EARTH PRESSURE

Introduction

Whatever may be the type of wall; all the walls shown below (Fig. 1) have to withstand lateral
pressures either from earth or any other material on their faces.

Fig.1 Various Retaining Structures

Soil is neither a solid nor a liquid, but it has some of the characteristics of both these stages of matter.
One of its characteristic which is similar to that of a liquid is the tendency to exert a lateral pressure
against an object with which it comes in contact. This property of soil is highly important in
engineering practice, since it influences the design of retaining walls, bulk heads, abutments, under
ground conduits, piles and many other structures of similar nature.

There are two distinct kinds of lateral soil pressure. First, consider a retaining wall which holds back a
mass of clean, dry, cohesionless sand. The sand exerts a push against the wall by virtue of its tendency
to slip laterally and seek its natural slope or angle of repose. This kind of pressure is known as is
known as active lateral pressure of the soil. In this case the soil is the actuating element; and, if
stability is maintained, the structure must be able to withstand the pressure exerted by the soil. Next,
imagine that in some manner the retaining is caused to move towards the soil. When this situation
develops, the retaining wall or other type of structure is actuating element, and the soil provides the
resistance of maintaining stability. The pressure that soil develops in response to movement toward it
is called the passive resistance pressure. It may be very much greater than the active pressure.

Effect of Wall Movement on Earth Pressure

The relationship between active and passive earth pressures can be demonstrated by a simple
experiment with a model retaining wall in box (Fig. 2). The wall is hinged at the bottom and held by a
spring scale at the top, so that by pulling on the scale the force on the wall may be varied and
measured. Dry sand is carefully poured into the space on the side of the wall, and the scale reading
noted. The pulling force in the scale is then relaxed, and the force reduced until it finally reaches and
holds a minimum value as the wall moves outward. The soil now in active state and the force on the
spring is indicative of the active pressure of the soil on the wall. When the wall moves away from the
backfill, a portion of the backfill located next to the retaining wall tends to break away from the rest of
the soil mass and tends to move down wards relatively to the wall. Since the shearing resistance is
mobilized in the directions away from the wall, there is a resultant decrease in earth pressure which
continues until at a certain amount of displacement, failure will occur in the backfill and slip surface
will be developed. At this stage, the entire shearing resistance has been mobilized. The force acting on
the wall at this stage does not decrease any more with further movement of wall. Then the spring is
pulled until the force on the wall increases to a maximum value as the soil shears and the wall pushes it
forward and upward. The wall movement now has created a passive resistance state in the soil, and the
maximum force on the spring is indicative of the passive pressure on the soil. If the wall is pushed
towards the backfill, the soil is compressed and the soil offers resistance to this movement by virtue of
its shearing resistance. Since shearing resistance is builds up in direction towards the wall, the earth
pressure gradually increases. If this force reaches a value which the backfill can not withstand, failure
again ensues and slip surface develop. The pressure reaches a maximum value, when the entire
shearing resistance has been mobilized and does not increase any more with further wall movement.
Note that for either the active or passive state to develop, the wall must move. If the wall does not
move, an intermediate stress state exists, called earth pressure at rest.
 Fig. 2 Illustration of Active and Passive Cases, and Earth Pressure at Rest

The active and passive earth pressure develops corresponding to the limiting states of equilibrium. The
soil mass is said to be in a state of plastic equilibrium at these two stages.

The stress conditions during plastic equilibrium can be represented by following Mohr – Coulomb
equation:

, or
where, = flow value.

Fig. 3 Active and Passive Earth pressure

If c = 0, or

The ratio of horizontal stress to vertical stress is called the coefficient of earth pressure K.
(Also it is some times called the hydrostatic pressure ration).

When the soil is in active state of plastic equilibrium, , and

Therefore,

Where, Ka = coefficient of active earth pressure.

Similarly, in Passive state, ; and

Therefore,

Where, Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure.

When the soil is at elastic equilibrium (at rest), the ratio of horizontal to vertical stress is called the
coefficient of earth pressure at rest.

