Chapter 2

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT TOOLS

Job Analysis

A job in an organization is created when tasks, duties and responsibilities justify hiring of one or
more people for accomplishing the organizational purposes. A Job according to Mondy and Noe
(1990) consists of a group of tasks that must be performed for an organization to achieve its
goals. A job may need the services of one individual, such as that of the Prime Minister or the
services of ten or more, as might be the case with ministers in a country. In a work group
consisting of an auditor, two chief accountants, and three accounting clerks, there are a total of
three jobs and six positions. A position is the collection of tasks and responsibilities performed
by one person; there is a position for every individual in an organization (Mondy & Noe, 1990).
If a job is so fundamentally important in an organization, what then is a job analysis?
Job analysis is the systematic process of determining the skills, duties and knowledge required
for performing jobs in an organization (Mondy & Noe, 1990). It is an important human resource
techniques and is also a method that enable to obtain information regarding jobs available in the
organization.
The major purpose of job analysis is to provide answers to the following six important questions
( Mondy & Noe, 1990).
1. What physical and mental tasks does the worker accomplish?
2. When is the job to be completed?
3. Where is the job to be accomplished?
4. How does the worker do the job?
5. Why is the job done?
6. What qualifications are needed to perform the job?

Job analysis is a procedure used to determine:

- tasks, duties and responsibilities
- the relationships of one job to other jobs
- the working conditions

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 - the qualifications needed for each job.
The job facts are gathered, analyzed and recorded with respect to the job as it exists. Moreover,
job analysis is conducted after the job has been designed, the necessary training has been given
to the employees to perform job. According to Mondy & Noe, 1990, job analysis is performed
on three different accessions. These are:
1) It is done when the organization is founded and a job analysis program is
initiated for the first time.
2) It is performed when new jobs are created
3) It is used when jobs are changed significantly as a result of new technology,
methods, procedures, or systems.

In most cases, job analysis is carried out because of changes in the nature of jobs. It is used to
prepare both job descriptions and job specifications. The job description is a written statement
that explains the title, duties, responsibilities, working conditions, and other aspects of a
specified job. Job specification, on the other hand, describes the skill, knowledge, work
experiences required to perform the job. (Milkovich & Bourdean, 1991)

Reasons For Conducting Job Analysis

Data obtained from job analysis has an impact on every aspect of human resource management
as shown in figure (Mondy & Noe 1990) below.

Job Analysis: The Most Basic Human Resource Management Tool

As can be seen above, a major use of job analysis data is in the area of human resource
planning. Since jobs in an organization are different in nature, each requires different
knowledge, skills and experiences. Hence, effective human resource planning can only take
place when these job requirements are taken into account.

Human resource activities, such as recruitment and selection largely depend on job information.
In order to match the personnel to the job, the recruiter must know the qualifications and other
pertinent features of the job. It is only then can organizations select and hire the right person for

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the right job. Furthermore, job analysis information can help organizations to decide the nature
of examinations or interviews to be conducted.

Job specification information, such as the knowledge, skills and abilities an employee need to
perform a task is crucial in identifying human resource training and development requirements.
Mondy & Noe (1990) state that if the specification suggests that the job requires a particular
knowledge, skill, or ability and the person filling the position does not possess all the
qualifications required-training and/or development is probably in order.

Performance standards are developed from job information and then actual employee
performance is measured (Werther & Davis, 1996). It is important to note here that employee
would be evaluated in terms of how well they discharge their responsibilities specified in the job
descriptions. Thus, performance appraisal, which is based on job analysis information, enables
organization to measure employee performance against written standard and provide feedback
concerning their contribution. The relative value of a particular job to the organization must well
known before a monetary value can be allotted to it. Mondy & Noe (1996) believe that the more
significant its duties and responsibilities, the more the job is worth relatively. Jobs that require
greater knowledge, skills, and abilities should be worth more to the organization. For example,
the relative value of a teaching job that calls for doctorate's degree normally would be higher
than that of a teaching job that requires a master's degree.

