the expense of providing a
safe and healthful working environment.

• The role of the safety professional requires him or her to

monitor workplace conditions and advise management on the
importance of making critical corrections for moral, legal, and
economic reasons.

• The effective safety professional will convince management that

providing a safe and healthy working environment is the right
thing to do.
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 Advancement of Technology

• Engineers have played a major role in technological

advancements that have created many changes for
mankind. Improved society, some have been
detrimental. Some have aided life, others have
created new economic, social, political,
environmental, or safety and health problems

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• One noteworthy change brought about by
technology is faster and more ef cient travel and
transport.

• Not long ago, people traveled approximately 8km/hr

or less either walking or via animal-powered
conveyances. Automobiles made travel approximately
10 times faster than that, airplanes 100 times faster,
and rockets more than 1,000 times faster.

• A horse- drawn wagon could carry a 1- or 2-ton

load. Today, a 200-car freight train can carry 20,000
tons, and supertanker ships carry similar or larger
loads.
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• Communication and electronics technologies. From

yielding and whispering to print media, to TV, and
now social media. From letter to landline telephone
and now handphone. From trained animals, to
mainframe computer to laptop and now
smartphone and IOT

• Number of materials and substances known to

humanity has increased rapidly. Today there are
approximately 5 million substances listed in the
Registry Handbook. Nearly 100,000 chemical
substances are now in use, with several hundred
new ones entering the marketplace each year
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 Quiz 1 (Individual)

• Pick one manufacturing industry.

• What is the advancement in the said manufacturing

industry?

• What are the risk related to occupational safety and

health and its evolution with the advancement of
manufacturing?

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• Everyone wants a safe and healthful workplace. but

what each person is willing to do to achieve this
worthwhile objective can vary a great deal. True??

• Give examples

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• As a result, the management of each rm must

decide at what level, along a broad spectrum, the
safety and health effort will be aimed.

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• Some managers deny this responsibility and attempt
to leave the decision to employees.

• This strategy seems to square with hallowed

principles of personal freedom and individual
responsibility. ….. Pro and Cons?

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• You take care of your own safety!!! Why I have to

do so??

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 DOSH

• Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH), the

federal department responsible for workplace safety and health,
attempts to address the safety and health concerns.

• DOSH may not only levy nes, but may also seek criminal
prosecution of business owners and managers who willfully neglect
the safety and health of their employees.

• Employers may also nd themselves the target of civil suits leveled

by the victims and survivors of workplace accidents.

• Employers with poor safety and health records must also deal with
rising medical insurance costs as well as unfavorable workers’
compensation premiums.
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• Unfortunately, many employers have not had to bear the

full cost of injuring and killing members of their
workforces.

• Workers, uninformed and unaware of their legal rights,

have been forced to shoulder the costs of the business
not operating safely.

• The regulations and mechanisms for enforcement are in

place, but the department are understaffed and the
employees are underinformed.

• Continued reduction of accidents will require an

increase in initiative on the parts of all parties involved,
including employers, employees, and federal and state
governments.
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 HISTORY OF
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY
AND HEALTH

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 Ancient Greek and Roman

• Many of today’s health and safety concerns were rst

observed over 2,000 years ago.

• An early account is associated with the Code of Hammurabi

that dates back to approximately 2100 BC. It was primarily
concerned with personal injury and losses and it prescribed a
schedule of punishments and payments for wrongdoers in an
attempt to recompense victims of the listed violations.

• Hammurabi (d.1750 bc), the sixth king of the rst dynasty of

Babylonia, reigned 1792–1750 bc. He extended the
Babylonian empire and instituted one of the earliest known
collections of laws.
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• Greek and Roman physicians, practicing between

400 BC and AD 300, expressed concern for the
health of individuals exposed to the metals
commonly used during this period. These included
Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine, and Pliny the
Elder, a Roman physician and scientist.

