Predicting the hydraulic conductivity of saturated clays

using plasticity-value correlations

Bojana Dolinar

University of Maribor, Faculty of Civil Engineering,

Smetanova ul. 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
e-mail: bojana.dolinar@uni-mb.si, Tel. No.: +386 2 2294325, Fax No.:+386 22524179

Abstract

Hydraulic conductivity is one of the important, basic engineering properties of soils.

However, as a soil parameter it is difficult to measure and can be highly variable,

necessitating the investigation of a large number of samples. For these reasons several

researchers have proposed various indirect methods for predicting the hydraulic conductivity

of soils from easily measured and routinely obtainable data. As plasticity is the most

distinctive and the easiest property of clays to measure, it would be a very convenient basis

for predicting the hydraulic conductivity.

This paper focuses on an investigation of the relationship between the hydraulic

conductivity of clays and their Atterberg limits. For this purpose five samples of expanding

and non-expanding clays were used. The results of laboratory tests showed that the hydraulic

conductivity of a clay at a selected void ratio could be adequately determined when the

external surface area of the clay grains was considered. The finding that there exists an

exactly defined relationship between the Atterberg limits of clays and their external specific

surfaces helped us to express the hydraulic conductivity in terms of the void ratio and the

plasticity value.

Keywords: Hydraulic conductivity; Clay; Atterberg limits; Plasticity index

1
1 Introduction
A knowledge of the permeability of soils is extremely important for solving various

problems in hydrogeology, as well as geotechnical, agricultural and environmental

engineering. Owing to the long time required for the measurements, several equations have

been suggested to predict the saturated hydraulic conductivity of soils from easily measured

and routinely obtainable data. These equations were empirically based, supported by capillary

models or based on hydraulic radius theories, and in all cases the hydraulic conductivity is

expressed as a function of the porosity (i.e., the void ratio) and selected properties of the soils.

Plasticity is the most distinctive and the easiest property of clays to measure; therefore, it

would be very convenient if it could be used to predict the hydraulic conductivity. It is

known, for example, that the hydraulic conductivity of clays, as a rule, decreases with an

increase in the plasticity, yet this relationship is not completely clear or simple, and this is the

reason why the proposed expressions for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of clays from

their plasticity index differ so much.

The plasticity of fine-grained soils is, in soil mechanics, expressed by the Atterberg

limits. The potential value of these index properties for use in soil mechanics was first

suggested by Terzaghi (1925), when he noted that, “The results of the simplified soil tests (the

Atterberg limits) depend precisely on the same physical factors that determine the resistance

and the permeability of soils (shape of particles, effective size, uniformity), only in a far more

complex manner.”

A review of the accessible literature showed the following investigations relating to the

relationships between the hydraulic conductivity and the Atterberg limits of soils.

Nishida and Nakagava (1969) suggested that the hydraulic conductivity k (cm/s) should

be predicted from the plasticity index PI (%) at a known void ratio e . They proceeded from

the experimentally obtained relationship:

2
e = α + β log10 k (1)

where α and β are parameters that depend on the type of clay. They found that the average

value of the parameter α ≈ 10, while the parameter β can be obtained from the plasticity

index PI (%), as follows:

β = 0.01 PI + γ ( γ ≈ 0.05 ) (2)

Samarasinghe et al. (1982) suggested a model to predict the hydraulic conductivity

k (m/s) of normally consolidated remoulded clays. The relationship is as follows:

k = C e x /(1 + e) (3)

They named the exponent x and the constant C as the permeability parameters. A plot of

log[ k (1 + e) ] versus log e may be interpreted as a straight line with a slope x and an intercept

log C . Sridharan and Nagaraj (2005) investigated fine-grained soils and found that the

average value of the parameter x = 5, while the value of parameter C (m/s) can be calculated

using the shrinkage index I S (%) or the plasticity index PI (%) from Eqs. (4) and (5).