Information obtained from job analysis is also important in identifying safety and health
considerations. It, according to Chatterjee, (1995), enables management to provide for special
measures for the physically handicapped or infirm employee, the pregnant mother or other
vulnerable sections among workers. Job analysis information is also important to employee and
labour relationships. Management relies on job description to consider promotion, transfer, or
demotion, on the basis of comparison of talent. Moreover, information derived from job analysis
enables management to make decisions regarding employees in the organization.

In general, job studies are undertaken in order to bring about improvement in work methods,
reduction in errors, elimination of handling unnecessary materials and duplication of effort,

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reduction in fatigue, increased employee commitment and responsibility and consequently to
improve the performance of the employee. These studies, therefore, enable the job analyst to
think in terms of designing/ redesigning jobs to achieve the above objectives (Chateerjee, 1995).

Human Resource
Planning

Recruitment

Tasks Responsibilities Duties Selection

Human Resource
Development

Job Performance
Description Appraisal

Job Compensation
Analysis and Benefits
Job
Specifications Safety and
Health

Employee and
Labour Relations
Knowledge Skills Abilities
Human Resource
Research

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 Equal Employment

Types of Job Analysis Information

All relevant information concerning the job is vital for successful accomplishment of job
analysis. The job analysts seek to identify the job's actual duties and responsibilities and collect
other types of data as shown in the table (Glueck, 1978) below.

1. Work activities
a. Work activities and processes
b. Activity records (in film form, for example)
c. Procedures used
d. Personal responsibility
2. Worker-oriented activities
a. Human behaviors, such as physical actions and communicating on the job.
b. Elemental motions for methods analysis.
c. Personal job demands, such as energy expenditure.

3. Machines, tools, equipment, and work aids used

4. Job-related tangibles and intangibles

a. Knowledge dealt with or applied (as in accounting).
b. Materials processed.
c. Products made or services performed.
5. Work performance
a. Error analysis
b. Work standards
c. Work measurements, such as time taken for a task
6. Job context
a. Work schedule

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 b. Financial and non-financial incentives
c. Physical working conditions
d. Organizational and social contexts
7 Personal requirements for the job
a. Personal attributes such as personality, interests
b. Education and training required
c. Work experience.
Types of Data Normally Gathered in Job Analysis.

Job analysis information is used to define staffing needs of an organization. It, according to
Baird et.al., (1990), includes analysis of:
Work activities - What needs to be done?
Work tools and technology - What machines, tools and technology people will use.
Knowledge requirement - What people must know to perform the job?
Personal requirement - What skills and experience people must possess to perform well?
Job context - the work schedules, physical conditions, and social environment of the job.
Performance Standards - expected results.

This information enables the job analyst to determine the type and level of education, training
and work experience.

Job Analysis Methods

Job analysis information provides the base for human resource information system. Basically, in
order to get information for job analysis, the job analyst need to know that organization and the
work it performs.

Methods used to conduct job analysis are different; this is because organizational needs and
resources for conducting job analysis differ. However, some of the most common methods of
obtaining information for job analysis are:
1) Questionnaires
2) Interviews

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 3) Observation
4) Employee Log
5) Combination of Methods

Questionnaires
To study jobs, job analyst design questionnaires to collect information uniformly. These
questionnaires reveal the duties and responsibilities, human characteristics and working
conditions and performance standards of the job to be investigated. The questionnaire method is
quick and economical to use. However, accuracy is lower because of misunderstood
questionnaires (Werther & Davis, 1996). Since, there is a possibility that some workers may
tend to exaggerate the significance of their tasks, suggesting more responsibility than actually
exists; the same type of questionnaire can also be administered to supervisors to verify the
worker responses.

