Getting Through to Them:

Reaching Students Who

Need Career Counseiing
Carolyn Ringer Lepre
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a persuasive message, de-
signed using the theory of planned behavior (TOPB; 1. Ajzen, 1985) and written
in the form ofa student newspaper column, on undecided students' intent to seek
career counseling from an informed source, such as a career counseling workshop.
An experiment was conducted to test TOPB's applicability, and it was found that
a message using positive reinforcement of salient beliefs and creadng positive links
between outcomes and workshop attendance caused a change in behavioral inten-
tion toward a greater reported likelihood of workshop attendance.

Higher education in tbe United States bas become a more than $165
billion industry. In 1997, U.S. President Bill Clinton pledged "to make
the thirteenth and fourteenth years of education—at least two years of
college—^just as universal in America by tbe twenty-first century as a high
school education is today" (Haworth, 1997, p. A2). In 2002, U.S. President
George W. Bush signed into law tbe No Child Left: Behind Act of 2001,
wbich bas as one of its goals to make students more prepared for a col-
lege education and to help them strive for tbat achievement. Increasingly,
scholars are noting tbat college is being seen as an American birthright,
and students are responding to tbe call (Karabell, 1998; Matthews, 1997;
Sacks, 1996). College is seen more as an assumption tban a choice, and
because of this, today's students are arguably different tban students of past
generations (Matthews, 1997; Ringer, 1999; Sacks, 1996). What remains
the same, however, is tbeir need to figure out a plan—an academic plan
for tbeir college years and a career plan for tbeir futures.
Researchers estimate that between 20% and 50% of students enter their
freshman year undecided about their major and fiiture career and that
between 50% and 70% of all undergraduates will change their major and
future career plans at least once during college (Gordon & Steele, 2003). In
addition, over the past 25 years, Gordon and Steele (2003) found that 1st-
year students bave grown slightly more anxious about choosing a major.
For many students, even knowing where to begin in tbe process of
choosing a major or career can be difficult. Students' initial choices can
be unrealistic because they arc ofiien based on little knowledge about
academic requirements or major and job relationships (Gordon & Steele,
2003). American College Testing (ACT) President Richard L. Fergeson
commented that students' career aspirations were out of sync with the
jobs tbat will be available for many of them. He continued tbat students
would benefit from educators helping them to start tbeir career explora-

Cftrolyn Ringer Lepre, School of Journalism and Electronic Media, The University of
Tennessee. Correspondence eoneerning this article should he addressed to Carolyn Kinger
Lepre, School ofJournalism and Electronic Media, The University of Tennessee, 333
Communications Building, Knoxville, TN 37996-0333 (e-mail: clepre@utk.edu).
© 2007 by the National Career Development Association. All rights reserved.
74 The Career Development Quarterly September 2007 • Volunne 56
tions early, perhaps as early as eighth grade, and that career counselors
and teachers need to provide them with up-to-date college and career
planning information so that tbe students can make better career deci-
sions (ACT, 1998). Other factors that contribute to difficulty choosing
or staying in a major or career path include poor bigb school prepara-
tion, poor academic performance in a subject required for a major or
career (sucb as matb or science), inaccurate information sources (such
as entertainment television or peers), and uninformed parents (Gordon
& Steele, 2003; Ringer & Dodd, 1999).
What impact does being undecided bave on a student? Cbase and
Keene (1981) found that, compared witb students who declare tbeir
majors and career plans early, students who postpone declaring a major
have significantly lower grade point averages (GPAs), take fewer hours
of course work, and are less academically motivated.
Gordon (1984) stated that otber factors could complicate these ef-
fects by confounding the decision-making process. Students who feel
pressured to make changes in a burry, sucb as by the administration or
parents, may not want to spend enougb time examining alternatives.
Other students may drift along, not acknowledging or facing their
indecision, and become depressed or discouraged because of a lack of
direction. These issues become magnified the further a student is into
bis or her college education, because even more pressure is put upon
upper class students to make a concrete decision.
Academic and career advisers also play an important role in undecided
students' decision-making processes (Gordon & Steele, 2003; Marra
& Schweitzer, 1992). Advising bas been found to be a leading factor
in student retention, morale, and GPA (Andrews, Andrews, Long, &
Henton, 1987; Crockett & Crawford, 1989). Tbomas and McDaniel
(2004) found that students who completed a career planning course had
increased knowledge of career options and confidence in tbeir ability to
make career decisions.
Purpose ofthe Study
The purpose ofthe current study was to examine tbe effects ofa persuasive
message, written in the form of a college student newspaper column,
on undecided students' intent to seek career counseling. Despite the
volume of research on career development, few studies have attempted
to gauge tbe impact mass media may bave on college students' career
cboice. Of these studies, most bave been content analyses tbat sug-
gest the effect of career stereotypes and misleading job activities (e.g.,
Signorelli, 1997).
It is proposed that the theory of planned behavior (TOPB; Ajzen,
1985), an expectancy-value model, provides an effective framework
for studying tbe impact of a persuasive message on tbe intent to seek
information about careers from an informed source, such as a career
counselor or career counseling workshop. Tbe TOPB model's main
propositions suggest tbat people will behave as they intend to bebave,
as long as the behavior will allow them to obtain favorable outcomes
and the behavior meets the expectations of others who are important
to them. Because it is generally tbougbt that tbe process of selecting a
career is one tbat ends with a favorable outcome and tJiat both parents