• Galen, a Roman physician who lived during the

second century, wrote about occupational diseases
and the dangers of acid mists to copper miners. He
was also concerned with the mining, tanning, and
chemical occupations, noting several diseases
contracted by individuals working in those
professions.
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 The European Renaissance and the

Industrial Revolution
• Prior to the Renaissance, little information is available on
European injury, illness, and property damage prevention
activities.

• Reports of medieval scribes suffering lead poisoning while

performing the common practice of tipping their quills with
their tongues between dips into metallic ink solutions were
repeatedly noted prior to the 15th century. Unfortunately, little
else was recorded regarding safety and health during that period.

• During the European Renaissance physicians and chemists

began noticing the relationship between occupational activities
and worker health and safety.
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• Ulrich Ellenborg, for example, recognized,

identi ed, and reported on ‘‘the poisonous and
noxious vapors and fumes of metals.’’ In 1437, he
recognized that the vapors of some metals,
including lead and mercury, were dangerous and
described the symptoms of industrial poisoning
from these sources.

• He also became aware of asbestos and lung diseases

among miners.

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• Bernardo Ramazzini, an Italian physician, circa

1700 published De morbis arti cum diatriba or The
Diseases of Workers, considered the rst treatise on
occupational disease. Considered by some to be the
Father of Occupational Medicine and by others as
the Father of Industrial Hygiene, he recommended
physicians ask their patients, ‘‘What is your trade?’’
He urged students to learn the nature of
occupational diseases in shops, mills, mines, or
wherever men toil.

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 • In 1666, re swept through London, England, and raged for several
days.

• At that time, London was a city of half-timbered, pitch- covered

medieval buildings that ignited at the touch of a spark. From an inn on
Pudding Lane the re spread into Thames Street, where riverfront
warehouses were bursting with oil, tallow, and other combustible goods.

• The customary recourse during a re of such magnitude was to

demolish every building in the path of the ames in order to deprive
the re of fuel, but the city’s mayor hesitated, fearing the high cost of
rebuilding.

• With no building codes at the time, houses were frequently built to the
edge of the street. Second and subsequent stories were often
cantilevered, with the top oors nearly touching houses across the
street.

• Early examples of building and re codes resulted from this disaster.

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• During the period between 1760 and 1840, history
witnessed dramatic advances in technology.

• Dr. Percival Pott (circa 1775) identi ed the rst form

of cancer. He observed scrotal cancer in chimney
sweeps and determined its relationship to soot and
coal tar exposure. This nding initiated numerous
regulations called the Chimney Sweep Acts that
were promulgated between 1788 and 1875.

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• About this time, several industrialists also became

concerned with the welfare of their workers. Sir
Robert Peel, a mill owner, made the English
Parliament aware of the deplorable working
conditions often existing in the mills. He reported
that orphan labor was frequently used to perform
demanding tasks in less than sanitary conditions.

• His study of these deplorable conditions revealed

that the mean life expectancy of the working class,
under these terrible conditions, was only 22 years,
while the mean age of the wealthier class was 44
years.
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• With advancing technology and the Industrial Revolution came

an increase in safety and health hazards.

• The innovations of mechanical textile machinery, foundry

furnaces, steam engines, and numerous other inventions created
a new and more dangerous workplace environment.

• Factories and other workplaces were mazes of moving belts,

pulleys, and gears. Human senses were assaulted with fumes,
toxic vapors, noise, and heat.

• The health and safety problem was compounded by the

introduction of increasing numbers of women and children into
the workforce.

• Long workdays, unsanitary conditions, and demanding physical

labor increased the likelihood of injury and illness for this new
workforce.
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• At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution in England Charles

Thackrah became concerned with occupational safety and
health and studied the effects of arts, trades, life habits, civic
status, and professions upon health and longevity.

• By employing basic principles of occupational medicine, he

became the rst physician in the English-speaking world to
establish the practice of industrial medicine. His writings also
led to a raised public awareness of the plight of many of the
new working class.

