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Science-NCERT Books Summary- By Ambalika Smiti

Biology
Components of food
 Nutrients: Food component needed by our body
Type of food Nutrient Function Sources
Energy giving Carbohydrate Provides energy Wheat, Rice, Bajra,
food Papaya, Sugarcane. Melon,
Maize
Energy giving Fat  Gives energy (more than Mustard oil, coconut oil,
food carbohydrate) Milk, Ghee, Butter, Cream,
 Not soluble in water Meat
 To build nerves and brain. The
brain is 40% fat.
 To insulate the body.
 To produce sex hormones and
adrenal cortex hormone
 To produce cholesterol (essential
for cell membranes and bile salts,
for example).
 To absorb certain vitamins (A, D,
E, and K).
 To store energy.
Body building Protein Needed for growth and repair of Pulses, egg, fish, paneer,
food body peas, soyabean, milk
Vitamins Protects against disease Fish, oil, Milk, carrot,
lemon
Body prepares Vitamin-D
from sunlight
Minerals Proper growth and good health Iodine: Spinach, Fish,
Needed in small quantity Ginger
Phosphorus: Milk, banana
Iron: Radish, Apple
Calcium: Milk, Egg

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Proteins are used by the body to:

 enable growth, development and repair.
 build structures such as muscles, tissues and organs, including the heart, lungs, digestive
organs.
 enzymes, such as those required for digestion.
 hormones, such as those for the endocrine glands.
 Proteins, therefore, are needed not only for obvious body structures, such as muscles, but
also for the immune and digestive systems, etc.
 Fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E and K. Water-soluble vitamins include vitamins C and B.
 Fibre and water
Dietary Fiber/  Do not provide any nutrient Provided by plant
roughage  Add to food bulk and lubrication products
 Help get rid of undigested food Whole grain, pulses,
 Nutrition for friendly bacteria in the colon. potatoes, fresh fruits and
vegetables
water  Absorb Nutrients From liquids like water,
 Throws out wastes from body as urine and sweat. milk and tea
 Balance Diet: Provides all the nutrients that our body needs, in right quantities, along with
adequate amount of roughage and water.
 Cooking: Make food tastier and help digest easy
 Fat causes obesity

Trans fatty acids (TFAs) or Trans fats

 Most harmful type of fats
 Have much more adverse effects on our body than any other dietary constituent.
 Artificially(largely) , also occurs naturally (in small amount).
 Thus in our diet, these may be present as Artificial TFAs and/ or Natural TFAs.
 Artificial TFAs are formed when hydrogen is made to react with the oil to produce fats resembling
pure ghee/butter.
 In our diet the major sources of artificial TFAs are the partially hydrogenated vegetable oils
(PHVO)/Vanaspati/ margarine while the natural TFAs are present in meats and dairy products,
though in small amounts.
 PHVO is rather high in TFA, all food items prepared, baked or fried by using Vanaspati/Margarine
contain TFA. These include: Cakes and Pastries; Patty, Rusk; Fried Aloo Chaat , AlooTikki (prepared
in ‘Vanaspati’), Sweets (Mithai) (prepared in ‘Vanaspati’), Cookies / biscuits, French fries, Potato
chips, Bhatura, Samosa, Parantha, etc.
Harmful effects
 Higher risk of heart disease than saturated fats. While saturated fats raise total cholesterol levels,
TFAs not only raise total cholesterol levels but also reduce the good cholesterol (HDL), which helps
to protect us against heart disease.
 Higher risk of developing obesity, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, metabolic syndrome, insulin
resistance, infertility, certain types of cancers and can also lead to compromised fetal
development causing harm to the yet to be born baby.

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Why they are increasingly being used?

 TFA containing oils can be preserved longer, they give the food the desired shape and texture and
can easily substitute ‘Pure ghee’.
 These are comparatively far lower in cost and thus add to profit/saving.

Deficiency disease
 Deficiency of protein causes stunted
growth, swelling of face, discolouration of
hair, skin diseases and diarrhoea.
 If food is deficient in both carbohydrates
and proteins, the growth may stop
completely, a person becomes very lean,
thin and so weak that he/she may not even
be able to move.

Testing for nutrient presence in food

Fat  Oily patch when rubbed on paper
Carbohydrates  Mainly in form of starch and sugar
 Iodine solution for testing starch
 Turns blue-black
Protein  The biuret test used for detecting the presence of peptide bonds and hence
protein.
 Copper sulphate and caustic soda solution
 Turns violet
Cell-Structure and Function
 Discovery of cell- Robert Hook
 Cell: Basic structural units of living organisms.
 The egg of a hen represents a single cell and is big enough to be seen by the unaided eye
 Egg of ostrich is the largest cell
 Pseudopodia in amoeba help capture food and movement, it changes shape.
 A white blood cell (WBC) in human blood is a single cell which can change its shape.
 The size of the cells has no relation with the size of the body of the animal or plant but related to its
function.

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Cell structure and function

Parts of cell
Cell membrane/Plasma  Covering around cell found in both plants and animals
membrane  Separates cells from one another and also the cell from the surrounding
medium.
 Is porous and allows the movement of substances or materials both
inward and outward.
Cell wall  Additional covering around cell membrane in plants only, gives shape
and rigidity to cell
 required by the plants for protection against variations in temperature,
high wind speed, atmospheric moisture
 Bacteria cell also has cell wall
Cytoplasm Jelly like substance between cell membrane and nucleus
Nucleus  spherical and located in the centre of the cell.
 Separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane called the nuclear
membrane.
 Nuclear membrane is porous and allows movement of materials
 Contains nucleolos and chromosome (containing gene)
 Nucleus, in addition to its role in inheritance, acts as control centre of the
activities of the cell.
Vacuoles  Blank looking structure in cytoplasm
 Plant cells have large central vacuole
 Vacuoles in animal cells are much smaller and larger in number
Plastids  Small colored bodies in the cytoplasm
 Green pigment: Chlorophyll
 Found only in plants
Cell Organelles  Various other components called cell organelles are present in cytoplasm
like mitochondria, ribosome, golgi bodies.
 Mitochondria - Powerhouse of cell
 Lysosome: Suicidal bag
 The entire content of a living cell is known as protoplasm. It includes the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
Protoplasm is called the living substance of the cell
 The cells having nuclear material without nuclear membrane are termed prokaryotic cells.(pro :
primitive; karyon: nucleus). Examples are bacteria and blue green algae.
 Cells having well organised nucleus with a nuclear membrane are designated as eukaryotic cells. All
organisms other than bacteria and blue green algae are called eukaryotes.

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Movement of Human Body

Joints: Places where two parts of body are joined like elbow, shoulder, neck
We can move only those parts where bones meet.
 Ball and socket joint: Allows movement in all direction. Eg: At arm and shoulder
 Pivotal Joint: Neck and head, allows forward and backward movement, cylindrical bone rotates in a
ring
 Hinge Joint: open and closing of door, allows move back and forth, eg. At elbow
 Fixed Joint: Bones cannot move at these joints.
Skeleton: Framework of body made of bones, gives shape to body
Earthworm does not have bones
Birds: Their bones are hallow and light. The bones of the hind limbs are typical for walking and perching.
The bony parts of the forelimbs are modified as wings. The shoulder bones are strong. The breastbones
are modified to hold muscles of flight which are used to move the wings up and down
Fish: Streamlined body - body tapering at both ends, front and back are smaller than the middle portion.
This shape allows water to flow easily and let fish move easily in water

Nutrients in Plants
 Carbon dioxide taken from air through pores in leaves called stomata. Pores surrounded by guard
cells
 Chrolophyll : Green pigment in leaves, helps leaves capture energy from sunlight
 Pitcher plant: pitcher is modified leaf
 Population Interaction "Environment"
Nutrition in Animals
Human Digestive System
Nutrition is a complex process involving: (i) ingestion, (ii) digestion, (iii) absorption, (iv) assimilation and
(v)egestion.
Alimentary Canal (Digestive tract) Compartments
(1) the buccal cavity, (2) foodpipe or oesophagus, (3) stomach, (4) small intestine, (5) large intestine
ending in the rectum and (6) the anus.
 The digestive tract and the associated glands together constitute the digestive system.
 Saliva (salivary amylase) breaks down the starch into sugars
 The pancreas and salivary gland make amylase (alpha amylase) to hydrolyse dietary starch into
disaccharides and trisaccharides which are converted by other enzymes to glucose to supply the body with
energy. (Starch -> Disachharides/Trischharides -> Glucose)
 Food is pushed down by movement of the wall of the foodpipe
 The stomach is a thick-walled bag. Its shape is like a flattened U and it is the widest part of alimentry
canal.
 The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucous, hydrochloric acid and digestive juices.
 The mucous protects the lining of the stomach.
 The acid kills many bacteria that enter along with the food and makes the medium in the stomach
acidic and helps the digestive juices to act.
 The digestive juices break down the proteins into simpler substances.
 Small Intestine: highly coiled and is about 7.5 metres long.
 Villi: Finger-like outgrowths in small intestine, help in food absorption
 Liver: Reddish brown, largest gland, lies in upper part of abdomen on right side.

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 Secrets bile juice that is stored in a sac called gall bladder

 Bile help in digestion of fat
 Pancreas- below stomach, pancreatic juice acts on carbohydrates, fats and proteins and changes them in
simpler form.
 Carbohydrates get broken into simple sugars such as glucose,
 Fats into fatty acids and glycerol,
 Proteins into amino acids
 The digested food is absorbed in the blood vessels from the small intestine.
 The absorbed substances are transported to different parts of the body
 Large Intestine: wider and shorter than small intestine, absorb water and some salts from the
undigested food material.
 The undigested and unabsorbed residues are expelled out of the body as faeces through the anus
 Digestion of carbohydrates, like starch, begins in the buccal cavity.
 The digestion of protein starts in the stomach.
 The bile secreted from the liver, the pancreatic juice from the pancreas and the digestive juice from the
intestinal wall complete the digestion of all components of food in the small intestine.
 Amoeba ingests its food with the help of its false feet or pseudopodia. The food is digested in the food
vacuole

Digestion in grass eating animals

 The grazing animals like cows, buffaloes and deer are known as ruminants.
 Ruminants have a large sac-like structure called rumen between the oesophagus and the small
intestine. The cellulose of the food is digested here by the action of certain bacteria which are not
present in humans.
 Cud- Partially digested food in rumen
 Cud returns to mouth and then chewed by animal- this is called rumination.
 Humans cannot digest cellulose

Respiration
 Cellular respiration: Breakdown of food in the cell with the release of energy
 Aerobic respiration: Breakdown of glucose occurs with the use of oxygen
 Anaerobic respiration: Food can also be broken down, without using oxygen.
 In the absence of oxygen, glucose breaks down into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
 Yeasts respire anaerobically and yield alcohol, therefore, used to make wine and beer.
 Our muscle cells can also respire anaerobically, but only for a short time, when there is a
temporary deficiency of oxygen. During heavy exercise, fast running, cycling, walking for many
hours or heavy weight lifting, the demand for energy is high. But the supply of oxygen to produce
the energy is limited. Then anaerobic respiration takes places in the muscle cells to fulfil the
demand of energy when muscle cells respire anaerobically. The partial breakdown of glucose
produces lactic acid. The accumulation of lactic acid causes muscle cramps.
 Inhalation: Ribs move up and outwards and diaphragm moves down. This movement increases space in
our chest cavity and air rushes into the lungs. The lungs get filled with air.
 Exhalation: Ribs move down and inwards, while diaphragm moves up to its former position. This reduces
the size of the chest cavity and air is pushed out of the lungs
 Breathing in Insects: through spiracles (opening on the sides to take air in) and trachea for exchange of
air. Tracheal system found only in insects and not in other animals.
 Frog and earthworm can breathe through their skins.

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 Fish respires through gills.

Transportation in Plants and Animals

Circulatory system
Blood: Transports substances like digested food from the small intestine to the other parts of the body.
It carries oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body. It also transports waste for removal from the
body.