Mohr Circle Representation of Active and Passive Pressure

 Fig 4. Mohr Circle Representation of Active and Passive States for Cohesionless backfill.

The Rankine coefficient K is easily derived with the aid of the Mohr circle shown in Figure 4. Since

the distance from the origin to the centre of the circle is , and the radius of the circle is

, we have ,

Therefore

The contrast between active and passive states is shown by the two circles tangent to the failure
envelope. In the active case is less than , and therefore represents the minor principle stress. If
the wall is pushed against the soil, increases until it is sufficiently large to cause passive failure,
shown by the second circle in which is the major principle stress. In this case,

, which is reciprocal of Ka.

If the wall is vertical, the respective points are origins of planes. Thus in the active case the slip

planes are .

Earth Pressure at Rest

The earth pressure at rest can be calculated using theory of elasticity, assuming the soil to be
homogenous, elastic and isotropic. Consider an element at a depth z, being acted upon by vertical
stress and horizontal stress . There will be no shear stress. The lateral strain in the

horizontal direction is given by:

The earth pressure at rest corresponding to the condition of zero lateral strain , hence,

or , where K0 is the coefficient of earth pressure at rest.

Designating the lateral pressure at rest by P0, and substitute = γ z, we have

, therefore

The pressure distribution diagram is thus triangular with zero intensity at z = 0, and an intensity of
k0.γ.z, at the base of the wall, where z = H. the total pressure P0 per unit length for vertical height H is

given by

The behaviour of soil is not in accordance with the elastic theory and does not accordance with the
elastic theory and do not have a well defined value of Poison’s ratio.

Soil Type K0
Loose Sand 0.4
Dense Sand 0.6
Sand Compacted 0.8
Soft Clay 0.6
Hard Clay 0.5
For coarse grained soils, the coefficient of earth pressure at rest can be estimated as K 0 = (1 – sinφ),
where φ = drained frictional angle. For fine grained, normally consolidated soil, Maisarsch (1979)

suggest . For over consolidated clays, K0 (over consolidated) = K0 (Normally Consolidated) *

(OCR)1/2.

Wall Movement Required to Reach the Active and Passive Condition

Soil Type Horizontal Movement required Horizontal Movement required

to reach the Active Condition to reach the Passive Condition
Dense Cohesionless 0.001H 0.02H
Loose Cohesionless 0.004H 0.06H
Stiff Cohesive 0.01H 0.02H
Soft Cohesive 0.02H 0.04H
Rankine’s Theory – Active and Passive Earth Pressure

Rankine (1857) investigated the stress conditions in soil at a state of Plastic equilibrium.

Assumptions:

1. The soil mass is semi-infinite, homogeneous, dry and cohesionless.

2. The ground surface is a plane which may be horizontal or inclined.
3. The back of the wall is vertical and smooth.
Effect of Wall Friction

According to the Rankine theory, the line of action of the resultant pressure on a retaining wall is
parallel to the slope of the backfill surface. This means that the resultant is horizontal when the backfill
is level; but it has a vertical component, and is therefore inclined with the horizontal. Experimental
evidence indicates that a vertical component is present even when the backfill surface is level, because
of the tilt of the wall. Tilting away from the active zone increases the available volume on that side of
the soil tends to sag downwards. This causes a down ward shearing force on the wall. On the passive
side the soil volume decreases and squeezes the soil upward, causing an upward shearing force. The
limiting value of these shearing forces relates to the coefficient of friction between the soil and wall:

V = F tan. Where V = vertical component of resultant pressure, F = component of resultant pressure

normal to back face of the wall,  = angle of friction between soil and retaining wall.
 Fig 5 Reduction of Overturning Moment by Wall Friction on a Retaining Wall

The angle  can never be greater than the angle. In practice  is frequently assumed to be about 2/3.

It is to be noted that the vertical components of the resultant pressures usually decrease the calculated
overturning moment on a retaining wall.

# In Fig. 5, the height of the wall is 6.0m. If γ = 15 kN/m 2, φ = 300, and b = 1 m, calculate the
overturning moment about point A with and with out consideration of wall friction.