• In 1842, Edwin Chadwick, a British lawyer and sanitarian,

described the deplorable conditions of factory workers in his
‘‘Report into the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring
Population of Great Britain.’’ He reported that life
expectancy was much lower in towns than in the countryside
and attributed his ndings to air pollution.
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• In the United States, the Industrial Revolution began in the early

19th century as factories and mills in New England sprang to life.

• In Lowell, Massachusetts, young women and girls, as young as

six to ten years of age, worked long hours, often from ve in the
morning until seven in the evening. Their work required their
hands to be placed very close to the in-running gears of spinning
machines.

• Many were injured or maimed in the moving gears and pulleys

of the textile machinery. Their ngers were cut off or mangled
with such frequency that machine-guarding laws were eventually
passed.

• Fatalities in the mining and steel industries were as common as

those in the textile industry. In 1877, Massachusetts passed a law
requiring safeguards on hazardous machinery that tied liability
to actions of employers.
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• Exposure to toxic metals such as mercury and lead has been
an occupational health problem for hundreds of years.

• Technological advances introduced new and unique

hazards, typically overlooked by untrained observers, which
were recognized only after numerous cases were reported.

• Dramatic changes in technology and workplace design,

along with other technological advancements, have not
necessarily resulted in healthier or safer workplaces.

• Workers today may be exposed to as many workplace

hazards as were their ancestors in years past. Factory
machinery with unguarded gears mangling ngers and
hands has been replaced by electronic of ce equipment
causing wrist and arm injuries.
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• Workers still face chemical and toxic hazards, as

evidenced by industrial disasters. The complexity of
current safety and health conditions mirrors the
complexities associated with modern workplace
technology.

• Practitioners in this profession must develop the

broad range of knowledge and skills necessary to
ensure the protection of people and company
resources. In addition, occupational safety and
health professionals must possess the skills required
to effectively perform their roles and responsibilities
in the safety, health, and environmental arenas.
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 Quiz 2

- Describe the risks above

- Identify and brie y discuss the exposure of the associated risk
above in the campus
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INCIDENT AND ACCIDENT

THEORIES

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 Incident vs Accident

• Hazard: source with a potential to cause injury and ill health

• Incident: occurrence arising out of, or in the course of, work that
could or does result in injury and ill health

• An incident where injury and ill health occurs is sometimes referred

to as an “accident”.

• An incident where no injury and ill health occurs but has the
potential to do so may be referred to as a “nea miss”, “nea hit” or
“close call”.

• Although there can be one or more nonconformities related to an

incident, an incident can also occur where there is no nonconformity.
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• There are a number of theories about incidents and

accidents.

• The theories give us insight into preventive actions.

None is totally adequate, either at describing all the
factors that contribute to the occurrence of
incidents or at predicting with reasonable accuracy
the likelihood that an incident will take place.

• Some theories more helpful than others in

preventing incidents.

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 Domino Theory

• Domino theory of W. F. Heinrich. For many it is a helpful concept. The theory

states that an incident sequence is like a series of ve dominos standing on end.
One can knock others over.

• The ve dominos in reverse sequence are

• (1) an injury caused by

• (2) an incident, which, in turn, is caused by

• (3) unsafe acts or conditions. The latter are caused by

• (4) undesirable traits (such as recklessness, nervousness, violent temper, lack

of knowledge, or unsafe practices) that are inherited or developed through
one’s

• (5) social environment.

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• The incident sequence can be stopped by removing or
controlling contributing factors.

• The theory places strong emphasis for incident prevention on

the middle domino: unsafe acts and unsafe conditions.

• Heinrich believed that unsafe acts are more frequently involved

in incidents than unsafe conditions.

• Therefore, his philosophy of incident prevention emphasized

unsafe acts and person-related factors leading up to them.

• Individuals involved in prevention of incidents may nd some

value in this theory.

• For engineers who do not have control over unsafe acts as

much as unsafe conditions, portions of this theory are of
limited value.
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 Multiple Factor Theories

• Incidents are deemed to be caused by many factors

acting together.

• The immediate cause may be an unsafe act or an

unsafe condition acting alone.