Blood components
Plasma
Red Blood Cell (RBC)
White Blood Cell (WBC)
Platelets
The fluid part of the blood
Contain a red pigment called haemoglobin. Haemoglobin
binds with oxygen and transports it to all the parts of the body
Fight germs that may enter our body
Helps in blood clotting

Blood vessels
Arteries (carry blood from heart)
Carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all
parts of the body.
Since the blood flow is rapid and at a high
pressure, the arteries have thick elastic walls.
Pulmonary artery
carries blood from the heart, so it is called an
artery and not a vein. It carries carbon
dioxide-rich blood to the lungs.
Vein (Carry blood to heart)
Carry carbon dioxide-rich blood from all parts of the
body back to the heart.
The veins have thin walls. Valves present in veins allow
blood to flow only towards the heart.
Pulmonary vein
carries oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the heart.

Heart
Four chambers- Upper chambers are called the atria and the two lower chambers are called the
ventricles
 Sponges and Hydra do not possess any circulatory system. The water in which they live brings food and
oxygen as it enters their bodies. The water carries away waste materials and carbon dioxide as it moves
out. Thus, these animals do not need a circulatory fluid like the blood.

Excretory system in Humans

 Kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra form the excretory system.
 An adult human being normally passes about 1-1.8 L of urine in 24 hours. The urine consists of 95%
water, 2.5% urea and 2.5% other waste products.

Transportation in Plants
 Xylem: Water and minerals from root to plant parts
 Phloem: Food from leaf to plant parts

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Reproduction in Plants
Flowers are the reproductive part of plant, Flowers may have male, female or both parts.
Types:
Sexual Asexual
From seeds Without production of seeds.
Asexual reproduction types
 Vegetative reproduction : Asexual, produced from vegetative parts like stem, leaves, buds
Roots of some plants can also give rise to new plants such as sweet potato and dahlia
 Budding: Eg yeast, buds produced and separated
3. Fragmentation: Eg: Algae breaks up into fragments.
4. Spore Formation: in Mosses, ferns

Sexual Reproduction
 Stamens are male reproductive part and Pistil female reproductive part.
 The flowers which contain either only the pistil or only the stamens are called unisexual flowers. Eg:
Corn, papaya and cucumber
 The flowers which contain both stamens and pistil are called bisexual flowers. Eg: mustard, rose and
petunia
 Anther contains pollen grains which produce male gametes.
 A Pistil consists of stigma, style and ovary. The ovary contains one or more ovules. The female gamete or
the egg is formed in an ovule
 Pollination: Transfer of pollen from the anther(stamen) to the stigma (pistil) of a flower. This takes place
in the angiosperms, the flower bearing plants.
 If the pollen lands on the stigma of the same flower it is called self-pollination
 Cross-pollination: When the pollen of a flower lands on the stigma of another flower of the same plant,
or that of a different plant of the same kind.
 Fertilization: In sexual reproduction a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote. This fusion is
called fertilization. From zygote embryo is formed.

Adolescence
 Secretion of sweat glands and sebaceous glands (oil glands) increases at puberty causes acne
 Female hormone or estrogen makes the breasts develop.
 Hormones for pituitary gland stimulates testes and ovaries to release testosterone (by testes in male)
and estrogen (by ovary in female). These causes secondary male and female sexual characteristics .
 Pituitary gland is endocrine and is attached to the brain.
 All human beings have23 pairs of chromosomes in the nuclei of their cells. Two chromosomes out of
these are the sex chromosomes, named X and Y.
 A female has two X chromosomes, while a male has one X and one Y chromosome
 The gametes (egg and sperm) have only one set of chromosomes.
 The unfertilised egg always has one X chromosome, but sperms are of two kinds X and Y
 X +X gives female child while X+Y gives male child. Thus father determine the sex of baby.
Endocrine Glands: Release hormones directly into the bloodstream, also termed ductless glands.
Some Endocrine glands

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Gland Hormone Function

Pituitary Growth Thyroid and adrenals secrete their hormones when they receive
gland hormone orders from the pituitary through its hormones. Pituitary also secretes
growth hormone which is necessary for the normal growth of a person
Testes Testosterone Sex hormone in male
Ovary Estrogen Sex hormone in female
Thyroid Thyroxine Deficiency causes goiter
Pancreas Insulin Deficiency causes diabetes
Adrenal Adrenalin A hormone that maintain correct salt balance in body
Adrenalin: helps body to adjust to stress
Metamorphosis (sudden change when growing up like tadpole to frog) in insects is controlled by insect
hormones. In a frog, it is controlled by thyroxine, the hormone
produced by thyroid. Thyroxine production requires the presence of iodine in water. If the water in
which the tadpoles are growing does not contain sufficient iodine, the tadpoles cannot become adults
 Milk is balanced food in itself
 Iron builds blood and iron-rich food such as leafy vegetables, jaggery, meat, citrus, Indian gooseberry
(amla)are good for adolescents

Reproduction in Animals
Mode of reproduction
Sexual Asexual
Male and female gametes fuse to form zygote No zygote formation
Sexual Reproduction
Male reproductive organs-
 Testes, Two sperm ducts, Penis
 Testes produce the male gametes called sperms
Female reproductive organs
 Pair of ovaries, oviducts (fallopian tubes) and the uterus
 Ovary produces female gamete called ova(egg)
Process of reproduction
 Fertilization: Fusion of sperm and ovum forming zygote
Fertilization which takes place inside the female body is called internal fertilization. Internal fertilization
occurs in many animals including humans, cows, dogs and hens.
 IVF or in vitro fertilization(fertilization outside the body). Placed inside the uterus after 1 week.
Babies born are called test tube baby.
 Fusion of a male and a female gamete takes place outside the body of the female is called external
fertilization. Common in aquatic animals such as fish, starfish, etc.
 Embryo formation
 Foetus - when all part of body can be identified.
 The animals which give birth to young ones are called viviparous animals.
 Those animals which lay eggs are called oviparous animals
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 The transformation of the larva into an adult through drastic changes is called metamorphosis.
Asexual Reproduction
 Single parent is involved
 Budding: Individual develops from buds, eg: Hydra
 Binary Fission: Breaking into two parts. Eg: amoeba
First mammal to be cloned- Dolly sheep by Ian Wilmot

Appendix
India’s only double coconut tree artificially pollinated
 It bears the largest seed known to science.
 Pollinated by scientists of the Botanical Survey of India (BSI).
Double coconut tree ( Lodoicea maldivica ):
 It is one of the rare and globally threatened species of palm. The tree was planted at the botanical
garden in 1894.
 The tree took almost a hundred years to mature.
 The Double Coconut tree not only bears the largest seed known to science — weighing around 25
kg — but this unique species is also the longest surviving palm which can live for as long as 1,000
years.
 The tree also bears the largest leaf among palms and one leaf can thatch a small hut.
 This species of palm is diecious (where male and female flowers are borne on different plants).
 The palm tree is located in the large palm house of the Botanical Garden which has the largest
collection of palms in South East Asia with around 110 palm species.
 This rare tree can be found in only two of the 115 Seychelles islands and is also called Coco de Mer
(coconut of the sea).

Chemistry
Fibre/Fabric
Fibres: Thin strands of thread
Fabric made of yarns, yarn made of fibres
Cotton, for example, is a polymer called cellulose. Cellulose is made up of a large number of glucose
units
Fibre types
Natural Man-made/artificial/synthetic
Obtained from plants and animals Produced chemically
Animal fibre: Silk, Wool, Nylon, Polyster, acrylic
Plants fibre: Cotton, jute
Wool is obtained from the fleece of sheep or goat. It is also obtained from the hair of rabbits, yak and
camels.Silk fibre is drawn from the cocoon of silkworm
Cotton
 Grown in black soil and warm climate
 Ginning: Separating cotton fiber from seeds by combing
Jute
 Obtained fromstem of Jute plants
 Grown in Bihar, West Bengal and Assam

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 Harvested at flowering stage

Animal Fibres
Wool  Sheep, goat, yak, camel, rabbit hair bearing animals
 Hair traps of a lot of air and air being poor conductor of heat keeps warm
 Yak wool is common in Tibet and Ladakh
 Angora wool obtained from Angora rabbit
 Mohair from Angora goat
 Cashmere from Cashmere goat
 Pashmina shawl from Pashmina goat (Kashmir)
 Camelids- Llama and Alpaca found in S America also yield wool.
Silk  Sericulture: rearing of silkworm for obtaining silk
 Silk worm life history: egg ->Caterpillar/silkworm ->Pupa (with silk protein covering called
cocoon) ->moth
 Silk yarn is as strong as steel, obtained from cocoon
 Types of silk: Tassar, Mulberry(most common), Mooga, Kosa, Eri
 China leads in silk production
Steps involved in processing fibre into wool
 Shearing: Shaving the animals, done in summer
 Scouring: Washing the sheared wool to remove dirt
 Sorting: different textures
 Picking small flluffy fibres called burrs, scoured again and then drawn into fibers
 Dying in colors
 Straightened, combed, and rolled into yarn
Anthrax disease:
 Caused by Bacillus Anthracis bacteria
 Also called Sorter's disease in wool industry.
 It affects animals more than men through contact with infected animals, wool, meat, etc.
 Spread by spores.
Use in Bioterrorism:
 Used in biological warfare by agents and by terrorists to intentionally infect.
 It was spread in US through a mail. It killed 5 people and made 22 sick.

Synthetic Fibre
Rayon/Artificial  Obtained from anatural source, woodpulp.
Silk  Cheaper than silk, can be dyed, mixed with cotton to make bed sheets or mixed
with wool to make carpets
Nylon  Using coal, water and air
 First fully synthetic fibre
 Strong, elastic and light , lustrous and easy to wash
 Used in manufacture of rope, parachute, belt,
 Nylon thread is stronger than steel
Polyster  Does not get wrinkled easily, remain crisp and easy to wash
 Terylene is a popular polyster
 PET(Polyethylene terephthalate) is also a polyster used in making bottles,

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utensils, films, wire.

 Polyster- Poly+ester (repeating unit of ester)
 Ester are chemicals which gives fruit their smell.
 Fabrics like polycot polywool etc are made by mixing polyster with cotton and
wool respectively.
Acrylic  Artificial polymer (polyacrylonitrile) fibre, resembles wool
Disadvantage of synthetic fiber
 They melt on heating hence not suitable while working in kitchen as it catches fire easily and stick to
body
 All the synthetic fibres are prepared by a number of processes using raw materials of petroleum origin,
called petrochemicals.

Palstics
 Are also polymer- can be linear or cross linked
 Can be molded in all shape and sizes, recycled, reused, coloured, melted, rolled into sheets or made into
wires
 Polythene(Poly+ethene) is an example of a plastic. It is used for making commonly used polythene bags.
Types
Thermoplastic Thermosetting
 Get deformed easily on  When moulded once, cannot be softened by heating
heating, bent easily  Eg: bakelite and melamine.
Eg. Polythene, polypropylene  Bakelite is a poor conductor of heat and electricity, used for
and PVC making electrical switches, handles of utensils, etc.
 Used in making toys, combs,  Melamine- a versatile material. Resists fire and can tolerate heat
containers better than other plastics. Used for making floor tiles,
kitchenware and fabrics which resist fire. Uniform of fireman
have coating of melamine
Characteristics of plastic
 light weight, lower price, good strength and easy handling and durable
 Non-reactive: do not react with water and air, do not corrode
 Poor conductor
Teflon is a special plastic on which oil and water do not stick. It is used for nonstick coating on
cookwares

Polypropylene
 High-grade plastic and a by-product in crude oil refining.
 A thermoplastic polymer
 Used in packing and labeling, textiles, stationery, furniture, vehicles.
 Would greatly help in production of lighter vehicles that would offer enhanced mileage.
 Does not get damaged by water exposure because its moisture absorption is very low.
 Mangalore Refineries and Petrochemicals Ltd. (MRPL) recently dispatched its first consignment of
polypropylene pearls — Mangpol — manufactured at its recently commissioned polypropylene
unit, to one of its dealers, Petrotech Products in Bengaluru.
 MRPL is the only refinery in South India producing polypropylene. Indian Oil Corporation’s
Panipat refinery is the other major producer of polypropylene in the country.
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Acid Bases and Salts

Acids
 has sour taste, eg: curd, lemon, juice,
 Indicators are used test the substance as acid or base.
 Natural indicators: Turmeric, litmus, china rose petals (Gudhal)

Bases
 bitter in taste and feel soapy

 Litmus-Natural indicator obtained from lichens, when added acidic solution turns red, when basic
solution added turns blue. Available as red and blue litmus paper
 Lime water is made from mixing lime (chuna) in water
 China rose indicator turns acidic solutions to dark pink (magenta) and basic solutions to green
 Neutralisation: Reaction between an acid and a base, Salt and water are produced with the evolution of
heat

Neutralisation in everyday life:

 Indigestion: Too much acid causes indigestion, antacid such as milk of magnesia containing magnesium
hydroxide taken to neutralise.
 Ant Bite: Formic acid in ant bite neutralised by rubbing moist baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate)
or calamine solution, which contains zinc carbonate
 Soil treatment
 Too acidic soil is treated with bases like quick lime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide)
 If the soil is basic, organic matter is added to it. Organic matter releases acids.

