OXFORD ENGINEERING SCIENCE SERIES

GENERAL EDITORS
J.M . BRADY C.E. BRENNEN W.R. EATOCK TAYLOR
M.Y. HUSSAINI T.V . JONES J. VAN BLADEL

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Engineering Rheology
Second Edition
THE OXFORD ENGINEERING SCIENCE SERIES

!5 M. F. KJ\NN:NEN anu C. H. POPELAK: Advanc('djraclure ml'dwllics

ROGER I. TANNER
23 H. J . RAM M : Fluid d>,nnmic.~/()r 'he slUdy o!lrwUOfliej1ofi'

Professor 0/ Mechanical Engineerinf?

25 W. D. McCOMB: The phy.(ics a/fluid turbulence

Universily 0/ Sydney

26 Z. P. BAZANT and L. CF.!)OJ rN' S!(!of!:':y :;!s;;-..Uu,e:,: principies oj elastic. ine/aslic.

alld damage theories

27 J. D. THORNTON: Sci(!I1ce and practice of liquid- liquid e~"(lraClioll (Two vo lumes)
29 M. O. TOKHI a nd R. R. LEITCH: Acti·"e /loise <"Omm/
31 J . A. C. K ENTFJELD: Nons/eady, one-dimensional, internal. compr('ssib/e flows
32 W. F . HOSFORD: Mechanics oJ crys tals and polycrys/uls
34 A. LlNAN and F. A. WilLIAMS: Fundamental asp('(l.'i 0/ combusllon
36 A . N. BERIS and B. J. EDWARDS: ThrrmodYJl(lll1iO o/f/olVing .)ysle",.~ . 11);111 internal microslrUCf/lH!

37 K. KANATANI: G(!omelrh:complI/(Jliol//ormfl("!Jil1i~ 'l,Ifsjon

38 J . G. cnl.l .1ER and J . R. THOMt: COlf"u('rlil'(, hOlitllg and COlld(,IIS0{ion (lhird edition)

39 1.1. GI ASS 2!1d J. P . S:SLI;\:-": /",'(m .l/ar;()17(1rrJloa·,1 (llld.~lJu(: k U'O[l('.Y

42 C. A. 01 RD: Mn/f:'c!r!(!; gt:s d;-,';(;;1i:"CS mid if/(' direct simu/(aiol1 0/ gasflulI ·.~

43 G. S. H. LOCK : Lalent hrol IrIln:ifer : on ill TroduCfion lo/wu/tm7C'nfa/s

44 C. E. BRENNEN: Cm'ilalion on(/ hubhle dynmmn

45 T.1'. C. TING: AnisOIroph: e/wfu'jf),: ilwor), and appliullivn."

46 K. lSHIHA RA: Soil bellm'iour in eOrlltqll{lkr georechn/cs

47 A. CHANDRA and S. MUKHERJEE: Boundary clemen! n7('flwds ill manu/o{"/uring

48 J . WESSON: Tokamnks (second edition)
49 S. ARI M aTO: COrllrol 'heory v/ nonlinear nJecJu.II1ica/ sysfC'ms: (he pas~it:i'y-bosecl ollll nrcu; T-lheore/;('
approach
50 R. W. EASTON: Geome/";c me/hods (or discre/(' d),namical systems
51 F. OLYSLAGER: E/eClromagl1(>lir wmlrglt'ides (lnd fl"Gflsmission lines

52 R. I. TANNER: Enp.i"neeril1g r"ea/og)' (second edilion)

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
 ft--"

~ rS76
/~t1S
) ,/3
~,-- 6
') PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION
Cjr:;O~ This edition again set out to provide a guide for those wishing to make predictions
about the behaviour of non-Newtonian materials in engineering; it contains
This book has been printed digitally and produced in a standard specification much new material following the rapid growth and change in the subject of
in order to ensure its continuing availability rheology over the past 15 years.
The basic orientation has not been changed , so the original preface is still
relevant, but the scope ha s been widened, and some important topics not dis­
) cussed in earlier editions a re now covered . In particular:
OXFORD (a) The question oftluid slip at solid walls is discussed in Chapter 3. It is clearly
UNIVERSITY PRE SS

Great Oarendon Street. Oxford OX2 6DP

of pa ramount importance to know whether or not slip occurs when solving
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
boundary-value problems relating to practice.
It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research. scholarship.
(b) Much more discussion of materials models with a yield stress is included
and education by publishing worldwide in
in Chapter 4. These models are frequently useful in practice and also there are
Oxford New York
some interesting connections with plasticity theory.
Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai
(c) A section on suspensions of particles has been included in Chapter 5; this is
Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata

Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi

a very active field of research and application .
Sao Paulo SbaJ:lghai Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto
(d) Chapter 8 has been compietely recast in view of the extremely rapid growth
with an associated company in Berlin
of the use of compu ting in rheology. While I believe the pioneering days of
Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press
computing are now over, the intelligent llSe of these methods is still no! rou tine,
in the UK and in certain other countries
and they need to be applied carefully, which is one theme of this chapter. For
Published in the United States
example, appropriate boundary conditions for viscoelastic nows are now
by Oxford University Press Inc. . New York
included. Regretfully, it has not been possible in a single vo lume to do justice to
©Rogerl. Tanner. 1985. 1988. 2000
the rapidly developing field of computa tion that deals wi th direct ' molecular'
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
simulation- for example, molecular and Brownia n dynamics-and this section
Database right Oxford University Press (maker)
is therefore brief.
Reprinted 2002
(e) Considerable additions to the stability section in Chapter 10 have been
) made in order to reflect recent progress in this difficult area.
All rights reserved . No part of this publication may be reproduced.