• In multiple causation theories, factors combine in

random or other fashion and cause incidents.

• Grose proposed a multiple factor model referred to as

the four Ms: man, machine, media, and management.
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 Man refers to people.

Machine refers to any kind of

equipment or vehicle.

Media includes such things as

environments, roadways, and
weather.

Management is the human

context in which the other
three Ms exist and operate.

Four system safety factors: the four Ms. (From V. L. Grose, “System Safety
in Rapid Rail Transit,” from the August 1972 issue of the ASSE Journal,
of cial publication of the Ameri-46 can Society of Safety Engineers
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• The factors included in each multiple factor theory vary. In

each multiple factor theory, characteristics of the factors
that may be involved in a particular incident are identi ed.

• For example, characteristics of man are age, height,

gender, skill level, amount of training, strength, posture,
motivation, emotional state, and so on. Characteristics of
media could include thermal conditions in buildings, water
or snow on a roadway, fresh water compared with salt
water or a contaminant in air. Characteristics of
management might be management style, organizational
structure, communication ow, policies, and procedures.
Characteristics of machines might include size, weight,
shape, energy source, type of action or motion, availability
or placement of controls, and materials of construction.
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• Multiple factor theories are useful in incident
prevention.

• They help identify which characteristics or factors

are involved in a given operation or activity.

• Characteristics can be analyzed to see which

combinations are most likely to cause an incident or
result in losses.

• Statistical techniques, such as factor analysis,

multiple regression analysis, and other multivariate
methods, may be used in analyzing characteristics.
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• Fault tree analysis, similar branched event-chain

analysis, and other methods are also used to
establish associations among characteristics and
their relationships to damage, injuries, illnesses, and
death.

• Both quantitative and qualitative methods can be

helpful in multiple factor theories.

• Many of the methods used in multiple factor

theories do not establish cause and effect, but rather
relationships.

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 Energy Theory

• William Haddon proposed the idea that many

accidents and injuries involve the transfer of energy.

• Objects, events, or environments interacting with

people illustrate this idea: res, hurricanes, projectiles,
motor vehicles, various forms of radiation, and other
items produce injuries and illnesses of various sorts.

• The energy theory suggests that quantities of energy,

means of energy transfer, and rates of transfer are
related to the kind and severity of injuries.
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• Sometimes the theory is called the energy release

theory, because the rate of release is an important
component.

• This theory is attractive for many safety engineering

problems and suggests ideas for controlling many
unsafe conditions.

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• Using energy transfer as the accident-injury model, Hadden suggests 10

strategies for preventing or reducing losses. The order for these strategies
follows the accident sequence:

1. Prevent the marshalling of energy. In this strategy, the goal is not producing
energy or changing it to a form that cannot cause an accident or injury.
Examples are not producing gun powder, substituting a safe substance for a
dangerous one, preventing the accumulation of snow where avalanches are
possible, removing snow where slips and falls can occur, not letting small
children climb to levels above the oor, and not setting a vehicle in motion.

2. Reducing the amount of energy marshalled. Examples are keeping vehicle

speeds down, reducing the quantities or concentration of high energy or
toxic materials, limiting the height to which objects are raised, and
reducing machine speed to the minimum needed when a machine is
unguarded for cleaning or maintenance.

3. Prevent the release of energy. Examples are using various means or devices
to prevent elevators from falling, ammables from igniting, or foundations
from being undercut by erosion.
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 4. Modify the rate at which energy is released from its source

or modify the spatial distribution of the released energy.
Slowing the burning rate of a substance or using an
inhibitor and reducing the slope of roads are examples.

5. Separate in space or time the energy being released from

the structure that can be damaged or the human who can
be injured. Examples include separate paths for vehicular
and pedestrian traf c, placing electric power out of reach,
using traf c signals to phase pedestrian and vehicular
traf c, and using energy-absorbing materials.