Metals and Non-metals

 Metals: hard, lustrous, malleable, ductile, sonorous and good conductors of heat and electricity

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 Non-metals: which does not possess above quality.

 Metals like sodium and potassium are soft and can be cut with a knife.
 Mercury is the only metal which is found in liquid state at room temperature

Chemical properties of metals and non-metals

Properties Metals Non-metals
Oxidation Metal oxide are basic in nature Generally oxides of non-metals are
acidic in nature
Reaction with Reacts with water Do not react with water though they
water may be very reactive in air.
Reaction with React with acids and produce hydrogen Generally do not react with acids
acid gas that burns with a ‘pop’ sound.
Reaction with Metals react with sodium hydroxide to Reactions of non-metals with bases
bases produce hydrogen gas. are complex.
 Sodium metal is very reactive. It reacts vigorously with oxygen and water. A lot of heat is
generated in the reaction. It is, therefore, stored in kerosene.
 Phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal. It catches fire if exposed to air, hence kept inside water.
 More reactive metal can replace a less reactive metal, but a less reactive one cannot replace a
more reactive metal.

Mercury (Hg)
 Common names: Quicksilver, hydrargyrum.
 Only metal in liquid form at std. temperature and pressure.
 The only other element that is liquid under these conditions is bromine.
 Occurrence: Cinnabar (mercuric sulfide).
 Mercury poisoning can result from exposure to water-soluble forms of mercury (such as mercuric
chloride or methylmercury), inhalation of mercury vapor, or eating seafood contaminated with
mercury.
 Usages: In thermometers, barometers, manometers, sphygmomanometers, float valves, mercury
switches, mercury relays, fluorescent lamps and other devices.
 It is also used in lighting: electricity passed through mercury vapor in a fluorescent lamp produces
short-wave ultraviolet light which then causes the phosphor in the tube to fluoresce, making
visible light.
 Mercury is a very rare element in the Earth’s crust. It accounts for only about only 0.08 parts per
million (ppm).
 It is a relativelypoor conductor of heat. Most metals are excellent thermal conductors.
Effects of Mercury on Health:
 Exposure to mercury – even small amounts – may cause serious health problems, and is a threat to
the development of the child in uterus and early in life.
 Toxic effects on the nervous, digestive and immune systems, and on lungs, kidneys, skin and eyes.
 Considered by WHO as one of the top ten chemicals or groups of chemicals of major public health
concern.
 People are mainly exposed to methylmercury, an organic compound, when they eat fish and
shellfish that contain the compound.

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 Disease caused: Minamata Disease

 International Convention: Minamata Convention on Mercury

Coal and Petroleum

Coal
 Coal is processed in industry to get some useful products such as coke, coal tar and coal gas
Coke  Tough, porous and black, almost pure carbon
 Used in manufacture of steel
Coal  Black, thick liquid, with unpleasant smell
Tar  Used as starting materials for manufacturing various substances used in everyday
life and in industry, like synthetic dyes, drugs, explosives, perfumes, plastics, paints,
photographic materials, roofing materials, naphthalene balls , etc.
Coal  obtained during the processing of coal to get coke
Gas  Used as fuel

Petroleum
 Petrol and diesel are obtained from a natural resource called petroleum
 Petroleum was formed from organisms living in the sea.
 The world’s first oil well was drilled in Pennsylvania, USA, in 1859. Eight years later, in 1867, oil was
stuck at Makum in Assam. In India, oil is found in Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai High and in the river
basins of Godavari and Krishna
 Petroleum is a dark oily liquid. It has an unpleasant odour. It is a mixture of various constituents
such as petroleum gas, petrol, diesel, lubricating oil, paraffin wax, etc.
 The process of separating the various constituents fractions of petroleum is known as refining
 ‘Petrochemicals’ are used in the manufacture of detergents, fibres (polyester, nylon, acrylic etc.),
polythene and other man-made plastics.
 Hydrogen gas obtained from natural gas, is used in the production of fertilisers (urea).
 Due to its great commercial importance, petroleum is also called ‘black gold.

Natural Gas
 Easy to transport through pipes
 Stored under high pressure in form of CNG
 Used in fuel, less polluting, cleaner
 Used as a starting material for the manufacture of a number of chemicals and fertilisers.
 India has vast reserves of natural gas found in Tripura, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and in the Krishna
Godavari delta

Changes- Physical and Chemical

Physical changes-Shape, size, colour and state of a substance are called its physical properties.
 A change in which a substance undergoes a change in its physical properties is called a physical
change.
 Generally reversible.
 No new substance is formed.

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 Crystallization: Some substances can be obtained in pure state from their solutions by crystallization

Chemical Change:A change in which one or more new substances are formed.
 Rusting: Presence of both water and oxygen required. Salt water makes rusting faster.
Method to prevent rusting:
 Galvanization: Depositing a layer of zinc on iron. It prevents iron pipes from rusting.
 Alloy: Stainless steel is made by mixing iron with carbon and metals like chromium, nickel and
manganese to prevent rusting. Stainless steels are iron alloys with a minimum of 10.5% chromium.
Other alloying elements are added to enhance their structure and properties such as formability,
strength and cryogenic toughness. These include Metals such as:
o Nickel
o Molybdenum
o Titanium
o Copper
 Non-metal additions are also made, the main ones being:
o Carbon
o Nitrogen
 Painting on the metals

Combustion
 A chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give off heat
 Matchstick contains antimony trisulphide and potassium chlorate. Rubbing surface has red
phosphorus
Why water control fire?
 Water cools the combustible material so that its temperature is brought below its ignition
temperature.
 This prevents the fire from spreading. Water vapors also surround the combustible material,
helping in cutting off the supply of air. So, the fire is extinguished.
 Three essential requirement for combustion: Fuel, Oxygen, Ignition temperature,
 Fire extinguisher: Contains carbon dioxide, mostly used for electrical fire. CO2 being heavier than
oxygen, covers the fire like a blanket. Since the contact between the fuel and oxygen is cut off, the fire is
controlled. The added advantage of CO2 s that in most cases it does not harm the electrical equipment.
Caron dioxide is stored in compressed liquid form, so when released expands enormously providing
cooling effect too.
 Dry powder of chemicals like sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) or potassium bicarbonate also used in
extinguishing fire . Near the fire, these chemicals give off CO2.
 Flames: The substances which vaporize during burning, give flame. Eg: kerosene, wax
 Charcoal does not vaporize and hence does not give flame
 Outermost part of candle flame is hottest. Blue flame is hotter than red.
 Fuels in decreasing order of calorific value: Hydrogen > LPG>
CNG=Methane>Diesel=Kerosene=Petrol>Biogas>coal>wood>cow dung
 CNG - Mostly methane
 LPG - Propane + Butane

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Physics
Forces and Pressure
Application of force changes state of motion or shape of object
Contact Forces: Force applied in contact with object
Muscular forces
Friction: Always acts on all the moving objects and its direction is always opposite to the
direction of motion.
Non-contact Forces: Force applied without being in contact with object
Magnetic force
Electrostatic force
Gravitational force
Liquids exert pressure on the walls of the container and equal pressure at same depth.

Friction
Factors affecting friction
Surface smoothness: rough surface more friction. Friction is caused by interlocking of
irregularities on the surfaces
Pressure increases friction
Also depends on the shape of the object and the nature of the fluid.
Substances which reduce friction are called lubricant

Rolling friction
Wheels reduce friction
Rolling friction is applied when two body rolls
Rolling friction < sliding friction <static friction
Rolling friction provided by ball bearing
The frictional force exerted by fluids is also called drag.

Motion
Rectilinear motion Straight line
Circular In circle
Periodic Repeating

Uniform Motion Non uniform motion

Speed does not vary Varying speed

Magnet
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The materials which get attracted towards magnet are magnetic – for example, iron, nickel
or cobalt, Lodestone. The materials which are not attracted towards a magnet are non-magnetic
All magnets have two poles whatever their shape may be- North and South
Magnets lose their properties if they are heated, hammered or dropped from some height.
Magnets become weak if they are not stored properly
Magnets should be kept in pairs with their unlike poles on the same side. They must be
separated by a piece of wood while two pieces of soft iron should be placed across their ends
Keep magnets away from cassettes, mobiles, television, music system, compact disks (CDs)
and the computer. Very strong magnet can destroy the hard drive inside a PC.
When electric current passes through a wire, it behaves like a magnet

Electric Current
Water is good conductor of electricity as it contains minerals, but distilled water is free of salts and
hence bad conductor of electricity.
Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of acids, bases and salts.
Electroplating: The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another material by means of
electricity.
Chromium has a shiny appearance. It does not corrode. It resists scratches. However, chromium is
expensive and it may not be economical to make the whole object out of chromium
Zinc coating (galvanization) on iron to prevent corrosion
The electrical charges generated by rubbing are static. They do not move by themselves. When
charges move, they constitute an electric current.
Electroscope: used to determine if and object is charged or not.
Similar charges repel, opposite charges attract each other
The process of transferring of charge from a charged object to the earth is called earthing. Earthing is
provided in buildings to protect us from electrical shocks due to any leakage of electrical current.
The Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, has developed knowhow to make quake proof
houses.
When a glass rod is rubbed with a piece of silk cloth the glass rod becomes positively charged while
the silk cloth has a negative charge.

Light
Law of reflection
Law of reflection
r=i (angle of reflection=angle of incidence)
the incident ray, the normal at the point of
incidence and the reflected ray all lie in the
same plane.

Regular Reflection: Parallel rays reflected by smooth surface are also parallel and produce images.

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Irregular or diffused reflection: All parallel rays reflected from the irregular surface are not parallel.
The objects which emit their own light are known as luminous objects.
The objects which shine in the light of other objects are called illuminated objects.
Periscopes are used in submarines, tanks and also by soldiers in bunkers to see things outside.
This idea of number of images formed by mirrors placed at an angle to one another is used in a
kaleidoscope to make numerous beautiful patterns. Designers of wallpapers and fabrics and artists use
kaleidoscopes to get ideas for new patterns.

Structure of Human eye

Outer coat of the eye is white, tough so that it can
protect the interior of the eye from accidents.
Cornea:Transparent front part
Iris: Behind the cornea a dark muscular structure. It
gives distinctive colour to eye. It controls the
amount of light entering into the eye.
Pupil: Small opening in Iris. The size of the pupil is
controlled by the iris.
Lens: Behind the pupil thicker in the center.
Retina: The lens focuses light on the back of the eye,
on a layer called retina. Retina contains several
nerve cells. Sensations felt by the nerve cells are
then transmitted to the brain through the optic
nerve.
There are two kinds of cells in retina
cones, which are sensitive to bright light and sense color.
rods, which are sensitive to dim light.
Blind Spot: At the junction of the optic nerve and the retina, there are no sensory cells, so no vision is
possible at that spot.
The impression of an image does not vanish immediately from the retina. It persists there for about
1/16th of a second. So, if still images of a moving object are flashed on the eye at a rate faster than 16
per second, then the eye perceives this object as moving. Movies are made to move across the eye
usually at the rate of 24 pictures per second (faster than 16 per second).
Eyelids protect eyes from any object entering the eye. Eyelids also shut out light when not required.
The most comfortable distance at which one can read with a normal eye is about 25 cm.
Sometimes, particularly in old age, eyesight becomes foggy. It is due to the eye lens becoming
cloudy. When it happens, persons are said to have cataract.
Vitamin A good for eyes: Raw carrots, broccoli and green vegetables (such as spinach) and cod liver oil
are rich in vitamin A. Eggs, milk, curd, cheese, butter and fruits such as papaya and mango are also rich
in vitamin A

Mirror

Plane Mirror
In a plane mirror the image is formed behind the mirror. It is virtual, erect, of the same size
and is at the same distance from the mirror as the object is in front of it.
Lateral inversion takes place i.e. left appears right and vice versa

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Curved Mirror
If the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is concave, it is called a concave mirror.
If the reflecting surface is convex, then it is a convex mirror

Real/Virtual Image
If image formed on a screen is called a realimage where rays actually meet.
Image formed by a plane mirror could not be obtained on a screen. Such an image is called a
virtual image.

