FLUID MECHANICS II LAB REPORTS

FLOW METER DEMONSTRATION LAB REPORT

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the operation and characteristics of three different basic types of
flowmeters, including accuracy and energy losses.

METHOD
The lab exercise involves the measurement if volume flow rates and associated pressure kisses
with three flowmeters connected in series and using timed volume collection to produce a
reference measurement of flow rate.

EQUIPMENT
 The equipment required for the demonstration include the following:
 Hydraulic bench which allows the measurement of flow by timed volume collection
 The F1-21 Flow meter apparatus
 A stopwatch to determine the flow rate of water.
THEORY
The application of the Bernoulli’s equation yields the results shown below for both the venturi
meter and the orifice plate.
The volume flow rate in this case is given by:

Where

And:
 Dh is the head difference in m determined from the manometer readings forn the
appropriate meter as shown above.
 G is the acceleration due to gravity
 Cd is the discharge coefficient from the meter as given below
 A1 is the area of the test pipe upstream of the meter in m2
 A2 is the throat area of the meter in m2
We used a discharge coefficient, Cd, which was necessary because of the simplifying
assumptions made when applying the Bernoulli’s equations. Values of this coefficient are
determined by experiment; the assumed values used in the software were:
 For the venturi meter Cd = 0.98
 For the orifice plate Cd = 0,63
The energy loss that occurs in a pipe fitting (or what we termed as the secondary loss during the
lab exercise) was expressed in terms of a head loss (h, meters) and can be determined for the
manometer readings. In the experiment, head loss was compared to the square of the flow rate
used.
TECHNICAL DATA
The following dimensions and data provided was important for the calculations. Since we did not
carry out the measurements, we did not replace any of the technical data.
For the venturi meter
 Upstream Pipe Diameter 0.0317 m
 Cross-sectional area of upstream pipe A1 = 7.92e-4
 Throat diameter = 0.015 m
 Cross-sectional area of throat A2 = 1.77e-4
 Upstream Taper = 21 degrees
 Downstream Taper = 14 degrees
For the orifice Plate
 Upstream Pipe Diameter = 0.03127
 Cross sectional area of upstream pipe A1 = 7.92e-4
 Throat diameter = 0.020
 Cross-sectional area A2 = 3.14e-4
NOTE: The manometers are conncected so that you can obtain the pressure difference
 H1-H2 Venturi meter reading
 H1-H3Venturi loss
 H4 – H5 Variable area meter loss
 H6 – H7 Orifice plate reading
 H6 – H8 Orifice plate loss

Moreover the discharge coefficient Cd for the orifice plate and the venturi meter were provided
as 0.98 and 0.63 respectively.

The energy loss that occurs in a pipe fitting (secondary loss) is commonly expressed in terms of
a head loss (h, meters) and can be computed from the manometer readings. For this experiment,
head losses will be compared against the square of the flow rate used.

EQUIPMENT SETUP AND PROCEDURE

 The flowmeter test rig was placed on a bench that was level to ensure accurate reading
form the manometer.
 We connected the inlet pipe to the bench supply and the outlet pipe into the volumetric
tank, which was then secured to the end of the pipe to prevent it from moving about.
 The pump was started and the bench valve opened and the test rig flow control valve to
flush the system.
 In order to release the pressure, both bench and test rig values are closed, the air bleed
screw was opened and the cap removed from the adjacent air valve.
 We connected a length of small-bore tubing from the air valve to the volumetric tank.
  Next, we opened the bench valve and allowed flow through the manometer tubes to
remove the air. We then tightened the air bleed screw slightly to allow air to be drawn
into the top of the manometer tubes.
 We retightened the screw when the manometer levels reached a convenient height.
 We checked that all manometer levels are on scale at the maximum flow rate. These
levels were adjusted by using the air bleed screw.

RESULTS
At a fixed flow rate, we recorded all the manometer heights and the variable area meter reading
and carried out a timed volume collection using the volumetric tank. That was achieved by
closing the ball valve and measuring with a stopwatch. The time taken to accumulate a volume
that’s known is recorded and recorded from the sight glass.

