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Guo-Zhao2015 Article WheelNormalGrindingOfHardAndBr
Guo-Zhao2015 Article WheelNormalGrindingOfHardAndBr
DOI 10.1007/s00170-015-6850-7
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Received: 14 October 2014 / Accepted: 27 January 2015 / Published online: 21 February 2015
# Springer-Verlag London 2015
Abstract Microaspherical and freeform optics of hard and surface roughness and high form accuracy in the nanometer
brittle materials have been more and more widely used in range, their optical surface requires to have smaller size and
aerospace, optical system, and digital products with the rapid more complex form in order to realize the miniaturization and
development of science and technology. The wheel normal simplification of these advance optics.
grinding has an important practical significance for the man- To achieve high quality of these microaspherical and
ufacture of these microaspherical and freeform optical sur- freeform surfaces on hard and brittle materials, ultraprecision
faces because not only the interference between grinding grinding gives a promising alternative. With the high wear
wheel and microsurface can be overcome but also the tool resistance and high precise profile of diamond wheels, ultra-
geometry errors can be avoided to transfer into the ground precision grinding can be used efficiently for the direct preci-
surface. In this paper, the kinematics and surface formation sion machining of optical glasses and glass ceramics or the
in wheel normal grinding process were presented firstly. Then, molds prepared of tungsten carbide and ceramic mould inserts
for hard and brittle materials, the maximum uncut chip thick- which are subsequently used in glass hot pressing operation.
ness and ductile/brittle regime have been addressed by analy- In recent years, several grinding techniques for the
sis of grinding mode and calculation of ductile/brittle transi- manufacturing of microaspherical and freeform surface have
tion critical depths. Special attention has been given to the been developed, such as wheel normal grinding [1, 2]. In
condition for generating a ductile mode response on the wheel normal grinding process, the grinding wheel is kept
ground surface in wheel normal grinding process. Finally, normal to the workpiece surface by maintaining perpendicu-
the aspherical surfaces of BK7, ZERODUR, and binderless larity between the rotary B-axis and the point of contact. The
WC were ground by wheel normal grinding. The surface included angle between grinding spindle axis and surface tan-
roughness Ra was 8.5, 6.6, and 7.4 nm, respectively, and the gent is kept constant (usually 45°) over the entire grinding
form error (PV) of BK7 and binderless WC was less than process [1]. Therefore, the tool geometry errors can be
0.3 μm, while that of ZERODUR was less than 0.5 μm. avoided to transfer into the ground surface, resulting to im-
proved grinding accuracy.
Keywords Wheel normal grinding . Hard and brittle material . Due to the advantages of wheel normal grinding, many
Ductile grinding . Surface morphology research results have been reported. Suzuki et al. [3] devel-
oped the wheel normal grinding system for grinding of the
microaspherical surfaces. The grinding wheel axis is 45° in-
1 Introduction clined from the workpiece rotational axis. The wheel was
formed to a precise columnar shape of 0.8 mm in the diameter.
The demand for microaspherical and freeform optics of hard Tohme [4] provided the details of wheel normal grinding pro-
and brittle materials is increasing at a high rate. Besides low tocol and the grinding experiments of aspherical and toric
surface on tungsten carbide. Yamamoto et al. [5] reported a
developed wheel normal grinding method using three linear
B. Guo (*) : Q. Zhao
axes. Guo et al. [6, 7] analyzed the machining errors of wheel
Center for Precision Engineering, School of Mechatronics
Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China normal grinding and implemented the grinding of TiC-based
e-mail: guobing@hit.edu.cn cermet hemisphere couples and binderless WC aspherics.