The Career Development Quarterly September 2007 • Volume 56 75

and peers weigh heavily in the way young adults make decisions, TOPB
appears applicable to this study. The TOPB model has been tested with
positive predictive results in several studies looking at behaviors similar
to those in the current study, including enrollment in physics courses
(Crawley & Black, 1990), enrollment in a business ethics course (Ran-
dall, 1994), and job search activities (Caska, 1998).
Although it is realized and acknowledged that mass media and other
forms of persuasive communication may be only a small piece of the
career decision-making process, it is a significant part. Students are daily
users of many forms of media, and the impact of media on various at-
dtudes and beliefs has been heavily documented (e.g., Chaffee, Ward,
& Tipton, 1970; Chan, 1998; Newhagen, 1994). Although research-
ers do not always agree on the exact impact of a particular medium on
society, there is no question that media do indeed have an effect, either
by changing atdtudes and beliefs in some way or by reinforcing exisdng
atdtudes and behaviors.
Studying the influence of a mass media message, which specifically ad-
dresses several ofthe variables known to influence career decision (e.g.,
parental influence and opinion, knowledge about careers, peer opinion,
and personal atdtudes and beliefs about a specific career and/or the im-
portance of career selecdon), should be of value to college educators and
career counselors. Knowing more about how a student selects a career
can lead to more effective programs to educate undecided students as
well as to better counseling techniques for use with all students.

Crearinn nf a Persuasive Me.ssage

The literature shows that exposing pardcipants to a persuasive message can
have an impact on changing atdtudes and behaviors. However, researchers
agree that in order for the message to be most persuasive, it must be effec-
dvely targeted and constructed and delivered using an appropdate medium.
TOPB posits that atdtudes, subjecdve norms, and perceived behavioral
control are influenced by corresponding salient beliefs. The persuasive mes-
sage used in this study was targeted primarily at college students' beliefs
about attending a career coLmseling workshop; specifically, the message was
targeted at behavioral beliefs, outcome evaluadons, atdtudes, normadve
beliefs, general subjecdve norms, and behavioral intendons.
Before a message can be persuasive, it is necessary to determine what
the target audience already thinks or believes about the target behavior
(Flay & Burton, 1990). The message content for the current study was
derived from a pretest quesdonnaire and addressed both prior beliefs and
awareness levels about career counseling. Stutman and Newell (1984)
proposed four strategies to be used when targeting beliefs with the goal
of changing behavior: (a) reinforcement of previous beliefs that are suppordve
of the desired behavior; (b) introducdon of new beliefs promodng the
desired behavior; (c) attacks on nonsuppordve beliefs about the desired
behavior; and (d) attempts to change the evaluadon of negative, non-
suppordve beliefs.
Empirical studies using similar message construcdon techniques have
found that these messages are successfiil in being persuasive and that
posidve messages are ofi:en the most effecdve (e.g., Fishbein, Ajzen, &
McArdle, 1980).