Interviews
Face-to-face conversation is an effective method to collect job information. This method
provides an opportunity for the interviewer "to explain unclear questions and probe into
uncertain answers (Werther & Davis, 1996). The job analyst often talks with a limited number of
employees first, and then contacts the supervisors for checking the accuracy of the information
obtained from the employees. Although, the interview method is time-consuming and
expensive, but the method ensures a high level of accuracy.

Observation
The observation method is slow and less accurate than other methods. This is because the job
analyst may miss irregularly occurring activities. Nevertheless, actual observation acquaint the
analyst with the machines, tools, equipment's and work aids used, the work environments and to
obtain visual impression of what is involved in the job. According to Armstrong (1996), this
method is used primarily to study jobholders at work, noting what they do, how they do it, and
how much time it takes. Moreover, it enables the analyst to see the interrelationships between
mental and physical tasks. However, observation alone is usually an insufficient means of

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conducting job analysis, particularly when mental skills are dominant in a job (Mondy & Noe,
1990).

Employee Log
This method enables the job analyst to collect job data by having the employees summarize their
work activities in a diary or log. If entries are made over the entire job cycle, the diary can be
quite accurate and feasible way of collecting job information (Chatter jee, 1995). This method is
not popular because it is time-consuming and less reliable as some employees may tend to
exaggerate their tasks. However, valuable understanding of highly specialized jobs, such as a
financial analyst, may be obtained in this way (Mondy & Noe, 1990).

Combination of Methods
Since each method of obtaining information for job analysis has its own defects, job analyst
often rely on combinations where two or more techniques are used concurrently. For example,
in annualizing clerical and administrative jobs, the analyst might use questionnaires supported by
interviews and limited observation (Mondy & Noe, 1990). On the other hand, in analyzing
production jobs, interviews supplemented by work observation may provide the required
information. Combination of methods can ensure high accuracy at minimum costs. Basically,
the job analyst would employ the combination of methods required to carry out an effective and
efficient job analysis.

Conducting Job Analysis

The expert who conducts job analysis is interested in collecting information on what is involved
in doing a particular job. Job analysis is not one man affair; it requires the participation of
employees and their immediate supervisors. Organizations may use employed human resource
experts or use outside consultants to perform job analysis. Before conducting job analysis, the
analyst seeks to gain general understanding of the organization and the job/jobs to be studied.
Then, the analyst develops the desired job analysis methods to gather information about the jobs;
employee characteristics, and job performance standards. Before starting to gather data, the
employees' supervisor should introduce the analyst to the employees and explain the main

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purpose of the job analysis. The job information collected by using one or more job analysis
methods allow management to draw up a job description, job specifications and job standard.

Job Descriptions
Information collected by using one or more job analysis techniques allows management to
develop job descriptions. A job description is a written statement of what employee does, how it
is done and why it is done. In other words, the job description contains the total requirements of
the job, i.e. who, what, where, when why and how.

According to Mondy and Noe (1990), among the items frequently included in a job description
is:
- Major duties performed
- Percentage of time devoted to each duty.
- Performance standards to be achieved.
- Working conditions and possible hazards.
- Number of employees performing the job and how they report to.
- The machines and equipment used on the job.

Within an organization, all the job descriptions should follow the same format, although the form
and content may differ from organization to organization. A sample of job description for a
secretary in an-organization is provided in the exhibit (Mondy & Noe, 1990) below.
POSITION TITLE POSITION NUMBER
SECRETARY II

DIVISION OR STAFF DEPARTMENT REPORTS TO EFFECTIVE DATE

January 2000

DEPARTMENT SECTION GRADE REVISES

6

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 JOB SUMMARY
Performs clerical and administrative duties for a manager and often one or more staff
members of a major function.