Usage of concave mirror

Can form a real and inverted image. When the object is placed very close to the mirror, the image
formed is virtual, erect and magnified
By dentists to see an enlarged image
reflectors of torches, headlights of cars and scooters, shaving mirror, magnifying glass

Usage of convex mirror

Image formed by a convex mirror is erect, virtual and smaller in size than the object.
side view mirror in vehicles
Convex mirrors can form images of objects spread over a large area. So, these help the drivers to see
the traffic behind them.

Lense
Convex Lens
Convex Lenses (converging): thicker in the middle than at the edges.
Converges (bends inward) the light generally falling on it and called converging lens.
Convex lens used in magnifying glass
Concave Lens
Concave lenses (diverging): Thinner in the middle than at the edges
Diverges (bends outward) the light and is called a diverging lens
Image formed by concave lens is always virtual, erect and smaller than the object.

Prism splits sunlight in seven colors. Splitting of light in seven colors is called dispersion. Rainbow is
natural dispersion by water droplets

Heat
Temperature: Measurement of hotness
Clinical thermometer contains mercury, kink present in the thermometer prevents mercury level from
falling on its own
Normal Body temperature is 370C
Temperature of body ranges from 35-420C
Maximum and Minimum thermometer to measure weather temperature.
Heat flow from hotter to colder objects
Heat transfer processes
Conduction Generally in solid
Convection Generally in liquid

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Radiation Transfer without any medium such as from sun to earth

Note: The water and air are poor conductors of heat
Dark-colored objects absorb radiation better than the light-coloured objects. That is the reason we
feel more comfortable in light-coloured clothes in the summer
Woolen clothes keep us warm during winter. It is so because wool is a poor conductor of heat and it
has air trapped in between the fibres.

SOUND
In human sound is produced by the voice box or the larynx. It is at the upper end of the windpipe. Two
vocal cords, are stretched across the voice box or larynx in such a way that it leaves a narrow slit
between them for the passage of air. When the lungs force air through the slit, the vocal cords vibrate,
producing sound.
Propagation of sound: Sound need a medium to travel. Sound cannot travel in vacuum
Speed of sound more in solid than liquid
Amplitude and frequency are two important properties of sound
Loudness of sound is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the vibration producing the
sound
Above 80 db , loudness of sound is harmful
The frequency determines the shrillness or pitch of a sound.
Audible range for human ear 20 Hz- 20,000 Hz
Dogs can hear sound with frequency > 20,000 Hz
Ultrasound works at more than 20,000 Hz

Properties of Material
Appearance
Lustre: Metal, eg: iron, copper, magnesium, gold
Hardness
Soft: Compressed or scratched easily, cotton, sponge
Hard: Difficult to scratch, iron
3. Soluble/Insoluble:
Soluble : Completely disappear or dissolved
Insoluble: DO not mix or dissolve
Water can dissolve large number of substances, so called universal solvent.
Sink/Float: heavier sink, lighter float
4. Transparency:
a. Opaque: Through which we cannot see, eg: wood, metal container
b. Transparent: Things through which we can see, glass air, water
c. Translucent: Through which can be seen but not very clearly

Separation of materials
1. Handpicking for slightly larger impurities
2. Threshing to separate grains from stalks
3. Winnowing for separating components from mixture. Separating heavier and lighter elements by
wind or blowing air
4. Sieving for separating finer particles from bigger ones
5. Sedimentation: Heavier component settles after water is added

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6. Decantation: Water along with dust is removed

7. Filtration: Using strainer to separate liquid from solid
8. Evaporation: Conversion of water into vapor. Used in common slat preparation
9. Condensation: Conversion of water vapor into liquid form
 Materials expands on heating and contracts on cooling.

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HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
 The integumentary system is the organ system that protects the body from damage, comprising
the skin and its appendages (including hair, scales, feathers, and nails).
 Functions: Serve to waterproof, cushion, and protect the deeper tissues; Excrete wastes, and
regulate temperature; is the attachment site for sensory receptors to detect pain, sensation, pressure, and
temperature; Vitamin D synthesis.
 The human skin is composed of a minimum of 3 major layers of tissue:
 Epidermis: Thin, tough, outer layer made up of epithelial cells & it does not contain blood vessels.
 Stratum corneum is the outermost portion of the epidermis, prevents most bacteria, viruses, and other
foreign substances from entering the body
 Melanocytes produce the pigment melanin, function is to filter out ultraviolet radiation from sunlight
 Langerhans cells are part of the skin's immune system which helps detect foreign substances and defend
the body against infection.
 Dermis: Thick layer of fibrous and elastic that gives the skin its flexibility and strength. Contains nerve
endings, sweat glands and oil (sebaceous) glands, hair follicles, and blood vessels
 Sweat glands produce sweat in
response to heat and stress.
 The sebaceous glands secrete
sebum into hair follicles. Sebum is
oil that keeps the skin moist and
soft and acts as a barrier against
foreign substances.
 The blood vessels of the dermis
provide nutrients to the skin and
help regulate body temperature.
 Hypodermis: Its purpose is to
attach the skin to underlying bone
and muscle as well as supplying it
with blood vessels and nerves.
 Fat Layer helps insulate the body from heat and cold, provides protective padding, and serves as an energy
storage area.
 Botox treatment: It targets Epidermis layer of skin. Botox is a toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium
botulinum.
 Small, diluted amounts can be directly injected into specific muscles causing controlled weakening of the
muscles. Botox blocks signals from the nerves to the muscles. The injected muscles can no longer contract,
which causes the wrinkles to relax and soften.

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

 Steps in Digestion: Ingestion, Digestion (Mechanical and Chemical), Absorption, Elimination.
 Parts of Digestive system: The digestive system consists of the alimentary canal (Salivary glands, Pharynx,
Esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine ending in the rectum and anus) and accessory
digestive organs (liver, gallbladder, and pancreas).
 Food moves from one organ to the next through muscle action called peristalsis
 The Salivary glands in the mouth produces Saliva which contains an enzyme amylase that digest the starch
from food into smaller molecules

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  The Stomach has three mechanical tasks. To store the swallowed food, to mix up the food, liquid, and
digestive juice produced by the stomach and to empty its contents slowly into the small intestine.
 The liver is the largest gland of the body. It secretes bile which helps the body absorb fat
 The pancreas produces enzymes that help digest proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. It also makes a
substance that neutralizes stomach acid.
 Small intestine has 3 divisions such as duodenum, jejunum and ileum. The inner wall of the small intestine
is covered with millions of microscopic, finger-like projections called villi. The villi are the vehicles through
which nutrients can be absorbed into the body.
 The large intestine secretes no enzyme and plays only a minor role in the absorption of nutrients. The
three divisions of large intestine are Caecum, Colon and Rectum. The rectum is where feces are stored until
they leave the digestive system through the anus as a bowel movement.
 Disorders and Diseases of Digestive System: Gastrointestinal infections can be caused by viruses, by
bacteria such as Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, or E. coli, Hepatitis, a condition with many different
causes, is when the liver becomes inflamed and may lose its ability to function.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 The Respiratory system is the anatomical system of an organism used for respiration.
 Parts of the Upper Respiratory Tract: Mouth, nose & nasal cavity: The nostrils (also called nares) act as
the air intake; called cilia protect the nasal passageways and other parts of the respiratory tract.
 Pharynx: Pharynx is part of the digestive system as well as the respiratory system because it carries both
food and air. Larynx: This is also known as the voice box as it is where sound is generated. It also helps
protect the trachea by producing a strong cough reflex if any solid objects pass the epiglottis
 Trachea (Wind Pipe): It
carries air from the throat
into the lungs. The inner
membrane of the trachea is
covered with cilia
 Bronchi: The trachea divides
into two tubes called
bronchi, one entering the left
and one entering the right
lung.
 Bronchioles: Tertiary bronchi
continue to divide and
become bronchioles, very
narrow tubes, less than 1
millimeter in diameter.
 Alveoli: Individual hollow
cavities contained within
alveolar sacs. Alveoli have
very thin walls which permit
the exchange of
gases Oxygen and Carbon
Dioxide. Thorax or the chest
cavity is the airtight box that
houses the bronchial tree,
lungs, heart, and other structures.

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  Diaphragm: located below the lungs. It is a large, dome-shaped muscle that contracts rhythmically and
continually, and most of the time, involuntarily. The tidal volume is the volume of air that is inhaled or
exhaled in a single such breath.
 Breathing is a constant process where you breathe in and out constantly throughout the day. Respiration is
a process where the body breaks down the oxygen, so that the cells in the body can use it.
 The process of Respiration: In a process called diffusion, oxygen moves from the alveoli to the blood
through the capillaries (tiny blood vessels) lining the alveolar walls. Blood contains Hemoglobin – a
specialized protein that binds to oxygen in the lungs so that the oxygen can be transported to the rest of
the body.
 Carbon dioxide, which is produced during the process of diffusion, moves out of these cells into the
capillaries, where most of it is dissolved in the plasma of the blood.
 Asthma: Asthma is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that causes airways to contract, tighten and
narrow. Often triggered by irritants in the air such as cigarette smoke, asthma flares.
 Smoking has two fold effects on respiration; it may irritate the cells lining the respiratory tract. Long term
effects include diseases like emphysema [over inflation of air sacs/alveoli] or fibrosis [excess of fibrous
connective tissue] of which the earlier is much common.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
 The circulatory system is responsible for the transport of water and dissolved materials throughout the
body, including oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste.
 The structure of Circulatory System, The heart has four chambers: Right Atrium, Left Atrium, Right
Ventricle, and Left Ventricle.
 The bottom part of the heart is divided into two chambers called the right and left ventricles, which pump
blood out of the heart.
 The upper part of the heart is made
up of the other two chambers of the
heart, the right and left atria.
 Arteries carry blood away from the
heart. They are the thickest blood
vessels, with muscular walls that
contract to keep the blood moving
away from the heart and through the
body
 Two coronary arteries provide oxygen
and nourishment to the muscles of
the heart.
 Veins carry blood back to the heart;
waste products such as carbon
dioxide are also removed by the
capillaries.
 The working of Circulatory system: One complete heartbeat makes up a cardiac cycle, which consists of two
phases: In the first phase, the ventricles contract sending blood into the pulmonary and systemic
circulation then the ventricles relax and fill with blood from the atria, which makes up the second phase of
the cardiac cycle.
 The normal heart beat is 70-72 per minute in males and 78-82 per minute in females. The heartbeat of a
child is more than that of an adult. I.e. 140/min.
 The sinoatrial or SA node, a small area of tissue in the wall of the right atrium, sends out an electrical signal
to start the contracting of the heart muscle.