The fluid was collected for a reasonable amount of time to minimize timing errors. The
measurement was repeated three times to check for consistency and the average readings taken.
We carried out several iterations and recorded the time before computing the data required.
Tes Orifi Vent Volu Tim Varia H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8(m
t ce uri me e to ble (m (m (m (m (m (m (m m)
Pip area Area Close Coll Area m) m) m) m) m) m) m)
e (A2) d ect Meter
Are Readi
a ng
A1 (l/
min)
7.9 3.14 1.77 0.003 27.6 7 300 270 285 280 205 210 185
2e-4
e -4
e -4
3
7.9 3.14 1.77 0.003 26.4 7 300 270 285 280 205 210 185
2e-4
e -4
e -4
5
7.9 3.14 1.77 0.003 27.4 7 300 270 285 280 205 210 185
2e-4
e -4
e -4
9
7.9 3.14 1.77 0.003 14.5 12 300 270 285 280 205 210 185
2e-4
e -4
e -4
5
7.9 3.14 1.77 0.003 14.9 12 300 270 285 280 205 210 185
2e-4
e -4
e -4
0
7.9 3.14 1.77 0.003 14.1 12 300 270 285 280 205 210 185
2e-4
e -4
e -4
1
7.9 3.14 1.77 0.003 17.3 10 300 270 285 280 205 210 185
2e-4
e -4
e -4
6
7.9 3.14 1.77 0.003 16.5 10 300 270 285 280 205 210 185
2e-4
e -4
e -4
8
7.9 3.14 1.77 0.003 17.5 10 300 270 285 280 205 210 185
2e-4
e -4
e -4
0

H8 Tim Varia Orifi Vent Varia Orifi Vent Varia Orifi Vent Time
(m ed ble ce uri ble ce uri ble ce uri d
m) Flo Area Plate Mete area Plate Meter Area Plate Mete Flow
w Flow flow r % % % Head Head r Rate
Rate Rate Rate Flow Flow Flow Flow Loss Loss Head Squar
Qt Qa Qo rate rate Rate Rate Loss ed
Qt error Error
195 1.08 1.17e-4 2.15e 4.32e 0.21 2.47 75 15 15 1.17e-
e-4 -4 -3
4
1.13 1.17e-4 2.15e 4.32e 0.09 2.36 75 15 15 1.27e-
e-4 -4 -3
4
1.09 1.17e-4 2.15e 4.32e 0.19 2.45 75 15 15 1.19e-
e-4 -4 -3
7
2.06 2.00e-4 2.15e 4.32e 0.14 -0.21 75 15 15 4.24e-
e-4 -4 -3
4
2.01 2.00e-4 2.15e 4.32e 0.02 -0.32 75 15 15 4.04e-
e-4 -4 -3
4
2.13 2.00e-4 2.15e 4.32e 0.3 -0.05 75 15 15 4.53e-
e-4 -4 -3
4
1.73 1.67e-4 2.15e 4.32e 0.14 -0.97 75 15 15 2.99e-
e-4 -4 -3
4
1.81 1.67e-4 2.15e 4.32e 0.32 -0.79 75 15 15 3.28e-
e-4 -4 -3
4
1.71 1.67e-4 2.15e 4.32e 0.09 -1.01 75 15 15 2.92e-
e-4 -4 -3
4

Timed Orifice Venturi Variable Orifice Venturi Variable Orifice V

Flow Variable Plate Meter Area % Plate % Meter % Area Head Plate M
Rate Area Flow Flow Flow Rate Flow Rate Flow Rate Flow Rate Loss (H5- Head Loss H
Reading (Qt) Rate (Qa) Rate (Qo) (Qv) Error Error Error H4) (H7-H6) (
1 27.63 7.00 6.35 7.00 2.56% 2.89% 0.00% 75.00 35.00 3
2 26.45 7.00 6.35 7.00 2.56% 2.89% 0.00% 75.00 35.00 3
3 27.49 7.00 6.35 7.00 2.56% 2.89% 0.00% 75.00 35.00 3
4 14.55 12.00 10.80 12.00 -15.83% -10.00% 0.00% -75.00 -35.00 -
5 14.90 12.00 10.80 12.00 -15.83% -10.00% 0.00% -75.00 -35.00 -
6 14.11 12.00 10.80 12.00 -15.83% -10.00% 0.00% -75.00 -35.00 -
7 17.36 10.00 8.80 10.00 -16.00% -12.00% 0.00% 75.00 35.00 3