76 The Career Development Quarterly September 2007 • Volume 56

T-Typnthe.se.s
The following hypotheses were investigated:
Hypothesis 1: Students who are exposed to the positive message will
report higher intentions to enroll in a career counseling workshop
than will those students who are exposed to all other combinations
of messages and sources.
Hypothesis 2: Students who are exposed to the unrelated message will
report lower intentions to enroll in a career counseling workshop
than will those students who are exposed to all other messages.
Message Manipulation
In the present experiment, the independent variables were message appeal
and dme. The message appeals were manipulated by creating four news-
paper columns said to have been previously published in a section of the
campus newspaper (see Appendix). The messages were constructed using
the suggestions of Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) and focused on the target
behavior of attending a career counseling workshop within the next month.
A pilot study, which consisted of a five open-ended survey questions ad-
ministered to students enrolled in an introductory public relations course,
was conducted prior to the creation of these messages to determine what
salient beliefs college students held about career counseling (e.g., helpfiji,
only for seniors, waste of time, complicated). A total of four messages were
created: Three formats were created that targeted these beliefs, and one was
constructed on an unrelated subject so as to serve as a control measure. The
first of the three formats, called the positive messoffe, was a positive appeal
and linked the behavior of signing up for a career counseling workshop
with positive consequences, including reducing career plan confusion, not
wasting money on the wrong major, and creating a support network. Any
negative beliefs, as garnered fi-om the pilot study, that students might have
about attending a career counseling workshop were countered with positive,
factual statements in the message text (see Appendix).
The second of the three formats, called the ne£fative message, was a
negative appeal and linked the behavior of not signing up for a career
counseling workshop with negative consequences, such as remaining
confused and overwhelmed, wasting money on classes, and not having
a sense of confidence in career decisions. It was a mirror image of the
positive message (Fishbein et al., 1980).
The third of the three formats, called the traditional messajre, took a slightly
different approach. Instead of focusing on the target behavior of attending a
specific workshop, it focused on the outcomes of being undecided—specifically,
continued undecidedness and confusion, in addition to other negative conse-
quences of being undecided about choosing a career. It did not have a specific
message about attending career counseling, until the end of the message where
a connection was made urging the student to seek career counseling.
The time variable describes the pretest-posttest design. Scores were
gathered from a pretest, which asked for demographic information and
also asked questions about attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived
behavioral control, and was designed to give a baseline measurement of
these variables. A posttest was administered after the researcher (the author
of this article) exposed the participants to the persuasive message.

The Career Development Quarterly September 2007 • Volume 56 77

Met-hodnlngy
A pretest-posttest control-group experimental 4 (message appeal: positive
vs. negative vs. traditional vs. unrelated) x 2 (time: pretest vs. posttest)
between-subjects and within-subjects factorial design was used to test
the hypotheses. Participants completed a pretest and a posttest, which
was completed 3 weeks after the pretest, to determine whether exposure
to the treatment resulted in any change in behavioral intentions.
Participants in the study were coUege students at a large southeastern univer-
sity who were currently enrolled in typical freshman core, general education
courses. Research has shown that a large percentage of students who enroll
in these core courses are likely to be undecided about their major and future
career as well as to have a high potential to change their major or career choice
within a year (Daubman & Johnson, 1982; Isaacson & Brown, 1993; Lewal-
len, 1995). Students were recruited by the researcher, who spoke to them
during their regularly scheduled class periods, and were told that the study
had two parts and was anonymous. Students interested in participating in the
study were asked to fill out a written, informed consent form in accordance
with the university's institutional review board's regulations.
Of the 516 students who completed the pretest, 154 agreed to participate
in the posttest and therefore were exposed to the experimental messages.
Because the second part of the study required the participants to come to
a separate location on their own time, some attrition was expected.
Seventy-three percent of the students who participated in this study were
women (» = 113). The majority of the students were freshmen (71%, n
= 109). Twenty percent of the students were sophomores {n = 30), 8%
were juniors (» = 13), and 1% were seniors or indicated other (w = 2).
The majority of the students (85%, n = 130) were between the ages of
18 and 19. Three percent of the students were younger than 18 years
old (w = 5), 11% were between 20 and 23 years old (n = 17), and 1%
were 24 years old or older (n = 2).
Forty-three percent of the students reported being certain of their
career choice (« = 66), whereas 57% of the students reported being
uncertain of their career choice (n = 88).