(a) Without wall friction:

(b) With wall friction: Let  = 2/3  = 2/3 X 30 = 20 degree

(as above)

MA = F X a – V X b

= P cos  X a – P sin X b

= 90 cos 20 X 2 – 90 sin 20 X 1

=138 N.m/m

In practice, wall friction is frequently neglected in design as an added factor of safety.

Active Earth Pressure

Case 1: Dry or moist backfill with no surcharge

Fig. 6 Active Earth Pressure for Dry or Moist Cohesionless Backfill

Consider an element at a depth z below the ground surface. In active condition, the vertical pressure v
is the major principal stress 1, and the horizontal pressure h is the minimum principal stress 3 as
shown in Figure 6.

We have 1 = 3tan2 (45 + /2 ) {as c = 0}

Where,h = lateral earth pressure = Pa

v = vertical pressure on the element = z

 Pa = zcot2 (45 + /2) =

= Ka. γ. Z, where Ka = coefficient of active earth pressure = cot2 (45 + /2) =

At depth z = 0, lateral pressure Pa = 0, At z = H, the earth pressure is Pa = Ka H

The total active earth pressure Pa or the resultant pressure per unit length of he wall is found out by
integrating above equation or from the triangular pressure distribution system.
Pa = ½ KaH2, acting at H/3 above the base of the wall.

Case: 2 Submerged Backfill

(a) In this case (Fig 7a), the sand fill is saturated, and hence the lateral pressure is made up of two
components. (i) lateral pressure due to submerged weight γ’ of the soil, and (ii) lateral pressure due to
water.

Fig. 7 Submerged Backfill

Thus at any depth z below the surface

Pa = Ka ’H + w z

The pressure at the base of the retaining wall (z = H) is given by Pa = Ka ’H + wH

(b) if free water is available on both sides of the wall (Fig. 7b), the water pressure need not be
considered, and the net lateral pressure is given by Pa = Ka ’H

(c) if the backfill is partly submerged (Fig. 8), the lateral pressure intensity at the base of the wall is
given by

Fig. 8 Partly Submerged Backfill

Pa = Ka H1 + Ka ’H2 + wH2 for 1 = 2

If 1 & 2 are different (Fig 8b), the earth pressure coefficient, Ka1 & Ka2 for both the portions will be
different. As the  decreases, Ka increases, and vice-versa. For 1 > 2, the lateral pressure intensity at
the base is given by

Pa = Ka2 H1 + Ka2 ’H2 + wH2

Case 3: Backfill with Uniform Surcharge

If the back fill is horizontal and carried a surcharge of uniform intensity ‘q’ per unit area (Fig. 9), the
vertical pressure increment at any depth ‘z’ will increase by ‘q’.

Fig. 9 Backfill with Uniform Surcharge

The increase in the lateral pressure due to this will be ‘Ka q’. Hence the lateral pressure at any depth
‘z’ is given by

pa = Ka Z + Kaq

At the base of the wall, the pressure intensity is

Pa = Ka H + Ka q

Since the vertical stress at every elevation is considered to increase by ‘q’, the lateral pressure
increases by ‘Ka. q’. This is rather conservative since a uniform pressure imposed at the surface of a
soil gets reduced as it gets transmitted to any finite depth, as is known from theories of stress
distribution.
Case 4: Backfill with Sloping Surface

Let the sloping surface behind the wall will be inclined at an angle  with the horizontal,  is called the
surcharge angle (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10 Lateral Pressure for Sloping Surcharge

p = lateral earth pressure = pa

pa = Ka Z; where Ka =

when  = 0, Ka =

The pressure distribution of the base given by pa = Ka H at an angle  with the horizontal.

If the backfill is submerged, the lateral pressure due to submerged weight of the soil will act at  with
horizontal, while lateral pressure due to water will act normal to the wall.

Case 5: Inclined Back and Surcharge

 Fig. 11 Lateral Earth Pressure on Inclined Back

The total active pressure P1 is first calculated on a vertical plane BC passing through the heel BC (Fig.
11). The total pressure P is the resultant of the horizontal pressure P 1 and the weight W of the wedge
ABC.