Timed Orifice Venturi Variable Orifice Venturi Variable Orifice V

Flow Variable Plate Meter Area % Plate % Meter % Area Head Plate M
Rate Area Flow Flow Flow Rate Flow Rate Flow Rate Flow Rate Loss (H5- Head Loss H
Reading (Qt) Rate (Qa) Rate (Qo) (Qv) Error Error Error H4) (H7-H6) (
7 17.36 10.00 8.80 10.00 -16.00% -12.00% 0.00% 75.00 35.00 3
8 16.58 10.00 8.80 10.00 -16.00% -12.00% 0.00% 75.00 35.00 3
9 17.50 10.00 8.80 10.00 -16.00% -12.00% 0.00% 75.00 35.00 3
CONCLUSION
Experimental errors could have impacted the accuracy of a flow meter demonstration. Some of
the sources of experimental errors could be Measurement errors: Measurement errors can occur
due to the precision of the measuring instruments, the accuracy of the data acquisition system,
and the operator's ability to accurately measure the fluid velocity and pressure drop.
Environmental factors: Environmental factors such as temperature, atmospheric pressure, and
humidity can impact the accuracy of the measurements. Systematic errors can occur due to the
design or calibration of the flow meter, or due to the presence of other factors that affect the flow
of fluid, such as turbulence, cavitation, or interference from other nearby components.
In a flow meter demonstration, the variable area meter shows less variation in head loss with rate
than the other two meters (the venturi meter and the orifice plate meter) because of its unique
design.

A variable area meter works by using a cone-shaped element that moves in response to changes
in fluid flow rate. As the fluid flow rate increases, the cone moves downwards and the cross-
sectional area of the flow path decreases, which creates a greater pressure drop across the meter.
The pressure drop created by the variable area meter is proportional to the flow rate, which
means that it experiences less variation in head loss with rate compared to the other two meters.
In contrast, the venturi meter and the orifice plate meter both have a fixed cross-sectional area,
which means that the pressure drop they create is proportional to the square of the fluid flow rate.
This results in a much greater variation in head loss with rate compared to the variable area
meter.

In summary, the variable area meter's unique design, which allows it to maintain a constant
pressure drop per unit of fluid flow, leads to less variation in head loss with rate compared to the
other two meters.

APPENDIX
FLOW IN PIPE NETWORKS
INTRODUCTION
The Hydraulic Bench service module F1-10 was introduced. The module facilitated the carrying
out of the pipe network experiment, Pipes of different diameters can be connected in the C11-
MK11 pipe network apparatus in parallel and in a configuration that resembles a rung to
demonstrate the head flow characteristics of water flowing through different pipe networks.

The measurement capabilities of the module include:

 Measurement of head loss versus discharge for different sizes of pipes
 Characteristics of flow through parallel pipe networks
 Characteristics through pipes in series
 Characteristics of pipes around a ring main and the effect of changes in supplies and off
takes
 Application of doubling pipes on existing networks to increase flowrate.

Specifications for the equipment

Overall dimensions
 Height 1389 mm
 Width 785 mm
  Depth 656 mm
Specification
 Length of test pipes 0.7m
 Nominal diametrs 6mm
 9 mm – 2
 10 mm
 14 mm
 Nominal inside diameters of the manifolds 22.4 mm

Pipe Networks Lab Fluid Mechanics – Flow through Pipes with Different Diameters
Objective To measure head loss versus discharge for water flowing through individual pipes with
different internal diameters.

METHOD
By measuring the flowrate and corresponding head loss (pressure drop across pipes with
different inside diameters).
Equipment:
 Flow meters (Variable Area, Orifice Plate, and Venturi meter)
 Piping system – C11 – MKII Pipe Network Apparatus
 Pressure gauges
 Timer
THEORY

When fluid flows through a pipe with a different diameter, the velocity of the fluid changes due
to the change in cross-sectional area. This results in a change in the fluid's pressure and energy,
which can be measured and used to determine the flow rate through the pipes.
Additionally, the continuity equation can be applied to analyze fluid flow through pipe networks
with different diameters. This equation states that the flow rate into a pipe must equal the flow
rate out of the pipe, regardless of the changes in velocity and pressure.
By using different diameter pipes and measuring the flow rates through each pipe, this
experiment can provide insight into the relationships between fluid velocity, pressure, and flow
rate in pipe networks. The results of this experiment can be used to improve the design and
efficiency of pipe networks in various engineering applications.