Result's
The hypotheses were tested using an analysis of variance (ANOVA).
The measures, which used a Likert scale, specifically addressed student
attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control and were
designed to detect any change in these variables over time.
Hypothesis 1 posited that students who were exposed to the positive
message would report higher intentions to enroll in a career counseling
workshop than would those students exposed to all other combinations of
messages and sources. This hypothesis was not supported. Although the
ANOVA showed a significant two-way interaction between time and mes-
sage appeal {p < .004), indicating that there was some treatment impact on
intentions to enroll in a career counseling workshop, simple main effects
tests did not show a significant difference between the positive message and
the negative or traditional message (see Tables 1 and 2).
Hypothesis 2 posited that students who were exposed to the unrelated
message would report lower intentions to enroll in a career counseling

78 The Career Development Quarterly September 2007 • Volume 56

 TABLE 1
Analysis of Variance Results
Variable df F Significance
Time 1 20.35 .0001
Message appeal 3 0.61 .61
Time X Message Appeal 3 4.57 .004

workshop than would those students exposed to all other messages. This
hypothesis was supported. After an ANOVA revealed a two-way interac-
tion between time and message appeal, simple main effects tests showed
a statistically significant difference between the unrelated message and all
other messages. A mean comparison shows that the unrelated message
yielded the lowest student intentions to enroll in a career counseling
workshop. Scale responses ranged from extremely likely to attend a career
counseling session (1) to extremely unlikely to attend a career counselin^i
session (7). Therefore, the higher the mean, the lower the intentions to
attend a career counseling workshop (see Table 3).

Effects of Persuasive Message Variations

on Rehavioral Tntention
The hypotheses made predictions regarding which of the messages shown
to the students would result in the highest reported intentions to enroll
in a career counseling workshop. An analysis using simple main effects
tests showed that every student who read one of the treatment messages
(positive, negative, and traditional) reported higher intentions to enroll
than did their counterparts who read the control message (unrelated
message). This is an interesting result considering that the message was
short and that the students were exposed to it on only one 15-minute
occasion. It was predicted that the students who read the positive and
negative messages would report the highest intentions, and the results
support this conclusion. In addition, the students who were exposed to
the positive message had the highest intentions to enroll.
It is interesting to note, however, that although the means show that
the positive message had the largest impact, each of the treatment mes-
sages was successful in changing student intentions in the direction of
being more likely to enroll. The simple main effects tests did not reveal
a significant difference between pairs of the treatment messages, only
between pairs of the treatment messages and the control message. This

TABLE 2
Simple iVIain Effects Tests on Change in Intention Measures
Pair df t Significance
Positive-negative 74 1.98 .05
Positive-traditional 74 1.14 .256
Positive-unrelated 72 4.19 .0001
Negative-traditional 78 -0.81 .42
Negative-unrelated 76 1.67 .09
Traditional-unrelated 76 2.55 .013

The Career Development Quarterly September 2007 • Volume 56 79

 TABLE 3
Means for Treatment Messages and Control Message
Message Appeai Posttest tUI Change in Intention tVI
Positive 3.92 1.47
Negative 4.15 0.50
Traditional 4.23 0.90
Unrelated 4,90 -0.10
Note. Scale responses ranged from 1 (extremely likely to attend a career counseling
session) to 7 (extremely unlikely to attend a career counseling session).