874 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2015) 79:873–880
Chen et al. [8] presented a compensation approach based on ground surface in wheel normal grinding process. Finally, the
the on-machine measurement for the wheel normal grinding aspherical surfaces of BK7, ZERODUR, and binderless WC
of aspheric molds in order to improve grinding profile accu- were ground by wheel normal grinding, and the ground sur-
racy. Then a series of process technology, such as the criteria face morphology and grinding quality were estimated
for selection of wheel geometry for avoiding the interference, respectively.
wheel setting error, and wheel wear compensation, have been
provided [9]. Despite various research efforts in wheel normal
grinding, the grinding mechanism including the surface for- 2 Surface formation of wheel normal grinding
mation and brittle/ductile transition of hard and brittle mate-
rials in wheel normal grinding is not available in the current The kinematical illustration of wheel normal grinding process
literature. is shown in Fig. 1. In wheel normal grinding, the grinding
In this paper, the kinematics and surface formation in wheel wheel is usually tilted by 45° with respect to the normal direc-
normal grinding process were presented firstly. Then, for the tion of workpiece surface. The grinding point of wheel usually
grinding of hard and brittle materials, the maximum uncut moves along the cross-sectional profile of the workpiece from
chip thickness and ductile/brittle regime have been addressed center to side during the machining process in order to avoid
by analysis of grinding mode and calculation of ductile/brittle the interference between the workpiece and cylindrical wheel.
transition critical depths. Special attention has been given to Thus, the helical envelope traces on the ground surface are
the condition for generating a ductile mode response on the produced by the edge profile of cylindrical wheel, except the
workpiece center area due to the grinding profile of wheel Therefore, the edge radius of 20 μm was adopted in subse-
original position, as shown in Fig .1a. The helical pitch fi is quent experiments.
determined by the grinding parameters: feed rate F and work-
piece spindle speed Nw, which is given by:
3 Ductile grinding conditions in wheel normal grinding
F
fi ¼ ð1Þ process
Nw
Previous research works suggest the existence of a critical
depth of cut dc. It has been known that brittle removal of hard
The residual height hi of helical ground surface can be and brittle materials can be transferred to ductile removal as
expressed as: the maximum uncut chip thickness is less than the critical
grain cutting depth dc in grinding process. The critical depth
1 F
hi ¼ ð2Þ of cut to produce a ductile mode surface on hard and brittle
2 Nw material is derived as [10]:
2
Generally, in order to reduce the residual height hi further, a E Kc
d c ¼ 0:15 ð4Þ
microrounding will be implemented on the edge of grinding H H
wheel in truing process, as shown in Fig .1b, c. Therefore, the
modified residual height hi' of helical ground surface can be where E is the elastic modulus, H the hardness, and Kc is the
expressed as: fracture toughness. For instance, the critical depth of cut for
8 BK7 glass is calculated as 473 nm based on the material prop-
pffiffiffi
>
> 1 F pffiffiffi 2 F erties of E=82 GPa, Kc =2.6 MPam0.5, and H=5.6 GPa [11],
> 0
< hi ¼ − 2−1 R; R <
2 pNffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 2 N and the critical depth of cut for glass ceramic ZERODUR is
w
pffiffiffi w ð3Þ
> 0
> 4N 2 2
R −F 2
2 F 91 nm based on the material properties of E=91 GPa, Kc =
>
: hi ¼ R−
w
; R≥ 1.2 MPam0.5, and H=6 GPa [12, 13]. Besides, the critical
2N w 2 Nw
depth of cut for binderless WC is 156 nm [14].
For conventional surface grinding, the maximum uncut
chip thickness hmax, which depends on the cutting tool geom-
where R is the edge radius of grinding wheel. etry, the depth of cut, cutting velocity, and work speed, can be
According to Eq. (3), the modified residual height hi' ver- calculated by the expression [15]:
sus R, F, and Nw are shown in Fig. 2. It can be found that hi' is rffiffiffiffiffi1=2
reduced with a decrease in wheel feed rate F or an increase in 4V w ae
hmax ¼ ð5Þ
workpiece spindle speed Nw or an increase in edge radius of V s Cr D
wheel R. For example, hi' may be decreased to 7.7 nm and less
as F of 0.2 mm/min, Nw of 180 rpm, and R of 20 μm. It should where Vs is the linear speed of the grinding wheel, Vw is the
be noted, although a bigger R can bring smaller residual height workpiece linear speed, D is the wheel diameter, ae is the
to ground surface, it will also lead to worse form accuracy depth of cut, r is the ratio of mean chip width to chip thickness,
because the bigger edge radius has more tool geometry errors. and C is the active grit concentration.