P=

Where P1 = ½ KaH2

Fig. 12 Pressure on Inclined Back with Sloping Ground

Figure 12 shows the case of a retaining wall with inclined back and surcharge. The active earth
pressure is first calculated on a vertical plane passing through the heel and intersecting the surface of
the backfill or its extension in point C. The height H of vertical plane is represented by BC. The
resultant of P is the vector sum of P 1 and W, where W is the weight of the soil contained in the triangle
ABC.

Active Earth Pressure on Cohesive Soils

 Fig. 13 Active Earth Pressure Distribution against a Retaining Wall with Cohesive Backfill

Figure 13 shows frictionless retaining wall with a cohesive soil backfill. The active pressure against the
wall at any depth below the ground surface can be expressed as

1 = 3 tan2 + 2 c tan 

At any depth Z, we have 1 = Z and 3 = lateral pressure pa

Therefore we have,

Z = pa tan2 + 2 c tan

pa = Z cot2 - 2 c cot Where  = 45 + /2

The variation of Z cot2 (Z Ka) with depth is shown in above figure, and the variation of 2C cot
(2C  Ka) with depth is also shown in above figure. Note that 2C Ka is not a function of ‘Z’, hence
figure is a rectangle.

The variation of the net value of Pa with depth is plotted in above figure (d). Also note that, because
of the effect of cohesion, Pa is negative in the upper part of the retaining wall. The depth ‘Z 0’ at which
the active pressure becomes equal to zero can be found out as :

pa =  Z cot2  - 2 c cot

0 =  Z cot2  - 2 c cot

Z = Z0 =

This shows that negative pressure (tension) is developed at top level of the retaining wall. The tension

decrease to zero at a depth Z0 =

For the undrained condition – that is  =0, Ka = tan2 45 = 1 and C = CU

Z0 =

So, with time, tensile cracks at the soil-wall interface will develop up to a depth Z0.

The total active force per unit length of the wall can be found from the area of the pressure diagram or

pa = ½ Ka  H2 – 2 c H

For  = 0

pa = ½  H2 – 2 c H

Because negative pressure, a tension track is mainly developed in the soil near the top of the wall, up
to a depth Z0. Also the total net pressure upon a depth ‘2Z 0’ is zero. This means that a cohesive soil
should be able to stand with a vertical face up to a depth 2Z 0 without any lateral support. The critical
height Hc of an unsupported vertical cut in cohesive soil is thus given by

Hc = 2 Z0 =

As cracks do occur and soil does not necessarily remain adhered to the top portion of the wall, up to
height ‘Z0’, it is usual to neglect the negative pressure and consider whole of the positive pressure
below ‘Z0’. The total lateral thrust on the wall is then obtained by integrating equation between limits
‘Z0’ & ‘H’.

or

Substituting Z0 = tan, we have

or

Backfill with Surcharge

If the backfill carries a surcharge of uniform intensity ‘q’ per unit lateral pressure is increased by ‘Ka
q’ or ‘q cot2’ everywhere. Hence, for lateral pressure is modified to

pa = γ z cot2α – 2 c cotα + q cot2α

at z = 0, pa = q cot2α – 2 c cotα

The depth ‘zo’ at p0 = 0 is given by

Passive Earth Pressure: Rankine’s Theory

(a) Cohesionless Backfill

In the case of passive state of plastic equilibrium the lateral pressure is the major principal stress while
the vertical pressure is the minor principal stress (Fig. 3). Thus:

σ h = pp = σ 1

σv = σ3 = γ z

Substituting this value in the principal stress relationship:

σ1 = σ3 tan2α , we get

pp = γ z tan2α = Kp γ z

Where, pp = passive earth pressure intensity

Kp = Rankine’s coefficient of passive earth pressure

Kp = tan2α = Nφ =

The distribution of passive earth pressure is triangular with maximum value of Kp γ H at the base of
the retaining wall of height H. The total pressure Pp for a depth H is given by:

If a uniform surcharge intensity ‘q’ per unit area acts over the surface of the backfill, the increase in the
passive pressure will be equal to ‘Kp . q’. The passive pressure intensity at a depth ‘z’ is then given by:
pp = Kp (γ z +q).

