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11.lower Plants
11.lower Plants
11.lower Plants
The
Lower
Plants
may
be
better
referred
to
as
the
ancient
plants
because
they
were
the
first
plants
to
come
out
of
the
sea
billions
of
years
ago.
Having
preceded
the
seed-‐bearing,
higher
plants,
they
are
all
non-‐flowering.
Most
of
the
lower
plants
reproduce
both
asexually
and
sexually
via
spores,
in
a
process
known
as
alternation
of
generations
(see
separate
sheet).
ALGAE
AND
LIVERWORTS
One
of
the
first
green
plants
forming
in
the
sea
was
probably
algae.
Seaweeds
are
algae,
as
is
the
scum
on
ponds
and
green
slime
on
rocks.
The
green
color
we
see
in
the
Rivanna
Reservoir
in
the
summer
is
caused
by
algae
growth.
Algae
is
usually
a
water
plant
and
reproduce
mainly
by
simple
cell
division.
The
first
green
land
plant
is
usually
awarded
to
the
liverworts.
Each
liverwort
plant
is
only
an
inch
or
two
long
and
no
thicker
than
a
piece
of
paper.
It
is
made
up
of
several
layers
of
cells,
each
with
its
own
job
to
do.
The
top
layer
is
the
skin,
preventing
evaporation
of
water.
Food
is
manufactured
in
the
middle
layer
while
the
bottom
layer
anchors
the
liverwort
in
place
with
hair-‐thin
threads.
Liverworts
creep
over
rocks,
growing
from
the
tips
while
dying
at
the
base,
so
that
they
never
grow
very
long.
They
need
damp,
shady
places
and
are
often
found
along
streams
and
in
the
woods.
Like
algae,
reproduction
is
mainly
by
cell
division.
LICHENS
Lichens
don't
really
fit
into
the
evolutionary
picture
very
well.
They
have
no
leaves,
stems
or
roots.
They
are
in
fact
2
plants
in
one.
Lichens
consist
of
a
green,
photosynthesizing
alga
living
symbiotically
with
colorless
fungus.
'Me
alga
makes
the
food
for
both
while
the
fungus
wraps
itself
around
the
alga
protecting
and
anchoring
it.
Lichens
live
on
rocks,
on
bark,
on
tops
of
mountains,
and
even
on
the
tundra.
Neither
could
live
without
the
other
in
such
places.
Common
lichens
found
at
Ivy
Creek
include
Parmelias,
found
on
the
trunks
of
trees
and
rocks,
and
the
stalked
lichens
of
the
genus
Cladonia
such
as
Reindeer
moss
(not
a
moss),
Pixie
Cups
and
British
Soldiers
(the
red
knobs
are
where
the
spores
are
formed).
In
ancient
time,
lichens
were
cooked
to
make
blue
and
red
dyes.
This
led
to
the
discovery
of
its
power
as
litmus
paper,
an
indicator
for
acids
and
bases
still
used
in
laboratories
today.
Likewise,
its
dyes
are
used
in
Harris
tweed.
Lichens
are
considered
“pioneer
plants”
initiating
processes
of
soil
formation
in
places
no
other
plants
can
grow.
The
tiny
threads
associated
with
the
fungus
dig
deep
into
the
rock,
releasing
a
weak
acid,
slowly
dissolving
the
rock.
In
wet
weather,
these
cracks
swell
with
moisture,
further
breaking
the
rock
down.
As
the
lichens
die,
the
dead
plant
and
rock
material
combine
to
form
soil.
After
a
time,
there
is
enough
soil
to
support
moss,
then
ferns,
then
flowers
and
grasses.
Ultimately
trees
will
move
in.
This
is
called
succession.
This
process
goes
on
around
you
everyday,
everywhere.
While
the
fungus
forms
spores,
this
is
not
a
reliable
way
for
lichens
to
reproduce.
They
depend
much
more
on
new
plants
sprouting
from
old
and
wind-‐borne
“buds,”
in
which
each
bud
contains
both
the
alga
and
the
fungus.
Despite
their
hardiness
in
harsh
climates,
lichens
are
extremely
sensitive
to
man-‐made
pollution,
particularly
sulfur
dioxide.
Their
growth
and
development
is
used
as
in
indicator
of
air
pollution.
FUNGUS
Fungi,
are
in
some
ways,
even
more
polypores
have
invaded
the
tree
probably
via
a
primitive
than
liverworts,
because
within
a
fungus,
wound.
When
established,
the
mycelium
will
feed
every
cell
is
like
every
other.
It
has
no
outer
on
the
tree,
digesting
the
wood
until
it
becomes
protective
skin
and
no
roots,
leaves
or
soft
and
crumbly.