6. Separate the energy being released from a structure or

person that can suffer loss by interposing a barrier. Safety
glasses, barrier guards, radiation lters or shields, median
barriers on roadways, thermal insulation, and explosive
barricades are examples of barriers.
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7. Modify the surfaces of structures that come into contact with

people or other structures. Rounded corners, blunt objects, dull
edges, and larger surface areas for tool handles are examples.

8. Strengthen the structure or person susceptible to damage.

Examples for this strategy are re- and earthquake-resistant
construction of buildings, training of personnel, and
vaccination for disease.

9. Detect damage quickly and counter its continuation or

extension. Sprinklers that detect heat and spray water to
prevent the spread of a re and wear indicators built into the
treads of vehicle tires are examples of this strategy.

10.During the period after damage and the return to normal

conditions, take measures to restore a stable condition.
Examples are rehabilitating an injured worker and repairing a
damaged vehicle.
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• Unlike Heinrich, who advocated a serial model, Haddon

argues for a parallel model of preventive action. A parallel
model includes multiple actions working at the same time.
A serial model has actions working one at a time.

• Haddon notes there is no reason to select one preventive

strategy over another or to prioritize countermeasures
according to the accident sequence.

• Any measure that prevents the damage or undesired result

is satisfactory.

• There is one exception to this parallel model, the quantity

of energy involved. As the amount of energy increases,
countermeasure higher in the list are more desirable.
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 Errors in Management Systems

• As part of their approach to management through

quality, Juran and Demming focused on work processes
and the role management has in establishing the
processes provided for workers to follow.

• Both focus on errors by workers as attributes of poor

management processes.

• Deming claims that 85% of errors are the result of poor

processes, and no matter how hard someone tries to
improve within a given process, it is not possible unless
there is a change in the process itself.
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• The focus is on management getting

• the process right,

• reducing errors in poor processes, and

• avoiding the need to correct things after they have

resulted in errors.

• Errors are a management issue, not a worker issue.

Incidents and accidents are simply a form of error. They
interrupt processes and reduce quality.

• However, by engaging both workers and managers

together in helping to get the processes right, all
participants work together to achieve quality (and safety).
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• Juran notes that critical processes, those which present serious

dangers to human life, health, and the environment or which
create losses of very large sums of money, require planning and
design to reduce the opportunity for human error to a minimum.

• Therefore, emphasis is on continuous, incremental improvement.

• An extension of this concept is that of “six sigma.”

• Similarly, reengineering concepts of Hammer and Champy focus

on improving business processes, but rely on major redesign
principles and technological change to achieve operational
improvements and reduced errors.

• Quality improvement, six sigma, and reengineering approaches

create an opportunity to reduce incidents and losses by
improvements to the processes used to accomplish work.
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 Single-Factor Theories

• Many individuals, particularly those not trained in incident

prevention and investigation, have the idea that there is a single
cause for an incident.

• A single factor theory assumes that when one nds a cause, there is
nothing more to nd out.

• Single-factor theories have limited use in prevention, because

contributing factors and corresponding corrective actions will be
overlooked.

• The single-factor theory is a very weak tool in the arsenal of

incident prevention and safety management. In fact, it is often a
hindrance.
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 Preventive Strategies

• Regardless of the theory and methods used, the

causes of incidents are identi ed and corrective
actions are taken to prevent future incidents of the
same type.

• Different strategies are possible for this approach.

The strategies are based on frequency, severity, and
cost.

• Each has merit, depending on preventive goals.

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 Accident Analysis of Potential
Accidents

Investigation
Preventive Program
Analysis

Preventive Accident
Action

Reactive Approach Proactive Approach

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 Frequency Strategies

• Try to prevent as many incidents as possible. Therefore,

investigation, analysis, and preventive actions are directed toward
incidents that occur frequently. Preventive actions attempt to
reduce the frequency of occurrence.

• Recognition of these related factors will help direct preventive

efforts where they will be most effective.