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  These electrical impulses cause the atria to contract first, and then travel down to the atrioventricular or
AV node. In the systemic circulation, blood travels out of the left ventricle, to the aorta, to every organ and
tissue in the body, and then back to the right atrium.
 In the pulmonary circulation, blood low in oxygen but high in carbon dioxide is pumped out the right
ventricle into the pulmonary artery, which branches off in two directions.
 Coronary Circulation: The coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscle.
 Blood: The blood transports life-supporting food and oxygen to every cell of the body and removes their
waste products
 Blood has two main constituents. The cells, or corpuscles, comprise about 45 percent, and the liquid
portion, or plasma, in which the cells are suspended, comprises 55 percent
 The blood cells comprise three main types: Red blood cells, or Erythrocytes, White blood cells,
or leukocytes, Platelets, or thrombocytes
 Diseases of the Blood, Anemia: Anemia is a deficiency of hemoglobin in the blood. It can be caused by
blood loss, abnormal destruction of the red cells, and inadequate red cell formation by the bone marrow.
 Leukemia: A great increase in abnormal leukocytes may occur for unknown reasons, resulting in the
diseases known as the leukemia’s
 Heart Diseases: Atherosclerosis is a disorder of large and medium-sized arteries, such as the large coronary
arteries that supply the heart muscle with oxygen. The disorder is characterized by a buildup of fatty
deposits, called plaques, on the inner walls of arteries.
 Vein Diseases: The most important peripheral vascular disease of the veins is thrombophlebitis or phlebitis.
This disorder involves the formation of a blood clot (or clots) in large veins, usually in the leg or pelvis.
 Hypertension: High blood pressure is often secondary to hardening of the arteries. As the arteries lose
their elasticity, the heart has to beat harder to force the blood through. The result is high blood pressure.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The nervous system is a network of specialized cells called neurons that coordinate the actions and
transmit signals between different parts of its body.
 The central nervous system of vertebrates contains the brain, spinal cord, and retina.
 The peripheral nervous system consists of sensory neurons, clusters of neurons called ganglia,
and nerves connecting them to each other and to the central nervous system.
 Neuron: The neuron is the functional unit of the nervous system.
 All neurons have three parts: Dendrites receive information from another cell and transmit the message to
the cell body. The axon conducts messages away from the cell body
 Three types of neurons occur: Sensory neurons carry messages from sensory receptors to the central
nervous system. Motor neurons transmit messages from the central nervous system to the muscles (or to
glands). Inter neurons are found only in the central nervous system where they connect neuron to neuron.
Schwann cells serve as supportive, nutritive, and service facilities for neurons
 Node of Ranvier: serves as points along the neuron for generating a signal.
 The junction between a nerve cell and another cell is called a synapse.
 Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell across a
synapse
 Brain: The Forebrain: The forebrain is the largest and most complex part of the brain. It consists of the
cerebrum. The cerebrum contains the information that essentially makes us who we are: our intelligence,
memory, speech, ability to feel etc.

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  The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cortex in the
inner part of the forebrain sits the thalamus,
hypothalamus, and pituitary gland.
 The thalamus carries messages from the
sensory organs like the eyes, ears, nose, and
fingers to the cortex. The hypothalamus
controls the pulse, thirst, appetite, sleep
patterns, and other processes in our bodies
that happen automatically.
 The Midbrain: The midbrain, located
underneath the middle of the forebrain, acts
as a master coordinator for all the messages
going in and out of the brain to the spinal
cord
 The Hindbrain: The hindbrain sits
underneath the back end of the cerebrum,
and it consists of the cerebellum, Pons, and
medulla.
 The brainstem takes in, sends out, and coordinates all of the brain's messages. It also controls many of the
body's automatic functions, like breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, swallowing, digestion, and blinking.
 The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for sudden stress.
 The parasympathetic nervous system helps the digestive tract move along so our bodies can efficiently take
in nutrients from the food we eat.
 disease and Huntington's disease, are due to imbalances of neurotransmitters Parkinson's is due to a
dopamine deficiency
 Alzheimer's disease is associated with protein plaques in the brain
 Problems of Nervous System, Brain tumors: Benign tumors usually grow in one place and may be curable
through surgery.
 A malignant tumor is cancerous and more likely to grow rapidly and spread.
 Meningitis and encephalitis: These are infections of the brain and spinal cord that are usually caused by
bacteria or viruses. Meningitis is an inflammation of the coverings of the brain and spinal cord, and
encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain tissue.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 Based on their location, three types of muscles are identified:
(i) Skeletal (ii) Visceral (iii) Cardiac
 Muscle is a specialized tissue of mesodermal origin. About 40-50 per cent of the body weight of a human
adult is contributed by muscles.
 Each myofibril has alternate dark and light bands on it. A detailed study of the myofibril has established
that the striated appearance is due to the distribution pattern of two important proteins – Actin and
Myosin.
 Utilizing the energy from ATP hydrolysis, the myosin head now binds to the exposed active sites on actin to
form a cross bridge.
 The myosin, releasing the ADP and Pi goes back to its relaxed state. A new ATP binds and the cross-bridge is
broken. The ATP is again hydrolyzed by the myosin head and the cycle of cross bridge formation and
breakage is repeated causing further sliding.

Disorders of muscular system:

5
 Myasthenia gravis:
 Auto immune disorder affecting neuromuscular junction leading to fatigue, weakening and
paralysis of skeletal muscle.

SKELETAL SYSTEM AND ITS FUNCTIONS, JOINTS

 Skeletal system consists of a framework of bones and a few cartilages. This system has a significant role in
movement shown by the body. Bone and cartilage are specialized connective tissues.
 Axial Skeleton:
 Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones distributed along the main axis of the body. The skull, vertebral column,
sternum and ribs constitute axial skeleton.
Skull: The skull is composed of two sets of bones – cranial and facial, that totals to 22 bones. Cranial bones
are 8 in number.

Vertebral Column: Our vertebral column is formed by 26 serially arranged units called vertebrae and is
dorsally placed. It extends from the base of the skull and constitutes the main framework of the trunk.

Rib Cage: There are 12 pairs of ribs. Each rib is a thin flat bone connected dorsally to the vertebral column
and ventrally to the sternum. It has two articulation surfaces on its dorsal end and is hence called
bicephalic.

Appendicular Skeleton: The bones of the limbs along with

their girdles constitute the appendicular skeleton. Each limb is
made of 30 bones. The bones of the hand (fore limb) are
humerus, radius and ulna, carpals (wrist bones – 8 in number),
metacarpals (palm bones – 5 in number) and phalanges (digits
– 14 in number).

Joints: Joints are essential for all types of movements

involving the bony parts of the body. Locomotory movements
are no exception to this. Joints are points of contact between
bones, or between bones and cartilages.

Fibrous Joints: Fibrous joints do not allow any movement.

This type of joint is shown by the flat skull bones which fuse
end-to-end with the help of dense fibrous connective tissues in the form of sutures, to form the cranium.

Synovial Joints: Synovial joints are characterized by the presence of a fluid filled synovial cavity between
the articulating surfaces of the two bones. Such an arrangement allows considerable movement.

Cartilaginous Joints: In cartilaginous joints, the bones involved are joined together with the help of
cartilages.

Arthritis: Inflammation of joints.

Osteoporosis: Age-related disorder characterized by decreased bone mass and increased chances of
fractures. Decreased levels of estrogen is a common cause.

Gout: Inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid crystals.

6
 UPSC NOTES

HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND NUTRITION

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 Glands & Hormones: Our body produces its own chemicals and uses them to control certain functions, and the
main system that coordinates these chemicals is called the endocrine system
 A gland is a group of cells that produces and secretes, or gives off, chemicals. A gland selects and removes
materials from the blood, processes them, and secretes the finished chemical product for use somewhere in the
body
 Exocrine glands, such as the sweat and salivary glands, release secretions in the skin or inside of the mouth.
Endocrine glands, on the other hand, release more than 20 major hormones directly into the bloodstream where
they can be transported to cells in other parts of the body
 2 Important Endocrine diseases Diabetes: Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic diseases in which a person
has high blood sugar, either because the body does not produce enough insulin, or because cells do not respond
to the insulin that is produced.
 Type 1 diabetes: results from the body's failure to produce insulin, and requires the person to inject insulin
 Type 2 diabetes: results from insulin resistance, a condition in which cells fail to use insulin properly, sometimes
combined with an absolute insulin deficiency
 Growth Disorders: If the body produces too much growth hormone (GH), gigantism or acromegaly (gigantism in
adults) can occur; too little growth hormone results a condition called growth hormone deficiency,
 Osteoporosis: is a condition in which bones become fragile and more likely to break.
 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): PCOS is a condition associated with symptoms of infrequent or irregular
menstruation
 Thyroid Disorders: Thyroid hormones, hormones produced by the thyroid gland, influence nearly all of the
body's symptoms. Thyroid problems include hyperthyroidism (too much thyroid hormone), hypothyroidism
 Cushing's syndrome: Cortisol is a hormone that helps the body perform a number of important functions
including converting fat into energy, maintaining immune system function, and responding to stress
 Addison's disease: Addison's disease occurs when the adrenal glands, which are located at the top of each
kidney, produce an insufficient amount of steroid hormones despite the presence of an adequate amount of
ACTH, the hormone that triggers the adrenal glands to release steroids.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 Animals’ reproductive systems can be divided into the internal reproductive organs and the external
genitalia
 Gametes are reproductive cells that unite during sexual reproduction to form a new cell called a zygote.
When the haploid male and female gametes unite in a process called fertilization, they form what is called
a zygote
 In the male, testes produce sperm, and in the female, ovaries make eggs
 Hermaphroditism is when one organism has both sexes. Earthworms and garden snails always have both
male and female organs
 Parthenogenesis is the ability of an unfertilized egg to develop and hatch.
 There are two major mechanisms of fertilization. In external fertilization, used by many aquatic
invertebrates, eggs and sperm are simultaneously shed into the water, and the sperm swim through the
water to fertilize the egg.
 In internal fertilization, the eggs are fertilized within the reproductive tract of the female, and then are
covered with eggshells and/or remain within the body of the female during their development.
 Oviparous organisms: like chickens and turtles, lay eggs that continue to develop after being laid, and
hatch later.
 Viviparous organisms like humans and kangaroos, are live-bearing. The developing young spend
proportionately more time within the female’s reproductive
tract,
 Ovoviviparous organisms like guppies, garter snakes, and
Madagascar hissing roaches, have eggs (with shells) that
hatch as they are laid, making it look like live birth.
 Male Reproductive System: Sperm are produced in
the testes located in the scrotum. From there, sperm are
transferred to the epididymis, coiled tubules also found
within the scrotum that store sperm and are the site of their
final maturation
 The ends of the vasa deferentia, behind and slightly under
the bladder, are called the ejaculatory ducts. The seminal
vesicles are also located behind the bladder.
 Their secretions are about 60% of the total volume of
the semen and contain mucus, amino acids, fructose as the
main energy source for the sperm, and prostaglandins to
stimulate female uterine contractions to move the semen
up into the uterus
 The prostate is the largest of the accessory glands and puts its secretions directly into the urethra
secretions are alkaline to buffer any residual urine, which tends to be acidic, and the acidity of the woman’s
vagina.
 The bulbourethral glands or Cowper’s glands: this fluid may serve as a lubricant for inserting the penis into
the vagina,
 Female Reproductive System: Eggs are produced in the ovaries. Within the ovary, a follicle consists of one
precursor egg cell surrounded by special cells to nourish and protect it. Due to the stimulation of follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) one egg per cycle matures and is released from its ovary.
 Ovulation is the release of a mature egg due to the stimulation of Luteinizing Hormone (LH), which then
stimulates the remaining follicle cells to turn into a corpus luteum which then secretes progesterone to
prepare the uterus for possible implantation
 Each egg is released into the abdominal cavity near
the opening of one of the oviducts or Fallopian tubes.
 The vagina is a relatively-thin-walled chamber. It
serves as a repository for sperm (it is where the penis
is inserted), and also serves as the birth canal
 The cervix secretes mucus, the consistency of which
varies with the stages in her menstrual cycle
 Cervical cancer: It is one of the most common
cancers in women is caused due to Human Pappiloma
Virus (HPV). Pap smear test is a common and quick
method to check cervical cancer.
 Problems with Reproduction System: Testicular
cancer: It occurs when cells in the testicle divide abnormally and form a tumor.
 Inguinal hernia: When a portion of the intestines pushes through an abnormal opening or weakening of
the abdominal wall and into the groin or scrotum, it is known as an inguinal hernia.
 Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease caused by the bacteria Treponema pallidum. Antibiotics,
usually penicillin, are used to treat Syphilis.
 FOOD AND NUTRITION

 Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are the organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
which constitute sugars (Starch, cellulose, glucose etc).
 Simple Carbohydrates are made up of a single basic sugar & provide the sweet taste in our food
 Complex carbohydrates are a combination of different types of sugars. Based on the number of sugars they
are classified as disaccharide, Oligosaccharides, Polysaccharides
 Proteins: Proteins are polymer chains made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds
 Protein is found in all cells of the body and is the major structural component of all cells in the body.
Hormones and enzymes are also formed from amino acids
 Protein deficiency causes Kwashiorkor – a severe under-nourishment condition.
 Fats: Fat molecules are a rich source of energy for the body. Proteins and carbohydrates contain 4 kCal per
gram as opposed to fats which contain 9 kcal per gram.
 Saturated fats: Solid at room temperature. Saturated fats directly raise total and LDL (bad) cholesterol
levels hence are advised to avoid
 Unsaturated fat: Liquid at room temperature.
They are 2 types. Monounsaturated fats which are
found in olives, olive oil, nuts, peanut oil, canola
oil and avocados.
 Trans Fats or Hydrogenated Fats: actually
unsaturated fats, but they can raise total and LDL
(bad) cholesterol levels while also lowering HDL
(good) cholesterol levels
 Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is one of the five
major groups of lipoproteins, which enable
transport of cholesterol within the water-
based bloodstream.
 Vitamins: A vitamin is an organic
compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts
by an organism.
 The two types of vitamins are: water-soluble
vitamins (all the B vitamins and vitamin C) and fat-
soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K). Fat-
soluble vitamins are stored in the liver and fatty tissue of the body, whereas water-soluble vitamins are not
easily stored and excess amounts are flushed out in the urine.
 Essential Minerals: Calcium: Healthy bones and teeth, muscle contraction, assists in blood clotting, oxygen
transport, cellular secretion of fluids and enzyme activity.
 Copper: Acts as a catalyst to store and release iron to help form hemoglobin.
 Iodine: Needed by the thyroid hormone and influences nutrient metabolism, nerve and muscle function,
nail, hair, skin and tooth condition, and physical and mental development
 Iron: Necessary for red blood cell formation and required for transport of oxygen throughout the body
 Phosphorous: Works with calcium to develop and maintain strong bones and teeth.
 Balanced Diet: Food is anything solid or liquid that has a chemical composition which enables it, when
swallowed to do one or more of the following:
 Provide the body with the material from which it can produce heat, or any form of energy.
 Provide material to allow growth, maintenance, repair or reproduction to proceed.
 Supply substances, which normally regulate the production of energy or the process of growth, repair or
reproduction.
 The body mass index (BMI), or Quetelet index, is a tool that helps one to measure the amount of body fat
one has based on height and weight. BMI does not actually measure the percentage of body fat.
 Malnutrition: Malnutrition essentially means “bad nourishment”. malnutrition is characterized by
inadequate or excess intake of protein, energy, and micronutrients such as vitamins, and the frequent
infections and disorders that result Severe forms of malnutrition include marasmus, cretinism and
irreversible brain damage due to iodine deficiency; and blindness and increased risk of infection and death
from vitamin A deficiency

Malnutrition: 20% of world population

Asia : 70% Africa: 26% Latin America and Caribbean : 4%
 Anaemia occurs primarily due to iron deficiency and is caused by undernutrition and poor dietary intake of
iron
Weekly Iron and Folic Supplementation program (WIFS): Implementation: rural and urban areas
The scheme will cover: 12 crore adolescents
(3.2 crore anemic girls, 2 crore anemic boys).
Funding: National Rural Health Mission.
 The cause Individual nutritional status depends on the interaction between food that is eaten, the overall
state of health and the physical environment
HUNGAMA (hunger and malnutrition) report: 2011
I. 112 rural districts of India, covering nearly 20% of Indian children.
II. Of the 112 districts surveyed, 100 were selected from the bottom of a child development district
index developed for UNICEF India in 2009, referred to as the 100 Focus Districts in this report.
III. 40%: underweight, 60%: stunted (their height is much lower than the median height-for-age of
the reference population).
IV. The 100 Focus Districts are located across Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan
and Uttar Pradesh.
V. Children from Muslim or SC/ST households generally had worse nutrition indicators.
VI. The prevalence of underweight in children born with a weight below 2.5 kg is 50 per cent, while
that among children born with a weight above 2.5 kg is 34 per cent.

 Food Additives: Food additives are non-nutritive substances added deliberately to any food product in
small amounts to improve its color, texture, taste, flavor, consistency and shelf life
 Bulking agents: Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food without
affecting its nutritional value
 Emulsifiers: Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an emulsion, as in mayonnaise, ice
cream, and homogenized milk.
 Preservatives: Preservatives prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due to fungi, bacteria and other
microorganisms
 Benzoates (such as sodium benzoate, benzoic acid): beverages, jams, pickled products, salads, cheeses,
meats and margarines.
 Nitrites (such as sodium nitrite): Packaged meats. They also impart a pink, fresh hue to cured meat
 Sulphites (such as sulphur dioxide): dried fruits, wines (particularly red wines) and fruit juices and in many
other food products.
 Sorbates (such as sodium sorbate, potassium sorbate): breads, cheeses, bakery products etc.
 Sweeteners: Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep
the food energy (calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects for diabetes mellitus and tooth
decay and diarrhea.
 The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006: The Indian Parliament has passed the Food Safety and Standards
Act, 2006 that overrides all other food related laws. It will specifically repeal eight laws:
 The Act establishes a new national regulatory body, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, to
develop science based standards for food and to regulate and monitor the manufacture, processing,
storage, distribution, sale and import of food so as to ensure the availability of safe and wholesome food
for human consumption
 Food Security: The concept of food security is defined as including both physical and economic access to
food that meets people's dietary needs as well as their food preferences.
PROGRAMME OBJECTIVES
National development council’s -National food Rice: 10 m tons
security mission: 11th plan Wheat: 8 m tons
Pulses: 2 m tons
Implemented by department of agriculture and
cooperation in 17 states
Food safety and standards act: 2006 I. To develop science based standards for food
II. To regulate and monitor the manufacture,
processing, storage, distribution, sale and import of
food
III. To ensure the availability of safe and wholesome
food for human consumption
 Food access: having sufficient resources to obtain appropriate foods for a nutritious diet.
 Food use: appropriate use based on knowledge of basic nutrition and care, as well as adequate water and
sanitation.
 Food security is a complex sustainable development issue, linked to health through malnutrition, but also
to sustainable economic development, environment, and trade.
 Scope of the Problem: Chronic food deficits affect about 792 million people in the world (FAO 2000),
including 20% of the population in developing countries.
 More than 70% of children with protein-energy malnutrition live in Asia, 26% live in Africa, and 4% in Latin
America and the Caribbean
 Interventions: Interventions that contribute to preventing malnutrition include :
 Improved water supply, sanitation and hygiene, Health education for a healthy diet.
 Improved access, by the poor, to adequate amounts of healthy food, Ensuring that industrial and
agricultural development do not result in increased malnutrition
 Nutritional Security: WHO considers household food and nutrition security as a basic human right.
 Ensuring food and nutrition security is a challenge for India, given its huge population and high levels of
poverty and malnutrition.
 Economic access to food by about a fourth of the population living below the poverty line is problematic,
despite impressive economic growth in the recent years.

Occupational lifestyle diseases: Survey by ASSOCHAM (associated chamber of commerce and industry)
I. 68% of working women afflicted with lifestyle disorders like obesity, depression, chronic
backache, diabetes and hypertension.
II. 10% of adults suffer with hypertension.
III. 3/100 suffers with stroke.
IV. In corporate employees 36% of sample population suffer with obesity, 21% with
depression, 12% with blood pressure and 8% with diabetes
 UPSC NOTES

Biotechnology

Biotechnology is defined as any technique that uses living organisms or their products to make or
modify a product to improve plants and animals or to develop microorganisms for specific uses.

To put in other words

Species A / Organism A Species B / Organism B

Scenario 1: Best of A into Species/Organism B

Scenario 2: Best of B into A

Scenario 3: Best of Both A and B

Scenario 4: Best of A and B and also others

The above scenarios typically show that biotech is basically aimed at bringing in best of something
into best of something else.

Earlier decades, when there was absence of technological superiority, still the desired features and
desired characteristics were got with the use of techniques like Selective Breeding.

This give rise to different types of BT. Based on how BT is achieved, we have

a. Non-gene BT
b. Gene BT

Selective breeding is an example of Non-gene BT.

Transgenic and Cisgenic Organisms

If genetic material is taken from different species, then the resultant product is called Transgenic
organisms.

On the other hand, if the genetic material is taken from the same species but from a different
organism, then the resultant product is a Cisgenic organism.

Tools to achieve Biotechnology

1. Genetic Engineering

It is an area of molecular biology that involves manipulating the structure of genetic material
known as DNA.

2. Recombinant DNA

It is a strand of DNA that has been manipulated by scientists. In this the DNA strand is got by
recombining fragments of DNA that has been obtained from others.
Types of Biotechnology

1. Green Biotechnology
2. Red Biotechnology
3. White Biotechnology
4. Blue Biotechnology

Green Biotechnology

It is the field of where Biotech principles are used in agricultural purposes.

BT Cotton

Gene CRY1ac has been taken from soil bacterium Bacillus Thuringiensis, which has been inserted
into cotton. This gene has been identified to produce a toxin that is potent to many pests. Once this
gene is inserted into cotton plants, then we get a cotton plant that fights pests on its own. This
reduces the use of Pesticides.

In India, BT Cotton was used on a wide scale from 2002. Over a decade now, the positives and
negatives are properly documented.

Negatives

 Bollworm pests that the BT toxin is designed to fight, is becoming BT resistant. This is a
major issue, since this scenario was not anticipated and there is virtually no solution as of
now to this issue.
 BT toxin is destroying microflora.
 BT plants are not able to produce BT toxin throughout their lifespan.

BT Brinjal

Brinjal or Eggplant is a plant species native to India. It was started to be cultivated in India 4000
years ago. In India, it is majorly grown in West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
and Uttar Pradesh.
Any altering of this species at the genetic level might result in losing the native species once and for
all.
Is organic food coming under threat from GM crops? Recently, there was a curious case in
Australia, where GM crop grown in a farm “Contaminated” (Genetic Pollution) its
neighbouring farm and this resulted in this farm losing the “Organic Farm” status.
This is not the only way GM food is threatening organic food. GM food companies like
Monsato, Dupont are aggressively undervaluing their bids in order to sell GM seeds to a vast
population, which is seen as a major threat to organic foods.

Genetic Pollution

It is a term used by scientists where there is an uncontrolled gene flow into the Native species,
which results either in altering the native species at the genetic level or in the worst case that native
species is lost forever.
Uses of Green BT
1. Agricultural yield is more in less time.
2. Reducing vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses including drought and excessive
salinity. For ex: Cotton had vulnerability with bollworm pests.
3. Reduces fertilizer use.
Concerns about GM Food
 Going against Nature: GM foods research is considered by many to go against
Nature. And the fear of unknown combined has become a major aversive force for
people to go for GM Foods.
 Food Contamination: There is always a fear of native seeds being contaminated by
GM seeds and that the threat of losing the native seed species completely, is real.
 Pesticide resistant crops could be toxic to non-target organisms and also the threat
of promotion of development of BT resistant insect populations
 Genetic Pollution

Red Biotechnology

It is the field of where Biotech principles are used in medical purposes.

Eg: Gene Therapy, DNA Finger printing, Biogenerics

Biogenerics

Therapeutic products based on genetically engineered or RDNA technology.

For ex: Recombinant Insulin

Gene Therapy

It is one of the revolutionary form of treatment of genetic disorder which is caused by some
of the key gene becoming defective or misplaced. Therefore, gene therapy aims at either
modifying or replacing the defective genes by right sequence of genes.

White Biotechnology

It is the field of where Biotech principles are used in industrial purposes.

Industrial biotech is also used for the preparation of vitamins, antibiotics and alcohols by the
manipulation of microorganism.

For ex: Vaccines are nothing but, disease causing organisms in its weak state.

Blue Biotechnology

It is the field of where Biotech principles are used in marine or fresh water areas.