It
is
difficult
to
root
out
a
chlorophyll
-‐
therefore
no
way
to
make
or
store
growing
shelf
fungus.
food.
Yet
fungi
have
been
around
for
at
least
two
billion
years
and
there
are
five
times
as
many
Many
mushrooms
have
gills
under
the
cap
different
fungi
as
there
are
mosses,
lichen
and
and
above
the
stem
of
the
fruiting
body.
The
gills,
ferns.
Mushrooms,
mildew,
yeasts,
plant
rusts,
and
containing
the
spores,
are
hidden
until
the
mold,
such
as
penicillin
are
all
fungi.
umbrella
is
wide
open
at
which
time
the
spores
The
mushroom
you
eat
is
the
short-‐lived
rain
out
-‐
billions
of
them
-‐
either
dropping
to
the
fruiting
body
of
a
fungus,
the
container
of
spores.
ground
below
or
blowing
away
with
the
wind.
As
The
main
part
of
the
fungus
plant
lives
on
the
spores
ripen,
the
gills
melt
away,
dissolving
underground
as
fine
root-‐like
threads,
known
as
into
an
ink-‐like
liquid,
which
actually
helps
to
carry
hyphae,
branching
and
spreading,
sometimes
for
away
the
spores.
miles,
into
a
network
known
as
the
mycelium.
Via
Not
all
fungi
are
umbrella-‐shaped.
Shelf
or
the
hyphae,
fungi
feed
on
living
and
dead
matter
Bracket
Fungi
stick
straight
out
of
the
wood
on
around
them
-‐
decaying
leaves,
rotted
wood,
which
they
grow.
These
mushrooms
do
not
have
sometimes
living
tissue.
gills
-‐
they
have
thousands
of
tiny
holes
(pores).
In
this
way,
mushrooms
play
a
very
Each
pore
is
the
mouth
of
a
hollow
tube.
The
important
role
in
the
process
of
decomposition.
spores
develop
inside
these
tubes,
dropping
out
They
are
the
first
of
the
decayers
to
invade
dead
when
ripe.
The
Polypore
mushrooms
refer
to
this
wood
and
leaves.
Look
at
a
fallen
log
and
notice
the
structure.
mushrooms
that
grow
on
it.
Through
their
Some
mushrooms
develop
spores
on
small,
expanding
mycelium,
fungi
release
enzymes
that
fleshy
teeth,
others
on
upright
branches.
Spores
of
break
down
the
complex
carbohydrates
found
in
the
cone-‐shaped
Morel
mushroom
develop
in
their
nature
into
simpler
components
and
carbon
characteristic
wrinkles
and
ridges.
dioxide,
making
them
once
again
available
to
Others
form
spores
inside
their
caps.
plants
for
growth.
After
the
fungi
soften
the
wood,
Puffballs
form
a
round
ball
on
the
surface
of
the
secondary
decayers
can
move
in
to
accelerate
the
ground,
which
disintegrates
when
the
spores
are
return
of
the
log
to
soil.
ripened.
By
tapping
a
ripened
puffball,
one
can
see
Unfortunately,
this
enzyme
action
works
on
the
“smoke”
of
spores
erupt
out.
live
wood,
too.
Mushrooms
commonly
seen
on
an
Ivy
Creek
tour
are
the
shelf
fungi.
When
seen
on
a
live
tree
it
is
bad
news.
The
spores
of
these
Reference: The Story of Mosses, Ferns and Mushrooms by D. Sterling, 1955
The World Book Encyclopedia, 1990
How Nature Works by S. Parker, 1993
MOSSES
Mosses
take
another
leap
up
the
Mosses
are
important
pioneer
plants
on
evolutionary
ladder.
like
algae
and
liverworts,
near-‐bare
landscapes,
as
they
will
grow
in
very
mosses
reproduce
asexually,
both
from
the
tips
shallow
soil,
preventing
erosion
and
building
up
of
last
year’s
plant
and
via
underground
the
soil
as
they
die.
rhizomes.
However,
they
also
reproduce
sexually
via
spores.
See
Spore
Reproduction
and
Moss
Life
Cycle.
Mosses
have
no
roots
(they
have
hair-‐thin
threads
known
as
rhizoid)
and
no
vascular
system,
and
thus
have
no
way
to
store
food
or
water.
Furthermore,
their
chlorophyll
will
dry
up
in
bright
sunlight.
Therefore
mosses
have
adapted
unique
survival
techniques.
When
stressed,
mosses
curl
up,
protecting
their
chlorophyll,
and
basically
shut
down
making
The
most
common
mosses
at
Ivy
Creek
them
look
dull
and
gray.