−3.69
C = 0.00025 I S (4)

C = 0.00104 PI −5.2 (5)

Carrier and Beckman (1984) proposed the below expression for determining Darcy’s

permeability coefficient k (m/s) for remoulded clays:

k = 0.0174 (e − 0.027( PL − 0.242 PI ) / PI ) 4.29 /(1 + e) (6)

where e is the void ratio, PI (%) is the plasticity index and PL (%) is the plastic limit.

Using experiments with four normally consolidated clays, Nagaraj et al. (1993) tried to

generalize the prediction of the hydraulic conductivity k (cm/s) in terms of the void ratio at

the liquid limit, given as:

e eL = 2.28 + 0.233 log k (7)

where e is the void ratio and eL is the void ratio at the liquid limit.

3
 Sivappullaiah et al. (2000) proposed a method for predicting the hydraulic conductivity

k (m/s) for remoulded clays from the void ratio e and the liquid limit LL (%), as follows:

log10 k = (e − 0.0535 LL − 5.286) (0.0063LL + 0.2516) (8)

The main limitation of the above equation is that it is valid for soils with a LL > 50%.

Somogyi (1979) defined the permeability changes during a one-dimensional compression

of a soil using Equation (9), where k (m/s) is the hydraulic conductivity, e is the void ratio,

and C (m/s) and D are empirical coefficients. Berilgen et al. (2006) found that these

coefficients can be correlated with the plasticity index I P and the liquidity index I L , as

follows:

k = C ( e) D (9)

C = exp(− 5.51 − 4 ln I P ) (10)

D = 7.52 exp(− 0.25I L ) (11)

The above expressions were determined experimentally without any explanation about

how the hydraulic conductivity can be connected to the values of the Atterberg limits. The

aim of our investigations, therefore, was to find such a connection.

Determining a realistic relationship between the hydraulic conductivity of clays and the

Atterberg limits is a demanding task requiring a systematic approach with specific limitations

needing to be considered. The present research is limited to a determination of those physico-

chemical properties of clay minerals that influence the hydraulic conductivity and the quantity

of water at the Atterberg limits. Such an approach requires an elimination or unification of all

those factors that, in addition to these properties of the minerals, have an influence on the

hydraulic conductivity of the clays.

4
2 Experimental analyses
2.1 Materials and methods

The permeability of the clays depends on various factors, like the porosity, size, shape

and surface-charge density of the particles, their distribution (texture), organic and other

additions, the physical and chemical properties of the permeant, the degree of saturation, and

the temperature. This large number of influencing factors makes any prediction of the

hydraulic conductivity a complex problem. So in order to minimize the uncertainty in the test

data due to the variability of the soil samples, it was decided to conduct the initial tests using

mono-mineral clays and their mixtures. The samples of clays used were well (KGa-1) and

poorly (KGa-2) crystallised kaolinite and Ca-montmorillonite (SAz-1), which originate from

the United States. They have a known mineral composition and external surface area (Table

1), and they are used for different fundamental studies. The data relating to the above

properties were taken from the literature (Constanzo and Guggenheim, 2001; Sutheimer et al.,

1999; Van Olphen and Fripiad 1979), while the specific surfaces for the clay mixtures were

calculated (samples K-1 and K-2).

The liquid limits LL of the samples were determined using the fall-cone test (BSI 1990). This

test uses a standard cone with a 30° apex angle and a total mass of 80 g. The plastic limits PL

were determined using the rolling-thread test (BSI, 1990). The values of the Atterberg limits

and the plasticity index PI are given in Table 1.

Table 1 - Mineral composition, specific surface area AS , liquid limit LL , plastic limit PL
and plasticity index PI .

Sample Mineral composition AS (m2/g) LL (%) PL (%) PI (%)

KGa-1 well crystallized kaolinite 10.05 40.1 25.9 14.2
KGa-2 poorly crystallized kaolinite 22.4 51.0 29.7 21.3
SAz-1 Ca-montmorillonite 97.4 129.0 68.2 60.8
K-1 (70% KGa-1+30% SAz-1) 36.3 61.3 32.9 28.4
K-2 (50% KGa-2 + 50% SAz-1) 59.9 80.9 39.5 41.4

5
The hydraulic conductivity of the clays was measured in the laboratory using the falling-head

test in an oedometer consolidation cell (CEN ISO/TS 2004). The initial moisture content in

the remoulded samples was close to the liquid limit. The hydraulic conductivity of each clay

was determined at various void ratios after consolidation at the following effective stresses:

20 kPa, 50 kPa, 100 kPa, 150 kPa and 200 kPa. De-aired distilled water was used for the tests.