• For example, nearly 50% of injuries occur to workers in their rst

year on the job. Half of these occur in the rst three months.
Centering corrective actions (such as proper training) on new
employees and their work environments should reduce incident
frequency more than would applying the effort with equal intensity
to all workers.
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 Severity Strategies

• Another approach is directed at serious cases: those

cases involving long-term disability, long or serious
illnesses, death, large numbers of people, or large
property loss.

• It was reported that serious injuries occur most

frequently in four kinds of work activities: construction,
nonproductive activities, rarely performed and unusual
non-routine work; and work involving high health risks.

• Data like these can help formulate strategies to prevent

serious injury and illness.
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 Cost Strategies

• to prevent high-cost incidents.

• This strategy, based on the principle of Pareto’s law,

uses cost as the basis for measuring seriousness of
incident consequences, not the injury or illness itself.

• Although cost and severity strategies are much the

same, a cost strategy includes losses other than
human ones.

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 Combined Strategies

• A combination of frequency, severity, and cost. To

establish priorities for preventive actions, one can
use a number of risk analyses and related
techniques. They rely on the probability that an
event will occur or the frequency of its occurrence,
the seriousness of the event if it does occur, the cost
of losses that could be avoided, and the cost to
implement corrections.

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 3Es of Safety

• Engineering, Education, and Enforcement.

• Engineering includes such actions as substituting

less hazardous materials, reducing the inventory of
hazardous materials, modify processes, designing
out hazards, incorporating fail-safe devices, using
warning devices and prescribing protective
equipment.

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• Education includes:

• training people in safe procedures and practices

• teaching people how to perform a job correctly and

safely

• teaching users how to use a product safely

• teaching people what hazards exist in a product,

process, or task and how to take appropriate
protective actions

• training engineers about hazard recognition, hazard

evaluation, compliance with safety standards, and
legal responsibilities
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• Enforcement is achieving compliance with federal,

state, and local laws and regulations, with consensus
standards and with company rules and procedures.

• Sometimes a fourth E is part of the paradigm:

Enthusiasm. It refers to motivating people in an
organization to cooperate with safety programs
through participation and other means. It is
motivating users to follow safe practices.

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 Goals Freedom Alertness Theory

• Dr. Willard Kerr’s theory of accident causation regards an

accident as a low-quality work behavior.

• He considers it to be similar to production waste during

manufacturing, except that the scrap happens to be human.
Raising the level of quality and safety involves raising the level
of worker awareness. According to Kerr, alertness can only be
obtained within a positive organizational culture and
psychological climate.

• The more positive the workplace climate, the greater the

alertness and work quality is. As alertness decreases, the
probability of an accident rises.
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 Motivation Reward Satisfaction

Model

• Stated simply, the ‘‘freedom to set reasonably

attainable goals is typically accompanied by higher-
quality work performance’’.

• If an accident occurs, it is due to a lull in alertness.

• Safety performance depends on degree of

motivation and capability to work; factors affecting
these variables will either promote or prevent
accidents.
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• According to the theory, rewards strongly affect

performance.

• They originate from a variety of sources and can be physical

and/or psychological.

• Money or praise is not considered to be the primary

motivation factor.

• Rewards, including doing a good job, learning new skills,

expanding personal knowledge, and participating on a
successful team, are some of the numerous intrinsic
reinforcements associated with enriched jobs.

• If employees see the rewards from their work as equitable,

they are more likely to be motivated and, in turn, produce
positive safety results.
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 Human Factors Theory

• Based on the concept that accidents are the result of

human error.

• Factors that cause human error are:

• Overload

• Inappropriate activities

• Inappropriate response
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• Overload occurs when a person is burdened with

excessive tasks or responsibilities. For example, the
employee not only must perform his or her job, but
must also handle excessive noise, stress, personal
problems, and unclear instructions.

• Inappropriate activities is another term for human

error. When individuals undertake a task without
proper training, they are acting inappropriately.

• Inappropriate response occurs, for example, when

an employee detects a hazardous condition but does
not correct it, or removes a safeguard from a
machine to increase productivity
73

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 DISCUSSION
HOW SAFE IS SAFE
ENOUGH?