When
water
becomes
Natural
Area
are
Hairy
Cap,
Fern
moss
and
Pin-‐
available
again,
the
moss
will
unfold
to
reveal
its
Cushion
Moss.
true
green
self
again.
FERNS
ALLIES
Horsetails
and
Club
mosses
were
the
first
green
plants
to
shoot
up
into
the
air
-‐
60,
80,
100
feet
tall
back
in
the
Coal
Age.
Today,
these
fern
allies
are
miniatures
of
their
ancient
selves,
measuring
6
inches
to
6
feet.
Horsetails
grow
in
poor
soil
from
an
underground
stem,
producing
two
different-‐
looking
stalks
each
season.
The
first
are
on
jointed,
hollow
stems
looking
like
pieces
of
pipe
fit
together.
Nourishment
comes
from
stored
food
in
the
underground
stem.
Their
only
purpose
is
to
produce
spores.
The
second
stalk
to
come
up
is
the
food-‐
making
stalk.
They
are
bushy
plants
with
a
circle
of
Running
cedar
is
the
most
common
club
moss
green
branches
looking
like
a
horses’
tail.
found
at
Ivy
Creek.
Because
people
over
harvested
it
as
Christmas
decoration
for
years,
it
became
a
Club
mosses
need
the
rich
soil
of
the
woods.
protected
plant
and
is
now
coming
back.
The
Once
the
size
of
trees,
these
plants
now
are
spores,
having
a
very
high
wax
content,
were
used
creeping
plants
with
trailing
or
underground
in
old-‐time
photography
to
make
a
flash.
The
stems.
Spores
are
formed
at
the
base
of
the
leaves,
spores
also
made
fine
talc
for
surgical
gloves.
The
on
separate
stalks
or
in
erect
cones.
See
alternation
plant
itself
has
a
high
enough
wax
content
to
make
of
generations.
it
a
fire
risk
when
dried
as
a
wreath.
FERNS
From
an
evolution
point
of
view,
ferns
are
at
REPRODUCTION
the
top
of
the
lower
plants
ladder.
Their
leaves
are
Ferns,
like
most
flowerless
plants,
bigger,
their
stems
sturdier
and
their
roots
tougher
reproduce
via
spores,
having
both
a
sexual
and
than
the
other
lower
plants.
They
are
just
one
step
asexual
phase.
This
is
called
alternation
of
below
the
flowering
plants
(seed-‐bearers).
generations.
See
Fern
Life
Cycle.
In
the
sexual
phase,
when
a
fern
spore
LEAVES
germinates,
it
grows
into
a
prothallus,
a
green
The
appearance
of
the
leaves,
known
as
heart-‐shaped
plant
about
the
size
of
a
thumbnail,
fronds,
is
one
of
the
identification
markers
for
the
looking
much
like
a
liverwort
-‐
and
nothing
like
its
different
ferns.
The
Walking
Fern
and
Adder's
parent
plant.
On
the
underside
of
the
prothallus
Tongue
have
single
leaves
(no
divisions).
Some
develop
male
and
female
sex
organs
which
in
turn
ferns,
like
the
Sensitive
and
Polypody
Ferns
are
produce
egg
cells
and
sperm.
Using
the
water
said
to
have
lobed
leaves,
when
the
divisions
do
not
available
(rain
or
dew),
the
sperm
swim
to
the
eggs.
reach
all
the
way
to
the
midrib
stem.
Still
attached
to
the
prothallus,
the
fertilized
egg
Most
fern
leaves
are
divided
into
leaflets,
develops
slowly,
sending
up
a
leaf
toward
the
sun
known
as
pinnae.
A
fern
with
a
single
set
of
leaflets,
and
a
tiny
root
into
the
earth.
It
will
take
its
food
like
the
Christmas
Fern,
is
said
to
be
once-‐pinnate.
from
the
prothallus
until
it's
strong
enough
to
When
the
leaflet
is
divided
again,
the
fern
is
manufacture
its
own,
at
which
point
-‐
sometimes
said
to
be
twice-‐pinnate.
Lady
Fern
and
Maidenhair
months
later
-‐
the
prothallus
withers
and
dies.
Fern
are
both
twice-‐pinnate.
The
Ferns
of
Ivy
Creek
This
begins
the
asexual
phase
of
the
fern,
list
indicates
the
number
of
divisions
for
each
fern
the
familiar
fern
plant
and
on
which
the
spores
will
species
found
here.
be
produced.
After
the
spores
ripen
and
disperse,
In
every
fern,
new
young
fronds
exist
as
those
germinating
will
grow
into
a
prothallus
clusters
of
buds
at
the
base
of
the
fern,
curled
and
beginning
the
cycle
again.
protected
by
scales.
When
one
crop
of
leaves
die,