If the backfill is having its top surface inclined at an angle β, the passive pressure is given by:

That is, pp = γ z Kp

(b) Cohesive Backfill

Fig. 14 Passive Earth Pressure Distribution against Retaining Wall with Cohesive Backfill

For the case of cohesive soil, the principal stress relationship at failure is given by:

σ1 = σ3 tan2α + 2 c tanα

For the case of passive pressure σ1 = σh = pp

σ3 = σv = γ z

pp = γ z tan2α + 2 c tanα
at z = 0, pp = 2 c tanα

at z = H, pp = γ H tan2α + 2 c tanα

The total pressure is given by:

Lateral Pressure on Retaining Walls From Surcharges – Based on Theory of

Elasticity

1. Point Load Surcharge

Boussinesq (1883) Solved the problem of stresses produced at any point in a homogeneous, elastic and
isotropic medium as the result of a point load applied on the surface of an infinitely large half-space.

Fig. 15. Stresses in an Elastic Medium Caused by a Point Load

According to Figure 15, Boussinesq’s solution for normal stresses at a point A caused by the point load
P is
where,

We now apply equ. a to determine the lateral pressure on a retaining wall caused by the concentrated
point load Q placed at the surface of the backfill as shown in Figure 16. If the load Q placed on the
plane of the section shown, we can substitute y = 0 in Eq. a. Also assuming that  = 0.5, we can write

…………… (d)

Where L = Substituting x = mH and z = nH into Eq. (d). We have

……………..(e)

Fig. 16 Lateral Pressure against Wall Caused by a Point Load

The horizontal stress expressed by Eq. (e) does no include the restraining effect of the wall. This
expression was investigated by Gerber (1929) and Spangler (1938) with large-scale tests. On the basis
of the experimental findings, Eq. (e) has been modified as follows to agree with the real conditions:

For m>0.4,

………….(f)
For m

…………….(g)

A non-dimensional plotting of n against For m and m = 0.5 and 0.7 is given in

Figure 16.

2. Line Load Surcharge

Figure 17 shows the distribution of lateral pressure against the vertical back face of the wall caused by
a line-load surcharge placed parallel to the crest.

Fig. 17 Lateral Pressure on Retaining Wall Caused by a Line load Surcharge

The modified forms of the equations [similar to Eqs. (f) and (g) for the case of point-load surcharge]
for line-load surcharges are as follows:

…………(h)

……………..(i)

Where q = load per unit length of the surcharge.

A non-dimensional plot of n against is given in Figure 17b.

Strip-Load Surcharge

Figure 18 shows a strip-load surcharge with an intensity of q per unit area located at a distance m 1 from
a wall of height H. On the basis of the theory of elasticity, the horizontal stress, against at a depth z
on a retaining structure can be given as

Fig. 18 Lateral Pressure on a Retaining Wall Caused by a Strip Load Surcharge

The angles and are defined in Figure 18. For actual soil behaviour (from wall restraining effect),
the preceding equation can be modified to

The nature of the distribution of with depth is shown in Figure 18. The force, P, per unit length of
the wall caused by the strip load alone can be obtained by integration of with limits of z from 0 to
H.

Coulomb’s Theory

More than 200 years ago, Coulomb (1776) presented a theory for active and passive earth pressures. In
this theory, Coulomb assumed that the failure surface is a plane. The wall friction was taken into
consideration.

Active Case
Let AB (Figure 19a) is the back face of a retaining wall supporting a granular soil, the surface of which
is constantly sloping at an angle α with the horizontal. BC is a trial failure surface. In the stability
consideration of the probable failure wedge ABC, the following forces are involved:

Fig. 19 Coulomb’s Active Pressure: a trial failure wedge; (b) force polygon

1. W, the weight of the soil wedge.

2. F, the resultant of the shear and normal forces on the surface of failure, BC. This is inclined at
an angle of φ to the normal drawn to the plane BC.