NATURE OF WORK
Performs a wide variety of office duties including most of the following:
a. Typing correspondence, report, manuscripts, graphs, charts, etc., from notes, dictating
machine, and/or hand written drafts proficiently and with minimum, direction and
instructions.
b. Receiving telephone calls and visitors skillfully and handling incoming mail efficiently.
c. Originating routine correspondence and handling inquiries, and routing & non-routine
inquiries and correspondence to proper persons.
d. Establishing and maintaining department files and records.
e. Assuming responsibility for arranging appointments and meetings, screening calls, and
handling personal and confidential matters for superior.
f. Assembling, organizing, processing, and evaluating data and reports; operating office
machines needed for accomplishing this.
g. Performing administrative duties and special projects as directed, such as collecting and
compiling general reference materials and information pertaining to company, division,
or department practices and procedures.
QUALIFICATIONS
h. High school education or its equivalent plus three years of clerical experience, and a
typing skill of at least 60-WPM. Demonstrated proficiency in English grammar,
punctuation, spelling, and proper word usage.

A Job Description

Job description outlines what the jobholder is actually supposed to do how he does it and why it
is done. Although the contents of the job description vary, most job descriptions include:
- Job Identification
- Date of the Job Analysis

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 - Job Summary
- Duties Performed

Job Identification
The section on job identification includes the title of the job, department/section, and reporting
relationship, date of the job description, and job code or number. A good job title, according to
Mondy and Noe, (1990), will closely approximate the nature of the work content and will
distinguish that job from others.

Date of the Job Analysis

The date of the job analysis is indicated on the job description to help in identifying how old the
description is. It ensures periodic review of the job content and minimizes the number of
obsolete job descriptions.

Duties Performed
This section provides the major duties to be performed. Usually one sentence beginning with an
action verb such as receives, performs, establishes, or assembles, adequately explains each duty
(Mondy & Noe, 1990).

Job Specification
Job description and specification are essential documents when management begins recruiting
and selecting employees. According to Werther and Davis, 1996, a job description defines what
a job is; it is a profile of the job, on the other hand, job specification describes the job demands
on the employees who do it and the human skills that are required. It is a profile of human
characteristics needed by the person performing the job. These requirements include experience,
training, education, and the ability to meet physical and mental demands (Werther & Davis
1996). In other words, job specification is identification of knowledge, skill and attitude needed
to perform a particular job. It is important to not here that since job descriptions and
specifications both focus on the job, job specifications are often included as one section of job
description. For example, the qualifications required for the job of "secretary II" include typing

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at least sixty words per minute and demonstrated proficiency in English. This type of
information, as stated earlier, is extremely important in recruiting and selection process.

Job Performance Standards

Job performance standard is the third application of job analysis. Job descriptions as stated
earlier are statements of what activities are to be performed, where as performance standards
make explicit the quantity and/or quality of performance expected in basic tasks indicated in the
job description. Job performance standards, according Chatterjee (1995), are statements of the
expected as well as attainable levels of achievement on a particular job. Job performance
standards serve three functions. These are:

1) Standards become objectives or targets for employee effort. The challenge or pride
of meeting objectives may serve to motivate employees. Once standards are met,
workers may feel a sense of accomplishment and achievement. This outcome
contributes to employee satisfaction.

2) Standards are criteria against which job success is measured. Without standards, no
control system can evaluate job performance (Werther & Davis, 1996). When
measured performance strays from the job standard, corrective action is taken. As
illustrated in figure below, the action serves as feedback, which in turn can lead to
change standards if they are in appropriate or improve the actual performance.

3) Job Actual Correction of

Job Deviations
Performance Actual
Standard Job Performance

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A job control system

4) Performance standards benefit both the jobholder and the superior who evaluates
him. The more the employee understands what is expected of him, the more likely it
is that he or she will be able to carry out the responsibilities of the position
successfully. On the other hand, in evaluating the performance of each employee,
the supervisor can compare the actual performance of each person with the written
standard. Performance appraisals can never become fully objective, but the usage of
written standards helps to make them more objective (Chatterjee, 1995).