74
 • What is accepted as safe is neither constant nor absolute.

• Each person and society establishes what level of safety and

health is acceptable.

• Not everyone agrees on whether things are safe enough.

• People would like to be free from risks. However, every activity

has some risk. The level of risk that society nds acceptable is a
moral issue, not just a technical, economic, political, or legal
one.

• Society participates in deciding what risk is acceptable and at

what price.

• The standards are not constant. They change over time, may
vary by location, and are also affected by who is paying for the
risk reduction.
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• There is a region of uncertainty between that which is acceptably

safe and that which is unacceptably dangerous. Engineers face a
dilemma in dealing with this middle region because they cannot
depend on their own intuition to decide what is safe enough.

• To achieve acceptably safe products and environments, engineers

must be able to recognize hazards and apply current standards of
society found in laws, regulations, judicial interpretation, and public
expectation.

• There is a trend toward lowering levels of acceptable risk, requiring

engineers to anticipate tighter standards than exist at the time they
design something.

• There will never be a nal answer to the question “How safe is safe
enough?”

• Society, through political, economic, and legal processes, will de ne

the price it wants to pay for acceptable levels of risk.
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 “SAFER”

is it a better term than “acceptably safe”

77
 Quiz 1.3: Cause of Death in OSH

• How about Malaysia?

• Commuting Accident?

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 ASSIGNMENT 1
GROUP PROJECT

79
• Group Assignments

• A total of 10 groups with maximum group

members of 5 members

• Reports submission by week 8

• in pdf copy of both the reports and ppts. A total of

two reports and two ppt by each group. Into 2
bundle of pdf. (Each bundle consists of a report and
related ppt)

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 Scope 1

• You are now working in a typical multinational corporation in

manufacturing industry, as the Occupational Health and Safety
Manager.

• You are producing either hard disk, tyre for motorcycle, or

pharmaceutical drug (please choose one and state clearly in your
report). Describe the manufacturing processes in brief in the report.

• You are asked to brief the top management of the company about
the Malaysian regulations related to workspace safety and health.

• Based on OSHA 1994 and Regulations with the LATEST

Amendment, put up a report and presentation summary on the
above task given to you.
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 Scope 2

• Then, you were asked to look into Factories and

Machinery Act 1967 and its Regulations. The Act
will be repealed, after the OSHA Amendment 2022
came in force. You are asked to highlight to enlighten
the top management on the FMA and in what way
the 2022 OSHA amendments is intended to handle
the scope which is supposedly covered under FMA.

• In a report and summarize in presentation slide / ppt

for the brie ng to the top management of the
company.
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GROUP PROJECT 1

83
• International standards have been developed to
address Industrial Safety, Health, and Environment
challenges.

• They are ISO14001, ISO39001 & 39002 and

ISO4500, and their related series of ISO standards.

• Form 5 groups, with each up to maximum of 10

members, including a group leader

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• A) summarised the said standards (maximum of 10 pages)

• B) Select an industry and de ne the size of the company and the nature of
the business. You are in the Operation Safety, Health and Environment
Unit. As the newly employed manage, proposed a restructuring (could be
forming a new) unit. Present a concept note with proposed structure,
resources, activities, deliverables, and outcomes. (maximum of 5 pages) to
convince the top management to setup the said entity, including a
section / para on the nature / context of your company.

• You may choose either your company is either a land logistic company, or
Multinational Semiconductor Manufacturing company, or IKEA
Malaysia.

• C) Put up a proposal to seek the approval of the top management of the

having the organization certi ed to all the above ISOs. Convince the top
management on the bene t of having the said ISOs, Estimate the budgets
and resources, activities/tasks to be carried out successfully, identify critical
success factors, and identify speci cally how the said company can
acquired the said bene t. (max 8 pages)
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• Submission week 13

• Each group, a report consist of two sections - 1.

presentation about the international standards - 2.
Proposal to the management

• Presentation in week 14, on the proposal to the

management. Presentation Time: 20mins,
Q&A:20mins.

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