3. Pa, the active force per unit length of the wall. The direction of Pa is inclined at an angle δ to
the normal drawn to the face of the wall that supports the soil. δ is the angle of friction between
the soil and the wall.

The force triangle for the wedge is shown in Figure 19b. From the law of sines, we have:

, or

The preceding equation can be written in the form

Where γ = unit weight of the backfill. The values of γ, H, θ, α, φ, and δ are constants, and β is the only

variable. To determine the critical value of β for maximum Pa, we have .

After solving above equation, we obtain Coulomb’s active earth pressure as .

Where Ka is Coulomb’s active earth pressure coefficient and is given by

Note that when α = 00, θ = 00, and δ = 00, Coulomb’s active earth pressure coefficient becomes equal to
(1-sinφ)/ (1+sinφ), which is same as Rankine’s earth pressure coefficient.

Passive Case

Figure 20a shows a retaining wall with a sloping cohesionless backfill similar to that considered in
active case. The force polygon for equilibrium of the wedge ABC for the passive state is shown in

Figure 20b. In a procedure similar to the one that we followed in the active case, we get

, where Kp = Coulomb’s passive earth pressure coefficient. It is given by

 Fig. 20 Coulomb’s Passive Pressure: (a) Trail Failure Wedge; (b) Force Polygon

For a frictionless wall with vertical back face supporting granular soil backfill with a horizontal surface
(that is, θ = 00, α = 00, δ = 00) equation yields Kp = (1+sinφ) / (1-sinφ) = tan2(45+ φ/2).

Graphical Method

Culman’s Solutions for Cohesionless Backfill

Culman’s procedure for determination of active earth pressure is explained in Figure 21.

The following steps are to be carried out.

Step 1: Draw the retaining wall and the backfill to a convenient scale.
 Fig. 21 Culman’s Method for Determination of Active Earth Pressure

Step 2: Select point O at the heel of the retaining wall. When base of wall does not interfere with
rupture zone earth pressure is determined along face OK of the wall as in Figure 21a, but when
base interferes with rupture zone earth pressure is determined on vertical plane OK as shown in
Figure 21b.

Step 3: From O draw a straight line OA upwards inclined at f to the horizontal. Draw another straight
line OB downwards such that angle AOB is (α – δ).
Step 4: Draw straight lines from 0 to intersect the backfill slope. OL, OM, and ON are such straight
lines shown in Fig. 21.

Step 5: Determine the weight of the soil wedges formed by the line drawn from O to intersect the
backfill and plot these values along line OA to a convenient scale with O as origin.

Step 6: From the points marked along OA described in Step 5 draw straight lines parallel to OB to
intersect their respective boundary of wedge formed by the straight line from O to intersect the
surface of the backfill.

Step 7: Draw a smooth curve through the locus of points established in. Step 6. This curve is called
Culman's line.

Step 8: Draw all possible tangents to Culman's line such that the tangents are parallel to OA.

Step 9: From tangent points on the Culman's line draw lines parallel to OB to intersect OA. Select the
longest of these lines (measuring from tangent point to their intersection on OA) and convert it
to force using weight scale used along OA to plot weight of the soil wedges. This is the value
of active lateral thrust. A straight line drawn from 0 to backfill through the point of tangency
corresponding to active thrust gives the failure surface.

When line loads act on the backfill a trial wedge is formed by drawing a straight line from O to the
point of action of line load. For this wedge two weights are obtained one without considering line load
and the other considering also the line load. These are plotted along OA and rest of the procedure is
same as explained before. In all wedges where the line load acts, the weight due to line load must be
included.

To determine the point of application of lateral thrust along OK, Terzaghi (1943) recommends the
following procedures:

Case A No concentrated loads on backfill (Fig. 22a)

Determine the centre of gravity of failure wedge. Through this draw a line parallel to failure surface to
intersect OK which is the point where Pa acts inclined at an angle of δ or β to the normal of OK.