Fig. 3 The maximum uncut chip thickness hmax' versus workpiece size and grinding parameters: a hmax' vs xi; b hmax' vs F, Nw; c hmax' vs D, Ns
In wheel normal grinding process, the workpiece material According to Eq. (7), the effects of workpiece size xi and
is machined along the helical grinding track in Fig. 1e. There- grinding parameters F, D, Nw, and Ns on the maximum uncut
fore, Eq. (5) cannot be applied to wheel normal grinding di- chip thickness hmax' can be estimated, as shown in Fig. 3. The
rectly. According to Fig. 1d, the workpiece linear speed Vw' maximum uncut chip thickness increases with the increase in
along the workpiece rotation direction and the depth of cut ae' distance to the center of the workpiece. This means that the side
for wheel normal grinding can be expressed as: of workpiece will generate cracks firstly if the ductile grinding
8 pffiffiffi conditions cannot be satisfied. As show in Fig. 3b, c, on de-
>
> 2 F creasing the workpiece rotate speed Nw, feed rate F, and diam-
< ae 0 ¼
2 Nw ð6Þ eter of wheel D or increasing the wheel rotate speed Ns, the
>
> 2πxi N w maximum uncut chip thickness hmax' decreases. It indicates
: V w0 ¼
60 the ductile grinding can be realized by increasing wheel rotate
speed or decreasing workpiece rotate speed, feed rate, and di-
where xi is the radius of the grinding point form workpiece
ameter of wheel to ensure hmax' less than the critical depth of cut
rotation center.
dc in wheel normal grinding process of hard and brittle mate-
By substituting the workpiece linear speed and the depth of
rials. Besides, it should be noted that the hmax' does not depend
cut into Eq. (5), the maximum uncut chip thickness hmax' for
on the depth of grinding a, which is different with the traditional
wheel normal grinding process can be obtained as:
grinding process.
0 pffiffiffi 11=2
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
8N w xi 2F A
hmax 0 ¼@ ð7Þ
N s DCr 2N w D 4 Experimental setup
where Ns is the grinding wheel spindle speed. Within this work, the wheel normal grinding process of the
aspheric surface was developed. The workpiece materials
were optical glass BK7, glass ceramic ZERODUR, and
binderless WC. The experiments were carried out using a 4-
Fig. 5 The brittle to ductile transition in wheel normal grinding process (BK7)
According to the above, the depth of grinding, wheel rotate To achieve higher form accuracy in wheel normal grinding
speed, and workpiece rotate speed were fixed in 1 μm, 45, process, the error compensation grinding will be implemented
000 rpm, and 150 rpm in subsequent experiments. While the in our experiments as follows. After the initial grinding, the
feed rate was optimized to ensure both of the improvement of ground surface was measured using on-machine measurement
ground surface finish and the realization of ductile grinding system. If the required form accuracy was not obtained, the
for different workpiece materials. For the workpiece of grinding wheel would be measured and the wheel wear would
ZERODUR and WC, the feed rate of 0.3 mm/min was select- be evaluated firstly. On condition that the profile of grinding
ed in order to ensure the maximum uncut chip thickness was wheel edge was worn out, the re-truing process would be
in the range of the calculated critical depth of cut. While in this implemented on-machine, and then the compensation pro-
grinding process of BK7, the feed rate of 0.5 mm/min was gram was generated considering both of the form deviation
adopted for improving the surface finish. of ground surface and the profile variant of trued grinding