The results shown in Table 2 are the average values of three tests and are valid for saturated,

dispersed clays without organic and other admixtures, distilled water and a temperature of

20°C.

Table 2 - Void ratio ( e ) and hydraulic conductivity ( k 20 ) at different axial stresses.

σ' (kPa) 20 50 100 150 200
KGa-1
e 1.1720 1.0415 0.9332 0.8896 0.8600
-9 -9 -9 -9
k 20 (m/s) 5.00 10 2.97 10 1.99 10 1.69 10 1.42 10-9
σ* (n=3) 0.03 10-9 0.02 10-9 0.01 10-9 0.02 10-9 0.01 10-9
KGa-2
e 1.6660 1.4596 1.3220 1.2433 1.1973
k 20 (m/s) 3.10 10-9 1.91 10-9 1.20 10-9 8.90 10-10 7.50 10-10
σ* (n=3) 0.02 10-9 0.05 10-9 0.39 10-10 1.76 10-10 0.02 10-10
SAz-1
e 2.4952 2.3291 2.1149 1.9773 1.8758
k 20 (m/s) 9.90 10-10 6.34 10-10 3.20 10-10 1.99 10-10 1.40 10-10
σ* (n=3) 1.05 10-10 0 0.11 10-10 0.04 10-10 0.06 10-10
K-1
e 1.4960 1.3500 1.2221 1.1635 1.1146
k 20 (m/s) 1.37 10-9 8.00 10-10 4.94 10-10 3.49 10-10 2.70 10-10
σ* (n=3) 0.01 10-9 0.07 10-10 0.06 10-10 0.11 10-10 0.21 10-10
K-2
e 1.9001 1.7714 1.6214 1.5263 1.4644
k 20 (m/s) 1.00 10-9 6.70 10-10 3.96 10-10 2.65 10-10 2.10 10-10
σ* (n=3) 0.81 10-9 0.21 10-10 0.07 10-10 0.43 10-10 0.11 10-10
* standard deviation

6
3 Results and discussion
3.1 Relationship between the hydraulic conductivity, the void ratio and the specific
surface

The experimental data presented in Fig. 1 indicate that a power equation of the form (12) can

be employed to describe the variation of the hydraulic conductivity k (m/s) with the void ratio

e . In the equation α and β are soil-dependent parameters. This corresponds to the findings

published in previous experimental and theoretical studies by other researchers (Carrier and

Beckman, 1984; Krizek and Somogyi, 1984; Al Tabbaa and Wood, 1987; Pane and

Schiffman, 1997).

k = α eβ (12)

8,E-09
KGa-1
7,E-09 KGa-2
SAz
6,E-09 -9 3.97 K-1
k = 2.62*10 e
K-2
5,E-09 KGa-1 (Eq.20)
k (m/s)

KGa-2 (Eq.20)
4,E-09 SAz (Eq.20)
k = 3.25*10 -10e4.65
K-1 (Eq.20)
3,E-09 K-2 (Eq.20)
k = 1.54*10-10e5.47
2,E-09
k = 2.10*10-11e 6.04
k = 2.17*10-12e6.65
1,E-09

0,E+00
0,50 1,00 1,50 2,00 2,50 3,00
e

Fig.1. Measured and calculated (Eq. 20) hydraulic conductivity k (m/s)

plotted against void ratios e of different clays.