leads to the conclusion that any message that targets student attitudes
and beliefs may have an impact in changing student intentions to enroll
in career counseling activities. Certainly, if such a campaign was go-
ing to be waged, career counselors and educators would want to use
the message that would result in the highest level of change, but it is
promising to note that, for these students, it appears that any message
at all can make a difference.
Why was the positive message most effective.^ This result is in line
with what much ofthe career development literature reports. Students
(particularly undecided students) are so afraid of creating more pres-
sure in their lives, of becoming more confused, that a hard-sell message
that focuses on the negative aspects of their indecision may have cre-
ated a defense response. The students would want to avoid having to
be confronted with these negative and somewhat threatening messages
and may see this as an extension of the way they would be treated at a
career counseling workshop.
However, because it was found that each of the messages had an im-
pact, more investigation may be necessary to explore whether the target
population can be fiirther segmented. For example, perhaps if only un-
decided students were the targets of a campaign (e.g., a brochure mailed
to those students who had not yet declared a major or had declared an
undecided major), the positive message might not be as effective as was
found in the present study.
In addition, it needs to be considered that the reason each of the
messages appeared to have an effect might stem simply from an infor-
mation standpoint. Because these students were primarily first-semester
freshmen, there is a chance that prior to participating in this study, they
were unaware that career counseling workshops were offered. By par-
ticipating in the current study, they were made aware of what the career
counseling center on campus offers, and it needs to be considered that
it was simply this exposure that may have contributed to the students
reporting that they were more likely to attend.
It is also important to consider that, despite the effectiveness of the
messages, there were still many students who were not persuaded to
attend a career counseling workshop. One reason students may have
opted not to attend stems from their apparent overall ambivalence to-
ward career counseling in general. Although there are many students
who can be helped by career counseling, it is important to be realistic
in the projections for what a study like this can accomplish. There will
always be students who are not open to such persuasion and, perhaps,
are not in need of help with career decisions.
80 The Career Development Quarterly September 2007 • Volume 56
Imphcations for Career Resource Professionals
and Ed lira tors
A primary goal of this research was to develop a blueprint by which
career counseling professionals and educators could develop a media
campaign that would increase attendance at career counseling work-
shops and other career information sessions, and subsequently raise the
academic involvement levels in undecided students. To review, student
involvement theory (Astin, 1977, 1993) posits that students will be
more successful; will learn and grow more; and will get more out of
college if they become more actively involved in campus activities and, in
general, more actively involved in what is going on around them. If the
principles of the theory of student involvement are applied to the career
decision-making process, then it follows that if a student becomes more
involved in thinldng about his or her future career, then the student has
a better chance of success both in selecting a career he or she will find
satisfying and in college in general.
Although career development is just one area that falls under the theory
of Student involvement umbrella, for those students who are undecided,
selecting a career can do a lot toward contributing to a less anxiety-
filled college experience, and it is thought to contribute significantly to
helping the student become involved in other ways—because once one
pressure is released, and one goal is accomplished, the student will move
onto other things, feeling more successful and grown up. Also, choos-
ing a major predisposes students toward itivolvement in major-related
groups, thus offering them the opportunity to gain more knowledge
and experience regarding certain career choices, as well as the chance
to interact with other students with similar interests.
Therefore, it can be argued that it is of crucial importance that efforts
are made to encourage students to take advantage of career counseling
opportunities. It is clear from this study that there are effective ways this
can be done. By following the tenets set forth in TOPB and designing
messages that target students' salient beliefs about career counseling,
career counseling professionals and educators can create persuasive
media campaigns.
One issue that has been debated is how to reach the undecided student
population most effectively. The results of the current study, in conjunc-
tion with other career development research, show that by targeting
freshmen and possibly first-semester sophomores, career counseling
professionals can optimize the chances of reaching these students, given
that research shows that a vast majority of new students are undecided.
By early intervention, it is also thought that perhaps measures can be
taken to keep additional students from becoming undecided and po-
tentially being at risk for academic failure.
Career counseling centers across the country are already actively involved
in trying to help students. Most advertise in campus newspapers and par-
ticipate in some way during freshman orientation activities. Many others
advertise on local radio and television stations and provide speakers who
visit sororities, fraternities, and other student groups to discuss what the
career counseling center has to offer. This study offers a new perspective
and new techniques for message development that can be incorporated
into the activities and advertising that are already in place.
The Career Development Quarterly September 2007 • Volume 56 81
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APPENDIX
Excerpts From Treatment Messages
Note. Each message was designed to appear as if it had been an opinion column,
written by a student, in the university student newspaper.
Positive iVIessage
My name is Chris Wells, and I want to tell you—student to student—about what will
happen if you attend a career counseling workshop at the Career Resource Center
(CRC).
You might think that it is too early in your college career to attend a career counseling
workshop. But that isn't true—by attending a workshop you will be able to get on track
for selecting the right major early, thereby not wasting your time and money by signing
up for classes you don't need. You also might think that attending a career counseling
workshop will make you more confused and overwhelmed than you already are. But
that isn't true either—by attending a workshop you will actually become less confused
because there are trained counselors there to help you make your decisions and choices.
Although there may be many choices at the beginning, by attending a workshop you will
have a support network of peers and CRC counselors there to help you work through your
career choices to make the right decision—and keep you from feeling overwhelmed.
[Several paragraphs more followed this, citing more good reasons to attend a
career counseling workshop and the positive benefits of doing so. The column
concluded with the following sentence.]
I urge you to sign up for and attend a career counseling workshop now! Believe me,
you will be glad you did.
Negative iVIessage
My name is Chris Wells, and I want to tell you—student to student—about what will
happen if you do not attend a career counseling workshop at the Career Resource
Center (CRC).
You might think that it is too early in your college career to attend a career counseling
workshop. But that isn't true—if you do not attend a workshop you will not be able to
get on track for selecting the right major early, thereby wasting your time and money
by signing up for classes you don't need. You also might think that attending a career
counseling workshop will make you more confused and overwhelmed than you already
(Continued on next page)