This field concerns with use of marine or fresh water organisms and their derivatives to increase sea
food supply or to harness medicinal products.
 UPSC NOTES

Optics

Optics is the stream that deals with the behaviour and properties of light.

Reflection

It is a phenomenon of change in the path of light without any change in medium.

Laws of Reflection

1. The angle the incident ray makes with normal is equal to the angle that the reflected ray
makes with normal.
2. Incident ray, reflected ray and normal all lie in the same plane.

Types of mirrors

1. Concave mirror
The reflecting surface is towards centre of sphere while outer surface is polished.

Applications:
a. These mirrors are used in opthalmoscope, which reflects light from retina of the eye of
the patient.
b. These are used in search lights
c. These are used in mirrors that are used in saloons.
2. Convex mirror
The reflecting surface is away from the centre of the sphere.

Applications
a. Driver’s mirror uses this type of mirror. But the exact distance of the vehicles are not
known.
b. Used in safety viewers at dangerous corners.

Refraction

It is the phenomenon of bending of light when it moves from one medium to another. There are two
scenarios possible here.

a. When the light passes from optically rarer medium to optically denser medium, the light
bends towards the normal.
b. When the light passes from optically denser medium to optically rarer medium, it bends
away from the normal.

Laws of Refraction

1. Incident ray, Refracted ray and the normal all are in the same plane.
2. Sin(i)/Sin(r) is constant for 2 given media and this constant is called Refractive Index of
second medium w.r.t the first medium.
S&T- Optics
Effect of Refraction

1. Ponds appear shallower

2. Bending of stick in water
3. Apparent shortening of height of person standing in water.
4. Twinkling of stars in sky.

Critical Angle

It is the angle of incidence in denser medium for which the angle of refraction in rarer medium is
90deg.

Total Internal Reflection

This is a special case of refraction, where light from denser medium travelling to rarer medium is
incident at an angle greater than critical angle such that the angle of refraction in rarer medium is
90deg.

Conditions for TIR to occur

1. Denser to Rarer medium.

2. Angle of incidence greater than critical angle.
 UPSC NOTES

Modulation

It is defined as the process by which some characteristic of a signal carrier is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous values of the modulation (information) signal.

For example, if Amplitude of the carrier signal is varied w.r.t to information signal it is termed as
Amplitude Modulation. And if Frequency is altered it is known as Frequency Modulation.

Need for Modulation

 Practicality of length of antenna. L=λ/4. Since a carrier of high frequency is being used, it
eliminates the requirement to have very high antenna.
Where λ is the wavelength of the wave used.
 Remove interference (noise). The modulation process is carried out by using a very high
frequency carrier wave. This ensures the noise is removed to a very large extent.
 Transmitting process will become easy, since the information signal is converted to a format
that is easy to transmit.

Types of Modulation

Modulation

Continuous
Pulse Modulation
Modulation

* Amplitude Modulation (AM) * Pulse Amplitude Modulation

* Frequency Modulation (FM) * Pulse Position Modulation

Electromagnetic Spectrum

It is defined as the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. Electro-Magnetic

waves are waves in which both electric and magnetic fields vary simultaneously.

EM waves usually is used in applications like Spectroscopy. But it also finds application in
communication technologies.

EM waves are Transverse waves. Waves can be classified as Transverse or Longitudinal waves.
Transverse waves are those where in the particles in the medium vibrate in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of waves. On the other hand, Longitudinal waves
are those where particles in the medium vibrate in the same direction as that of the direction of
propagation of waves.

EM waves are Non-mechanical waves. Waves which does not require medium for propagation of
are known as Non-mechanical waves.
EM Spectrum

The waves can be arranged in terms of highest frequency or highest wavelength. From highest
frequency to lowest frequency, the EM waves are

 Gamma rays – also known as Gamma Radiation. It is the EM radiation with the highest
frequency. Gamma radiation is ionizing radiation. They are produced by the decay from high
energy states of atomic nuclei (gamma decay). Gamma radiation can be produced artificially
similar to the process of X-ray generation. Gamma rays have frequencies higher than 10
exahertz (>1019). Gamma rays are known to kill cells. They are increasingly used to kill
cancerous cells.
o Ionizing Radiation: It is radiation composed of particles that individually carry
enough energy to liberate an electron from an atom or molecule without raising the
bulk material to ionization temperature.
 X Rays – X-rays were discovered by William Roentgen. He produced these rays by
bombarding electron to an element having high atomic number say Tungsten or Copper.
X-rays can carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds.
Radiography is the use of X-rays to view a non-uniformly composed material such as the
human body. By using the physical properties of the ray an image can be developed which
displays areas of different density and composition.
 Ultraviolet Rays – It is part of EM spectrum where the wavelength is greater than X-rays.
This portion of the spectrum is so named to represent that portion of the spectrum that has
frequencies higher than those the Humans identify as the colour violet.
The ozone layer in the stratosphere is known to block the UV rays from reaching the earth.
There are three types of UV rays
o UV A- Recent evidences link this radiation exposure to changes in structure of DNA.
This is unaffected by ozone and most of it reaches earth surface.
o UV B- Is blocked by ozone.
o UV C- Almost all of it is blocked by either ordinary air or ozone.
 Visible Light – This is the portion of the EM spectrum that is visible to the human eye.
Electro Magnetic radiation in this range of wavelengths is called visible light. The wavelength
range is 400nm-700nm. Newton divided the spectrum into seven colours VIBGYOR (from
highest frequency to lowest frequency).
Nobel Physics Prize 2011 was awarded to Saul Perlmutter, Adam Riess and Brian Schmidt.
This team had proved that the universe is simply not expanding but expanding at a much
faster rate.
They had taken the help of the Redshift phenomena to prove this theory. Redshift happens
when light seen coming from an object that is moving away proportionally increased in
wavelength, or shifted to the red end of the spectrum.
 Infrared – This includes most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room
temperature. These are known as heat waves. Much of the energy from the sun arrives on
Earth in the form of Infrared radiation. Infrared waves help in maintaining earth’s warmth or
average temperature through the greenhouse effect.
 Microwave Radiation – These are EM waves that are produced by Oscillating circuit or a
magnetron. This is used in RADAR applications.
 Radiowaves – This is the region having longest wavelength. The frequency extends from
3kHz to 300 GHz. These waves are used in communication.
Types of EM Spectrum

 Paid Spectrum – This portion of the EM Spectrum corresponds to spectrum that needs to be
purchased or rented/leased. Like the frequency band of 800MHz, 900MHz (used for CDMA
and 2G) in India has to be leased.
 Unpaid Spectrum – This portion of the EM Spectrum corresponds to spectrum that need not
be purchased or rented/leased. This corresponds to frequencies like 2.4GHz in which Wifi
works (in India). Other frequency ranges includes 902-928MHz, 1880-1900MHz, 2483-
2500MHz, 5150-5350MHz and 5725-5775MHz.

Different generations in wireless telephony

 1G-Refers to the first generation of wireless telephone technology. These are analog
telecommunication standards. This differentiates it from 2G which uses digital radio signals.
 2G – This was wireless telephony using digital radio waves. It was this generation that
introduced data services starting with SMS text messages.
 2.5G – It is used to describe 2G systems that have implemented the packet switched domain
in addition to the circuit switched domain. GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) is usually
termed as 2.5G which usually provides data rates of 114Kbps (max).
 2.75G – With the introduction of EGPRS, the data rates got increased to 384Kbps (max). This
technology was also known as EDGE (enhanced data rates for GSM evolution).
 3G – This is a set of standards used for mobile devices and networks that comply with the
International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 specifications provided by the International
Telecommunication Union.
To meet the IMT-2000 specifications, a system is required to provide peak data rates of
atleast 2Mbps. The access technology used is Wideband CDMA whereas the switching used
is either circuit/packet. In India the frequency being used is 2.1GHz.
 4G - This is a set of standards used for mobile devices and networks that comply with the
International Mobile Telecommunications-advanced specifications provided by the
International Telecommunication Union.
To meet the IMT-Advanced specifications, a system is required to provide peak data rates of
100Mbps. Two systems are commercially available that implements 4G. These are the
WiMax and the Long Term Evolution (LTE).

Difference between 3G and 4G

3G 4G
Frequency Band 2.1GHz 2.3GHz
Data Rates Upto 2Mbps 20Mbps and more
Access Technology Wideband CDMA Multicarrier CDMA
Switching Circuit Switching Packet Switching
Policies in India

When India opened its market in 1991, investments started flowing in to various sectors. The
Government of India in 1994 released its first policy on National Telecom.

Salient features of National Telecom Policy -1994

 Private sector was identified as one of the actors in this policy. And accordingly, FDI was
invited to help private companies.
 It was envisaged to make available Phone on demand.
 It was envisaged that all the villages will be connected (by landline) by 1997.
 In urban areas it was planned for 1 PCO for every 500 persons.

Salient features of New Telecom Policy -1999

 Since, now enough connectivity was reached through NTP 1994, it was again emphasized to
provide telephones on demand by 2002.
 Rural teledensity was planned to be increased from 0.4% to 4%.
Teledensity – it is the number of mobile/landline connections for every 100 individuals living
in an area.
 Provide internet to District HQ by 2000.
 Most notably, the revenue generation from Telephony was changed. A new concept of One
time Entry fee was charged and a license fee based on Revenue was initiated.
 Resources for meeting Universal Service Obligation would be through Universal Access
Levy. This was mentioned in the policy itself.
Universal Service Obligation - As per the Indian Telegraph Act 1885 (as amended in 2003
and 2006) Universal Service Obligation is defined as access to telegraph service to people in
rural and remote areas at affordable and reasonable prices.
Apart from the higher capital cost of providing telecom services in rural and remote areas,
these areas also generate lower revenue due to lower population density, low income and
lack of commercial activity. Thus normal market forces alone would not direct the telecom
sector to adequately serve backward and rural areas. Keeping in mind the inadequacy of the
market mechanism to serve rural and inaccessible areas on one hand and the importance of
providing vital telecom connectivity on the other, most countries of the world have put in
place policies to provide Universal Access and Universal Service to ICT.

Addendum to NTP 1999

Government, in the public interest in general and consumer interest in particular and for the
proper conduct of telegraphs and telecommunications services, and also based on
recommendations of TRAI in this regard has decided there shall also be the following categories of
licences for telecommunication services:

i. Unified Licence for Telecommunication Services permitting Licensee to provide all

telecommunication/ telegraph services covering various geographical areas using any
technology;

ii. Licence for Unified Access (Basic and Cellular) Services permitting Licensee to provide Basic
and /or Cellular Services using any technology in a defined service area.
Universal Service Obligation Fund

NTP’99 envisaged that the implementation of USO Obligation for rural/remote areas would be
undertaken by all fixed service providers who shall be reimbursed from the USO Fund. Other
service providers would also be encouraged to participate in USO provision subject to technical
feasibility and would be reimbursed from the funds.
The Universal Service Support Policy came into effect from 01.04.2002. The guidelines for
universal service support policy were issued by DoT and were placed on the DoT
website www.dot.gov.in on 27th March 2002. Subsequently, the Indian Telegraph
(Amendment) Act, 2003 giving statutory status to the Universal Service Obligation Fund (USOF)
was passed by both Houses of Parliament in December 2003. Hence the USOF received the
statutory status in 2003.
The Rules for administration of the Fund known as Indian Telegraph (Amendment) Rules,
2004 were notified on 26.03.2004.

National Telecom Policy 2012

After the devastating effect brought to Indian Telecom industry in the form of 2G scam and the
subsequent quashing of licenses by the SC, the government felt that there has to be an
organised effort to close all open ends.
Also the number of telephone connections, at the end of February 2012, was 943 million, as
compared to 41 million at the end of December 2001. This growth has been fuelled by the
cellular segment (mobile phones) which alone accounted for 911 million connections at the
end of February 2012. The National Telecom Policy 2012 (NTP 2012) is conceived against this
backdrop.