All the clay samples, which had essentially the same surface structure, were tested for

permeability under the same conditions. The size of the clay grains was the only variable in

the tests and it was given as the specific surface AS (m2/g). This characteristic is clearly seen

7
in the values α and β (Figs. 2 and 3), which is to be expected because the size of the grains

determines the tortuosity of the flow path and the cross-sectional characteristics of the flow

conduit. The relationships between the parameters and the specific surfaces of the tested clays

are as follows:

α = 4.08 ⋅ 10 −6 AS−3, 03 (13)

β = 2.30 AS0.234 (14)

4,E-09

4,E-09 α = 4.08E-06 As
-3.03

3,E-09 R2 = 0.96
3,E-09 KGa-1

2,E-09
α

2,E-09
KGa-2

1,E-09 K-1 K-2

SAz-1
5,E-10

0,E+00
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
2
AS (m /g)

Fig. 2. Parameter α versus the specific surface AS .

0.234
7 β = 2.30 As
R2 = 0.99
6
KGa-1 SAz-1
β

5
K-2

4 K-1
KGa-2
3
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

2
AS (m /g)

Fig. 3. Parameter β versus the specific surface AS .

8
Taking into account Eqs. (12), (13) and (14), the hydraulic conductivity of the clays k (m/s)

can be expressed as follows:

0.234
k = 4.08 ⋅ 10 −6 AS−3.03 e 2.30 AS (15)

3.2 Relationship between the specific surface and the Atterberg limits

Eq. (15) would be very useful for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of fine-grained

soils if the specific surface of the soils could be correlated with the easily determinable

Atterberg limits.

It is known that the values of the Atterberg limits depend on the specific surface;

however, this relationship is not a simple one. To understand it, factors that affect the quantity

of water at the liquid and plastic limits need to be known. These problems were studied by

Dolinar and Trauner (2004) in their previous investigations, and they gave the following

explanation:

Fine-grained soils contain both clay and non-clay minerals. However, clay minerals, like

water, are not chemically inert, and as a result they are subject to interactions. Water is

strongly attracted to the mineral surfaces of clay, resulting in plasticity; whereas non-clay

particles have a much smaller specific surface and less affinity for water, and so do not

develop significant plasticity, even when in a finely ground form. It is, therefore, to be

expected that almost all the water in a soil is associated with the clay phase (Mitchell, 1993).

Water may only be found between the grains in soils with non-expanding clay minerals. The

moisture content in soils with expanding clay minerals represents the total quantity of water

that is bonded to both the external surface and the internal surface of the clay grains. Using

the standard method for determining the water content, the total quantity of the intergrain

water we and the interlayer water wi can always be determined by drying at a temperature

higher than 100ºC.

9
 The liquid limit represents the water content at which different fine-grained soils have

an approximately equal undrained shear strength (Casagrande, 1932). It is to be expected that

the undrained shear strength depends on the quantity of intergrain water only because the

interlayer water is tightly bound between the layers and thus cannot influence it. The clays

have an almost equal hydraulic conductivity at the liquid limit (Nagaraj et al., 1991), which

means that the effective pore sizes controlling fluid flow must be about the same for all clays

(Mitchell, 1993). It was also found that clays have a similar pore-water suction at the liquid

limit (Russel and Mickle, 1970). It is to be expected that the interaction forces between the

surface grains and the adsorbed water are approximately the same for all clay minerals due to

the equality of the surface structure. This also means that the quantity of adsorbed water per

clay surface unit should be about the same (Mitchell, 1993). Taking account of these facts, the

quantity of intergrain water we for soils at the liquid limit LL can be expressed in the form:

we LL = LL = p wef LL
+ wea = p wef LL
+ t a LL AS (16)

where wef LL
is the quantity of free pore water, wef LL
is constant for different clays at the liquid

limit, and wea LL is the quantity of adsorbed water on the clay surface. This quantity of water

depends only on the size of the clay grains AS because the thickness t a LL of the adsorbed

water on the external clay surface is constant for all clays at the liquid limit. The intergrain

water content depends on the quantity of clay minerals p in the soil ( p is the percentage of

clay minerals in the soil divided by 100), assuming that all the water in the soil is associated

with the clay minerals. If the expression (16) is valid for the undrained shear strength at the

liquid limit of soils, it is to be expected that it is valid for the undrained shear strength at the

plastic limit, too.