The Career Development Quarterly September 2007 • Volume 56 83

 APPENDIX (Continued)
Excerpts From Treatment iVIessages
are. But that isn't true either—by not attending a workshop you will stay confused and
become more confused because you won't have the trained counselors there to help
you make your decisions and choices. If you do not attend a workshop you won't have
a support network of peers and CRC counselors there to help you work through your
career choices to make the right decision—and you will stay overwhelmed.
[Several paragraphs more followed this, citing more good reasons to attend a
career counseling workshop and the negative effects of not doing so. The column
conciuded with the foliowing sentence.]
I urge you to sign up for and attend a career counseling workshop now! Believe me,
you wiii be glad you did.
Traditional Message
My name is Chris Wells, and I want to teii you—student to student—about what will
happen if you attend a career counseling workshop at the Career Resource Center.
You might think that it is too early in your coiiege career to decide on a future career.
But that isn't true—if you do not decide on a future career, you wiii not be able to get
on track for selecting the right major early, thereby wasting your time and money by
signing up for dasses you don't need. You also might think that thinking about careers
and having to decide on a career will make you more confused and overwhelmed
than you already are. But that Isn't true either—by not thinking about the future and
remaining undecided and unsure about your future career, you will stay confused and
become more confused because you won't be seeking the assistance of professionals
to heip you make your decisions and choices.
[Several paragraphs more followed this, citing more good reasons to think about
future careers and the negative effects of not doing so. The coiumn concluded with
the foiiowing sentence.]
I urge you to sign up for and attend a career counseling workshop now! Believe me,
you wiil be glad you did.

84 The Career Development Quarterly September 2007 • Volume 56