The head loss hf can be given by

Where: Hf is head loss due to friction
 K- Constant which is dimensionless
 L – Length of pipe 0.7
 Qv Volumetric flowrate m3/s
 D inside diameters of the pipes
The actual head loss due to friction H 1-2 can be measured using the hand held pressure meter so
K can be determined from the equation shown below:

PROCEDURE
 We assembled the piping system and installed the flow meters.

 We set up the pressure gauges to measure the inlet and outlet pressures of each flow
meter.
 We conduct three iterations of flow measurement using the flow meters.
 We record the time it took to collect a volume of fluid.
Tes Pip Pipe Head Volume Elapse Flow K = Hf * Velocity Velcoity
t e d Lengt loss Collecte d Time Rate Qv d5/LQ2 V 2

m h H1-2 d V m 3
t secs m sec
3
V2
1 6 7 2002 0.01 33.53 0.00029 113567.3 3.18768e 1.06869e
8 3 -05 -08
 2 8 7 2101 0.01 24,62 0.00040 110359.5 2.54146e 6.55005e
6 1 -05 -08
3 9 7 1589 0.01 13.52 0.00073 92472.33 2.16288e 4.68168e
7 -05 -08
4 10 7 1426 0.01 10.58 0.00094 88916.34 1.96751e 3.85689e
4 -05 -08
5 14 7 838. 0.01 8.54 0.00117 498898.2 1.60608e 2.56381e
4 0 4 -05 -08

Results
Based on the data provided, it can be observed that:
 The value of K decreases as the diameter of the pipe increases at the same flow rate (Qv).
This suggests that the head loss (hf) is lower for larger diameter pipes.
 The value of K decreases as the flow rate (Qv) increases for pipes with the same
diameter. This suggests that the head loss (hf) is lower for higher flow rates.
Therefore, it can be concluded that, for the same pipe length, head loss (hf) decreases as either
the diameter of the pipe increases or the flow rate (Qv) increases.

SOURCES OF ERROR

CONCLUSION
The data does suggest that, for the same flow rate, increasing the diameter of the pipe reduces the
velocity, which results in a drop in head loss. This is consistent with the Darcy-Weisbach
equation, which shows that head loss is proportional to the velocity squared and inversely
proportional to the diameter of the pipe.

In conclusion, the Pipe Networks Lab Fluid Mechanics provided valuable insight into the
performance of different flow meters in measuring fluid flow rates. The results showed that the
Venturi meter was the most accurate and reliable of the three flow meters tested. This experiment
emphasized the importance of selecting the appropriate flow meter for fluid measurement in
industrial and laboratory settings.

APPENDIX

PIPE SURGE AND WATER HAMMER DEMONSTRATION

Objective: To demonstrate the effects of pipe surge and water hammer in a piping system.
Theory: Pipe surge occurs when the fluid in a pipe system is suddenly stopped or started, causing
a pressure wave to travel through the system. This wave can cause significant damage to pipes
and valves. Water hammer, on the other hand, is a pressure surge that occurs when the flow of
water in a piping system is abruptly stopped, resulting in a sudden increase in pressure.
Procedure:
Assemble a piping system with a pump, a control valve, and a pressure gauge.
Fill the system with water and start the pump to establish steady flow.
Use the control valve to suddenly stop the flow of water, observing the pressure gauge for a
sudden increase in pressure (water hammer).
Repeat the process, but this time use the control valve to suddenly start the flow of water,
observing the pressure gauge for a sudden decrease in pressure (pipe surge).
Observe and measure the pressure changes in the system caused by the pipe surge and water
hammer, and note the effects on the pipes and valves.

Recommendation: It is recommended to design piping systems with proper surge control devices
such as air chambers, shock absorbers, or pressure relief valves to mitigate the effects of water
hammer and pipe surge. Additionally, it is important to regularly monitor the piping system for
any signs of damage and to perform regular maintenance to ensure that all components are
functioning correctly.