With non-expanding clay minerals, which contain intergrain water only, the liquid and

plastic limits can thus be expressed in terms of the external specific surface of the grains using

10
Eq. (16). In expanding clay minerals, however, the liquid and plastic limits represent the total

water quantity bonded to the internal as well as to the external grain surfaces. It is well known

that the amount of interlayer water does not depend on the size of the internal specific surface

of the clay grains but on the type and quantity of the interlayer cations and the chemical

composition of the pore water (Grim, 1962). This explains the non-existence of a unified

criterion to express the relationship between the water content at the liquid or plastic limits

and the specific surface for non-expanding and expanding soils.

Dolinar and Trauner (2004) experimentally determined the quantity of free pore water

wef and the thickness of the adsorbed water t a at the liquid and plastic limits. The specific

surface AS (m2/g) of non-swelling soil can thus be expressed in terms of the Atterberg limits

or the plasticity index PI (%) and the weight portion p (0< p ≤ 1) of clay minerals in the soil,

as follows:

AS = ( LL − 31.91 p ) 0.81 (17)

AS = ( PL − 23.16 p ) / 0.27 (18)

AS = ( PI − 8.74 p) 0.54 (19)

Eqs. (17), (18) and (19) are based on investigations of artificially prepared samples, since this

allowed all the relevant environmental factors to be eliminated or equalized. Therefore, the

results are only valid for soils without organic admixtures and with the same fabric (dispersed

arrangement of clay grains) at an ambient temperature of 20°C.

When soils contain clays with limited swelling (for example, montmorillonite with a

two or more valent cation), in which the quantity of interlayer water at the LL and the PL is

approximately the same, the external specific surface can be expressed with the plasticity

index from Eq. (17). Combining Eq. (15) with Eq. (19) allows us to predict the hydraulic

conductivity of fine-grained soils with non-swelling and limited-swelling clay minerals using

11
their plasticity values (Eq. (20)). The portion of clay minerals p in soils can be obtained from

a particle size analysis.

6.31 ⋅ 10−7 0.234

k= 3.03
e 2.66 ( PI − 8.74 p ) (20)
(PI − 8.74 p)

The comparison between experimentally obtained values of hydraulic conductivity and

calculated values using Eq. (20) is shown in Fig.1.

4 Conclusion

This paper focuses on an investigation of the relationship between the hydraulic

conductivity of clays and their Atterberg limits. The results of laboratory tests showed that the

relationship between the hydraulic conductivity and the void ratio can be expressed with

equation (12). The parameters α and β , which reflect the tortuosity of the flow path and the

cross-sectional characteristics of the flow conduit, depend on the shape and the size of the

particles. In plate-like clay particles these parameters can be expressed with Eqs. (13) and

(14), depending on the external specific surface.

The Atterberg limits represent the total water quantity bonded to internal as well as

external clay surfaces. With non-swelling clay minerals, which only contain intergrain water,

the external specific surface can be expressed with Eqs. (17) and (18), depending on the liquid

and plastic limits. With limited-swelling clay minerals the quantity of interlayer water at the

liquid and plastic limits is approximately the same, and therefore the external specific surface

can be expressed with Eq. (19), depending on the plasticity index. In other swelling clays a

correlation between the external specific surface and the Atterberg limits does not exist.

The proposed models for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of clays from Eqs. 1–11

do not consider the fact that the tortuosity of the flow path and the cross-sectional

characteristics of the flow conduit depend on the external surfaces of the grains, while the

12
values of the Atterberg limits in swelling clays depend on the external and internal surfaces of

the grains and on the type and quantity of the interlayer cations. This is also the reason why

the proposed expressions for predicting the soils’ hydraulic conductivities differ to such an

extent.

It can be concluded that the plasticity values only allow us to predict the hydraulic

conductivity of those fine-grained soils that contain non-swelling or limited-swelling clay

minerals. The described equations are valid for remoulded, saturated clays without organic

and other admixtures, distilled water and a temperature of 20°C.

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