Salient features of the policy

 License Reform – The policy envisages a One Nation / One License across service /
service area. As per the addendum to NTP’99 there are two types of licenses
1. Unified Licence for Telecommunication Services
2. Licence for Unified Access (Basic and Cellular) Services
NTP ’12 plans to remove this distinction.
 NTP ’12 plans to unbundle Spectrum and License.
Spectrum license (where the telecom company is expected to bid for the required
spectrum). On the other hand, the license for the telecom company regards to the
operating license for the company.
 Spectrum Liberalisation: it is planned to use any frequency to provide any technology.
Currently, 2G works in the 900 and 1800 MHz. Whereas 2.1GHZ is used for 3G.
 Broadband on Demand: It is envisaged to achieve BoD by 2015.
 Rural Teledensity is planned to be increased to 70% from current 39% by 2017 and
increase to 100% by 2020.
 UPSC NOTES

Nanotechnology

The term “Nano” comes from Latin word meaning Dwarf. And in scientific community it refers to
1nanometer.

1nm = one millionth of a mm

1nm = one billionth of a mm

The term “Nanotechnology” was used for the first time by Richard Feynman in 1959 in his article
“There is plenty of room left at the bottom”.
The term “Nano science” was first defined by Japan scientist Norio Taniguchi.

Nano Science is a field of science which is concerned with study of atoms, molecules and objects
whose size is on Nano meter scale.

Note: Materials behave differently at nano meter scale than when compared to when they behave
at the normal scale.
For ex: Gold at macro scale is chemically inert but at nanoscale, it behaves as a catalyst.

The reason for this is the change in the fundamental property of matter due to the increased ratio
of surface area to volume which leads to altering the physical, thermal and catalytic properties of
matter.

Approaches to Nano Technology

 Bottom-up
Materials and devices are built from the molecular components which assemble themselves
chemically by principles of molecular recognition.
Eg: Carbon nanotubes built using Graphene.

GRAPHENE: it is a substance composed of pure carbon where the length of carbon bonds is
0.142nm. The atoms in Graphene are arranged in a hexagonal pattern similar to honey comb
structure.

The term Graphene was coined as a combination of graphite and the

suffix “ene” by hans-peter Boehm.
Note: The Nobel prize in Physics for 2010 was given to Andre Geim
and Konstantin Novoselov for groundbreaking experiments
regarding 2D material Graphene.
Graphene conducts electricity faster than silicon. It can also resist temperature
Upto 150 degc. Hence it has become favoritly used in IC’s and PC boards.
Fig: Atomic Structure of Graphene

 Top-down
As the name suggests, nano objects are constructed from larger entities.
Ex: Gold at macro scale is chemically inert. But at nano scale it acts as a catalyst.
Applications of Nanotechnology

1. Nanoparticles
These are tiny particles that have special properties that are used in some areas which has
very high significance.
For eg: Nanoparticles of Titanium dioxide is used in some suntan lotions and cosmetics.
These tiny particles are transparent on skin and can absorb and reflect UV rays.
2. Nano medicine
It is the field of technology where Nano materials and devices are designed for medical
purposes of
 Diagnosis
 Prevention of disease
 Treatment of injury
 Drug delivery
Bioavailability of drug
It is the science of ensuring the presence of drug molecules in the perfect place of the body
with perfect amount of medicine where it will do most good.

Nano Pharmacology
It is the science which involves linking up of fabricated nanomaterials to biologically active
compounds or molecules to be used as probes and drugs to identify and target abnormal
cells.
Nanorobots
Medical nanorobots would circulate freely throughout the body when injected into the
blood stream. These would carry drugs which will be selectively released on coming in
contact with the abnormal cell.
3. Military applications
Bio-medical engineers are trying to develop nano-mechanical olfactory sensors (NOSE) to
detect characteristic substances.
Smart dust may be deployed for stealthy monitoring of a hostile environment.

Potential hazards due to Nanotechnology

Critics of Nanotechnology point the potential toxicity to new class of nano substances that
might alter balance both ecologically and for a person individually.
Scientists term this as Nano Pollution.

NanoPollution
It is the generic term given for all waste generated by nanodevices or during the nano-
material manufacturing process.
Ex: Nanoparticles of Titanium dioxide that is used in sunscreen lotions and cosmetics can get
into food chain and cause ageing of colon cells.

Cadmium selenide nanoparticles can cause cadmium poisoning.

Nanotechnology in India
Department of IT has started the Nanotech development program. A vision group under the
leadership of CNR Rao was setup and entrusted with the task of formulating a National
Nanotechnology Policy.
Government of India also has launched the Nanoscience and Technology initiative. A
program that focuses on overall R&D in Nanotech field so that India can be a major Player in
nanotech in years to come.
 UPSC NOTES

Information Technology

The use of computers for the processing and distribution of information in digital, audio/video and
other forms.

Information science is primarily concerned with acquisition, storage, processing and organisation of
data.

Basic terms used in IT

1. Network
Group of computers interconnected in order to share resources or exchange information.
2. Node
Different terminals which are attached to the network can share files and other resources. In
a computer network, the node is a computer.
3. Server
A system or a program that provides a specific kind of service to client’s software running on
other computers.
This is a dedicated system which helps clients (other computers).
4. Internet
It is a network of networks where in a large number of computers are interconnected and
this interconnection today exists at a global level.
5. Internet Protocol
It is a set of rules to send and receive messages at the internet address level. It is a protocol
by which data is sent from one computer to other on the internet.
6. Transmission Control Protocol
It is a connection oriented protocol used along with IP to send data in the form of message
units after reassembling them into the right order as a complete message at the other end.
7. WWW
It is a World-wide system of interconnected computer files linked to one another on the
internet. It was developed by Tim Berners Lee (present director of WWW consortium).
8. HTTP
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It is a set of rules for computers to retrieve textual data from
remote server.
9. HTTPS
It is a software program designed to scan and analyse the HTML. It is based on secure socket
layer (SSL) which is a cryptographic security measure that protects sensitive data on the
internet.
10. URL (Uniform Resource Locator)
It is a universal naming convention used for locating and accessing resources via the
internet.
11. Malware
These are malicious software in the form of viruses, worms and Trojanhorse.
These softwares have the capability to alter, effect or in extreme cases shutdown the
programs that are running on a computer or on a specific network. The reason that they are
known as virus is that they spread to computers with which they communicate.
 12. Trojan or Trojan horses
These are malicious software that comes disguised as a useful application program and
when opened the Trojan starts executing and destroys the files on the computer.
Cyber Warfare

Cyber espionage has been believed to have started widely from 2007, when a campaign known as
ROCRA began.

STUXNET Virus
It is believed to have been developed by Israel and US and was aimed at crippling Iran’s
infrastructure, especially Iran’s Nuclear Development Infrastructure. The result is that, Iran’s nuclear
development program has been delayed by more than 2 years.

Flame Virus
It is also known as Flamer or Skywiper. It attacks computers that run windows. It was discovered in
2012, by MAHER centre of Iranian national CERT and Kaspersky lab.

Red October Victims

A recent report by Kaspersky lab which initiated a new threat research revealed a large scale cyber
espionage network which it called the “Red October” victims.

The lab mentions that there were a series of attacks against diplomatic, governmental and scientific
research organisations.
The report places India on the 5th position on the most affected list.
Russia was the most affected by these attacks.

It is being seen that the Command and Control infrastructure is being used by various hackers all
over the world.
Command and Control infrastructure is a chain of servers working as proxies and hiding the location
of “Mothership” control server.

Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS): is a situation where in multiple systems submit as many
requests as possible to a single computer or service there by overloading it and preventing it from
servicing legitimate requests.
 UPSC NOTES

Space Research

Space research is scientific studies carried out using scientific equipment in outer space. It includes
the use of space technology for a broad spectrum of research disciplines, including Earth
science, materials science, biology, medicine, and physics. The term includes scientific payloads
everywhere from deep space to low earth orbit. Space science and space exploration involve the
study of outer space itself, which is only part of the broader field of space research.

Orbits can be classified on

 Altitude
 Inclination

Based on Altitude

 Low Earth Orbit (till 2000kms)

 Medium Earth Orbit (2000-36000kms)
 Geo-Synchronous Orbit (36000)
 High Earth Orbit (>36000kms)

Note: All manned missions have taken place in the Low Earth Orbit except the Apollo Program of the
NASA.

Karman Line: It is an imaginary line that separates Earth’s atmosphere from outer space. This line is
at an altitude of 100kms from the Earth’s surface.

Based on Inclination

 Inclined orbit
 Not Inclined orbit

Inclined orbits

 Polar Orbit
An orbit, where the satellites either pass close to or pass over the poles. It is at an inclination
of 90 ° to the equator.
 Polar SunSynchronous Orbit (SSO)
This orbit is at an inclination of 98 ° to the equator. This orbit is at an altitude of 800kms
from Earth’s surface. Remote sensing satellites, Weather satellites, Spy satellites will use this
orbit.

Not inclined orbits

 Ecliptical Orbit
Ecliptic plane is the apparent path of sun on the celestial sphere as viewed from centre of
the Earth.
 Equatorial Orbit
This orbit is parallel to the equator.
S&T- Space Technology
What do you mean by Synchronous orbits?

These are orbits where the satellites have the same orbital period as that of the object being
orbited. For example, Geo-synchronous orbits are orbits where the satellites orbital period is the
same as the Earth’s Rotational period.

Geostationary SunSynchronous
 It is in Geosynchronous orbit  It is in Sun Synchronous orbit
 Altitude is at 36,000km  Altitude is at 800km
 It is a circular orbit  It is an Elliptical orbit
 It is an Equatorial orbit  It is a polar orbit

Satellite systems

The satellite systems can be divided into

 Remote Sensing
 Communication satellites
- Remote sensing satellites are those satellites that are used as weather satellites. These are
placed at an altitude of 800km. They measure EM radiation that is reflected, scattered from
the Earth’s surface. India’s remote sensing satellites are world’s largest constellation of
satellites now consisting of 12 satellites.

Applications of Remote Sensing satellites include,

In Agriculture, it is used for Crop forecasting, movement of locusts, flood warning.

In Resources management, it is used to map forest cover, identify forest fires, mineral mapping,
National wastelands maps are prepared using this data.

In disaster management, it is used to warn about cyclones, floods and tsunami.

In defence, it is used to identify troop movements.

- Communication satellites in India are termed INSAT (Indian National Satellites) series of
satellites.

Latest launch of a communication satellite was the GSAT-10. It carried 12 normal C- band
transponders, 12 extended C-band transponders and 12 Ku-band transponders.

Applications of INSAT

Telecommunication, Television and also Metereology applications.

Transponders: These are devices that receive signals from the ground station, amplify them and
send it back to ground stations.

There are three types of transponders

- S band (2.5Ghz – 2.7Ghz)

- C band (3.9Ghz – 6.24Ghz)
S&T- Space Technology
- Ku band (11Ghz – 14Ghz)

Why equatorial site is preferred for satellite launches?

- For a communication satellite, the satellite is required to be placed in Equatorial belt.

- At the equator, there is considerably less amount of gravity experienced than at any other
places

Challenges in building a Cryogenic engine

 Since very low temperatures are involved, the metals at that temperature becomes brittle
and new welding techniques and new alloys have to be used.
 Liquid Hydrogen and Liquid Oxygen are to be pumped at the right proportion.
 Storing Liquid Oxygen and Liquid Hydrogen, is difficult.
 The fuels as are factory loaded for PSLV launch can’t be done in the case of GSLV launch and
the fuel has to loaded only a couple of hours before the launch.

What do you mean by Specific impulse?

It is defined as the amount of thrust provided (1kg) in 1sec. Liquid Propellants has a higher specific
impulse than most of the solid propellants.

Future launches

SARAL – Satellite for ARgos and ALtikameter

This is a cooperative altimetry technology mission of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
and CNES (Space Agency of France). The ISRO built satellite with payloads modules (AltiKa
altimeter, DORIS, Laser Retroreflector Array (LRA) and ARGOS-3 (Advanced Research and Global
Observation Satellite) data collection system provided CNES will be launched by Indian Polar Satellite
Launch Vehicle rocket into the Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO). PSLV-CA version will be used for this
launch. This satellite was scheduled to be launched in Dec-2012, but now postponed to Feb-2013.

There are 5 other satellites that are scheduled to be launched along with SARAL. These include

Sapphire and Neossat from Canada

Brite and Unibrite from Austria

Aausat from Denmark.