JOB DESIGN
Jobs are the foundation of organizational productivity and employee satisfaction. How well jobs
are designed will play an important role in the realization of organizational objectives. Well-
designed jobs, therefore, enable to attract and retain motivated employees capable of discharging
their work responsibilities.

Job design is the process of determining the specific tasks to be performed, the methods used in
performing these tasks, and how the job relates to other work in the organization (Mondy & Noe,
1990). It specifies how the job is to be done and how workers can be satisfied doing the job.
Workers must also sense that they are accountable for specific results and feel that the job has
meaning beyond pay (Mondy & Noe, 1990). According to Werther and Davis (1996), the design
of a job reflects the organizational, environmental, and behavioral demands placed on it. Job
designers need to consider these elements and try to create jobs that are productive. The figure
below illustrates a systems view of job design.

Elements of Job Design

 Organizational Elements

Organizational elements of job design according to Werther and Davis (1996), includes:
- Mechanistic approach

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 - Work flow
- Work practices
- Ergonomics

Mechanistic Approach

This approach involves identifying every task in a job so that task can be arranged to minimize
the time and expended by workers. Once task identification is complete, a limited number of
tasks are grouped into a job. The result is specialization: Specialized jobs lead to a short job
cycle, the time to complete every task in a job. The mechanistic approach stresses efficiency in
effort, time, labour costs, training and employee learning time.

Work Flow

The product or service usually suggests the sequence of and balance between jobs if the work is
to be done efficiently. For example, the frame of a car must be built before doors can be added.
Once the sequence of jobs is determined, the balance between jobs is established.

Ergonomics

Optimal productivity requires that the physical relationship between the worker and the work be
considered in designing jobs. Ergonomics is the study of how human beings physically interface
with their equipment. The apparatus and other related work product must be modified for ease
of work process.

Environmental Elements

Environmental elements of job design are concerned with ability and availability of potential
employees and their social expectations (Werther & Davis, 1996).

Employee Abilities and Availability

Efficiency considerations must be balanced against the abilities and availability of the people
who are to do the work. The level of technology and the type of work in an organization should
not exceed the abilities of the organization's workforce.

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Social and Cultural Expectations

Job design can also be influenced by workers social and cultural expectations. Working hours,
holidays, religious beliefs, management styles, are some of the factors that must be considered
when designing jobs. Failure to consider these social expectations can create dissatisfaction, low
motivation, low quality of work life and the like.

Behavioral Elements

Jobs cannot be designed by using only the elements that aid efficiency. Instead, job designers
draw heavily on behavioral research to provide a work environment that helps satisfy individual
needs. Any job, according to Scarrpello and Ledvinka (1988) can be described in terms of five
core dimensions. These are:

 Skill variety. The extent to which the job requires a variety of activities, skills, and talents to
carry out the work.

 Task identity. The extent to which the job allows its employees to complete whole tasks
rather than just parts of tasks.

 Task significance. The extent to which the job can be regarded as important to others inside
and outside the organization.

 Autonomy. The extent, to which the job provides freedom to plan, schedules and decides
about work procedures.

 Feedback. The extent to which the job allows its employees to obtain clear and direct
knowledge about how well they perform.

Furthermore, there are factors that play a vital role in job design or redesign. These are:

Technology

Technology has an impact on job design. The type of machines, tools, equipment, and
other work aids, as well as particular work layout and methods, used in producing goods
and/or services tend to act as constraints.

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 Economic Factors

Economic factors also affect job design. If management believes that job redesigning can
improve output and the level of workers satisfaction, it must consider the adequacy of the
firm's other resources. Since job redesign is an expensive undertaking, the management
must carefully balance the benefits of job design or redesign with its costs.

Laws and Government Regulations

Job design or redesign is also affected by government regulations. Management needs to

observe whether or not laws relating to labour, environment and the like are being
violated.