Case B Concentrated or line load within failure wedge (Fig. 22b)

Draw a line parallel to OA from the point of application of vertical load. This intersects OK at E. Draw
another line from point of application of vertical load parallel to failure surface which intersects OK at
F. The point of application of Pa is EF/3.
 Fig. 22 Determination of Point of Application of Pa

Case C Concentrated or line load outside failure wedge (Fig. 22c)

Draw a line from point of application of load parallel to OA to intersect OK at E. The point of action of
Pa lies at EO/3 from E.

The determination of passive earth pressure by Culman’s method is shown in Fig.23. The following
steps are to be carried out.

Fig. 23 Culman’s Method for Determination of Passive Earth Pressure

Step 1: Draw the retaining wall and the backfill to a convenient scale.

Step 2: Select point O at the heel of the wall as described for determination of active pressure.
Step 3: From O draw a straight line OA downwards inclined at φ to the horizontal. Draw another
straight line OB downwards such that angle AOB is (a +d).

Step 4 to Step 8 is same as described for determination of active earth pressure.

Step 9: From tangent points draw lines parallel to OB to intersect OA. Select the shortest of these lines
and convert it to force using weight scale used along OA to plot weight of soil wedges. This is
the value of passive thrust Pp. A straight line drawn from O to backfill through the point of
tangency corresponding to passive thrust gives the failure surface.

Design of Gravity Retaining Wall

A gravity retaining wall is the one which resists the lateral earth pressure by its weight in contrast to
the cantilever and counter fort retaining walls. The criteria of design of gravity retaining walls are as
under:

1. The base width of the wall must be such that the maximum pressure exerted on the foundation soil
does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
2. No tension should be developed anywhere in the wall.
3. The wall must be safe against sliding.

4. The wall must be safe against overturning.

Fig. 24 Pressure Distribution below Base

Let Pa be the resultant active pressure acting on the wall face. Ph and Pv are its components in
horizontal and vertical directions. If W is the weight of the wall acting through its centroid, the
resultant R will pass through the point of intersection of W and Pa. The resultant R striking the base at
some point can be resolved into vertical and horizontal components Rv and Rh.

Resolving the forces into vertical and horizontal directions, we get

Rv = W + Pv, and

Rh = Ph

To find the distance of the point of application of R, equate the moment of the forces to the moment of
their resultant about point B:

, therefore

; Where M = sum of moments of all forces about B = Wx 1 + Pv x2 + Ph

z, and V = sum of the vertical force = Rv = W + Pv

Since the resultant vertical force Rv (=V) acts eccentrically on the base, the bearing pressure on the
soil beneath the base are the combination of direct and bending stress. Assuming a linear distribution
of pressure, the pressure intensities at the ends on the base are given by:

where b = base width of wall, and e = eccentricity or the distance from the mid point of application of

R= .

Fig 24 b, c, d shows three cases of pressure distribution below the base. When R strikes the base within
the middle third (i e e < b/6), f 1 and f2 will be compressive as shown in Fig 24b. Fig 24c shows the

special case when e = b/6, so that

When e > b/6 (Fig 24d) tension is developed at B. Since soil is generally considered incapable to resist
tension, the pressure will be redistributed along the intact base, of width 3b1, where b1 is the distance of
the point of application of R from end C. The intensity f1 will be then given by:
Substituting ,

The following are the criteria of design of gravity retaining wall:

1. The maximum pressure f1 should not exceed the bearing capacity of the soil.

2. For no tension to develop, e < b/6, or

3. For no sliding to occur, Rh < Rv.µ; where µ = tan = coefficient of friction between the base of

the wall and the soil. The Factor of Safety F against sliding is given by . The

minimum value of F should be 1.5

4. For the wall to be stable against overturning, R must pass within the base width. However, if
the requirement of no tension is fulfilled, complete safety against overturning is automatically
assured. If no tension condition is satisfied, safety against overturning is automatically

satisfied. The factor of safety against overturning is . These

moments are taken about the toe of the wall.