Union Pressure

The philosophy, policy, and strategy of the union can affect Job design or redesign. The
contact between union and management specifies and defines the type of jobs and the
duties and responsibilities of employees. In most cases, unions may perceive job
redesign to be attempts by management to squeeze more work out of the workers without
increasing wages.

Employees' Potential

The abilities, attitudes, and motivation of the organization's workers must be considered
when planning to design or redesign a job. Designing a job that would be far more
complex than the ability level of employees available to do it wouldn't make sense unless
they are willing to be trained or new employees with the necessary capabilities can be
hired (Mondy & Noe, 1990).

Management Philosophy

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 The general organizational policies and strategies can determine the degree to which job
redesign is possible. Top management must be convinced regarding the beneficial
outcomes of the job redesign before it is undertaken.

Techniques of Job Redesign

The major purpose of job design and redesign is to improve employee performance. There are
many methods of enhancing jobs through job design/redesign. The following represent the more
viable techniques of job redesign.

Job Rotation

This technique refers to the movement of employees from one job to another. It is important to
bear in mind that jobs themselves are not actually changed only the employees are rotated. As
Werther and Davis (1990), stated rotation breaks the monotony of highly specialized work by
calling on different skills and abilities. The organization benefits because workers become
competent in several jobs rather than one. Learning and developing new skills,

- helps the worker's self-image

- provides personal growth, and

- makes the worker more valuable to the organization (Werther & Davis, 1996).

On the other hand, according to Chatterjee (1995), job rotation is not without its drawbacks. The
main drawbacks are:

- Apart from costs involved in the movement of personnel, productivity inevitably

drops in the initial phase of a worker's taking on a new job. Also, efficiencies derived
through experience are lost as a result of job rotation and these can be substantial.

- Job rotations also create disruptions. Members of work groups have to adjust to the
new employees as much as he/she to them. The supervisor has to spend more time
answering questions and monitoring the work of the recently rotated employee.

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 - Job rotation is a weak solution to jobs that score low on motivation potential. Critics
point out that this approach involves nothing more than having people performing
several boring and monotonous jobs rather than one.

Job Enlargement

Job enlargement is a technique used to expand the number of related tasks in a job. In other
words, it increases job scope. According to Beard Well and Holden (1999), job enlargement
gives greater variety in job content and thereby helps to relieve monotony in repetitive jobs. For
example, instead of knowing how to operate only one particular machine, a worker is taught to
operate two or even three with the same level of responsibility. Here, through job enlargement,
management can reduces monotony, and increase job satisfaction by creating task variety.

Job Enrichment

Job enrichment is a technique is which employees are given autonomy to set their own work
pace, design their own work methods, participate in making decisions affecting their work units,
and evaluate their accomplishments (Baird, et.al, 1990). It refers to basic changes in the content
of the job and increasing the level of responsibility, autonomy, and control. It is a means of
expanding jobs vertically. Job enrichment, add more planning and control responsibilities.
These additions to the job, in-turn, can lead to increased motivation.

According to Herzberg (1979), job enrichment efforts should be based on the following
principles:

1. Increase job demands: Changing the increase the levels of difficulty and
responsibility of the job.

2. Increase Worker's accountability: Allowing more worker control and authority over
the work, while retaining the manager's ultimate accountability.

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 3. Providing Work Scheduling freedom: Within limits, allowing workers to schedule
their own work.

4. Providing feedback: making timely periodic reports on performance directly to the

worker.

5. Providing New Learning experience: Creating opportunities for new personal

experiences and growth.

The management would make use of job enrichment techniques based on the nature of the job,
and the prevailing environment.

As discussed above, job redesign options also includes job rotation and job enlargement. The
major differences between these two techniques and job enrichment are:

- Job enlargement and job rotation are horizontal expansions while job enrichment is a
vertical expansion.

- Job enlargement and job rotation increase job scope while job enrichment increases
job depth. Job depth is the degree of control or autonomy and individual has over
his/her own work (Baird, et.al, 1990).

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