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,

Many other additions and deletions have been made, many new and up-to­
without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press,
date references and sorne nevv problems have been inciuded, bUl no attempt to
or as expressly permitted by law. or under terms agreed with the appropriate
su bstan tially cover areas such as liguid crystals and electrorheology was possible.
) reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction

outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department.
In the field of thermal rheology much research remains to be done, and so
Oxford University Press. at the address above
Chapter 9 remains fairly conservative in tone.
You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover
What J believe has emerged over the 20 years since I began to write this book
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
is a reasonable consensus on polymer nuid description, and an ability to solve
ISBN 0- 19- 856473- 2
appiications via computing. Happily, many basic puzzles also rema in to be
solved, especially in the melt- solid transition area and in application to non­
polymeric systems.
In closing this new Preface I wish to thank many helpers and collaborators,
but especially my colleague Professor Nha n Phan-Thien FAA who has done so
much to further rheological research on so many fronts. The sudden death in
1994 of my fonner co-worker, Jack Pipkin, is aiso noted with my deepest regrets .
The Acknowiedgements section also records my thanks to those who assisted
 \)
)
vi PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

in reading and criticizing parts of the work; Paul Briozzo did the new drawings
and Lyn Kennedy did a lot of the word processing-to them, my gratitude.
Finally, my heartfelt thar.ks go to Ena , who saw viriue in educating me, and to PREFACE TO FIRST EDITI01'-.J

Eiizabeih, who has helped in so many ways while research and book were being
produced. To both I dedicate this edition, which is being launched in to the second This book sets out to provide a guide, with some illustrations, for those who wish
cen tury and the new millenium of Rheology. to make predictions about the behaviour ofnon-Newtonian fluids in engineering.
It presupposes some previous contact with fluid mechanics and heat transfer, and
Sydney , N.S. W. RI.T so is intended for use at the graduate level by engineering students and others.
September 1999 Later chapters go beyond ,}lha t it is reasonably possible to teach ~n a typical one­
semester course and lead on to currrent topics of reseaTch, including the devising
of effective numerical methods for flow prediction. Problems are given a t the end
of each chapter, and a booklet of solutions may be obtained from the author for a
nominal charge.
The plan of. the book is centred around kinematics. From the coarse-scale
point of view fluid flow often looks much the same whether it is Newtonian or
non-Newtonian, but there are very significant differences in detailed flow
behaviour and in the levels of stress that occur in the two cases. After surveys of
some typical non-Newtonian behaviour and of classical continuum mechanics,
the latter using mainly Cartesian tensor and matrix notation for simplicity, the
main kinematic division into shearing 8nd stretch ing Dows is introduced in
Chart~r 3 Tn fht:: si.mplp'5;t c:asp.$ no specific constitutive equation or rheologicn!
model is needed for application to typical experimental situations. Many prac­
tical cases are not simple, so two chapters (4 and 5) are devoted to the develop­
ment of constitutive equations which are expected to be useful in predictions.
Both continuum and molecular methods of devising constitutive laws are dis­
cussed because the combination of the two is believed to be more powerful than
either used alone. The need to ha ve some idea of the basic kinematics before
eiecting to use one or other constitutive equation is emphasized. Two chapters on
applications then follow; one on nearly-viscometric or shearing flows, exempli­
fied by lubrication and calendaring, and one on stretching flows, exemplified by
spinning and film-blowing. The choice of examples here was difficult and many
interesting cases have had to be left out; the main lines of attack for other cases
follow once the principal kinematic features ha ve been discovered. When a
change of flow type takes place, for example, from one viscometric flo:w to
another, or from a viscometric flow to a stretching flow, then one is practically
forced to use numerical methods and this is recognized in Chapter 8. Again, only
a few exampies are anaiysed in detail. Up to this point the effect of temperature on
flows has been (mainly) ignored, but it is of such great importance that Chapter 9
is devoted to thermal effects . The introduction of this factor at this point is
convenient since it is extremely difficult to solve any practical non-isothermal
problem without numerical help. Finally, Chapter 10 deals with stability and )
turbulence, both of which are important topics now being researched.
The overall emphasis on kinematics owes much to my former mentor and
collaborator at Brown University, Jack (A. C.) Pipkin. Similarly, it was at that
institution that Robert Nickell introduced me to the use of finite elements for
 viii PREFACE TO FI RST EDITION
solving problems in non-Newtonian fluid mechanics. The idea of combining
continuum and molecular ideas in the development ofconstitutive models is clear
in the pioneering works of A. S. Lodge and R. B. Bird and their innuence can be
seen. I am also indebted to the many other colleagues and students, especiall y
Bruce Caswell, who have assisted in general ways. R. A. Antonia (Chapter 10),
M. M. Denn (Chapter 10), C. J. S. Petrie (Chapter 7) and Nhan Phan-Thien
(Chapters 6, 9, and 10 especially) were helpful in reading and commenting on the
chapters indicated. Useful suggestions were also made by Matti Keentok, Bob
(R. C.) Warren, Mark Bush, and others. I am grateful to all the above for their
advice, either explicit or implicit, and to Lyn and Stephanie for their typing skills.
) The present document is , then, not a complete atlas but a guide to some fairly
rugged territory. There are probably many uncharted rocks and some crevasses
which will no doubt be found the hard way . It is these unexpected problems that
makes rheology such a fascinating subject fo~ research .
Millagong, N.S. W . R.I.T.
March 1984
Preface to revised edition.
The present edition is largely unchanged from that of 1985 except that errors have
) been corrected <lnd some of Chapter 8 has been revised in view of the rapid
progress in numerical simulation.
Millagong, N.S. W. R.JT.
January 1988
)
) Annual Reviews Inc .
ACKNOWLEDG EMENTS
We record here with gratitude the assistance of the following organizations and
individuals.
Academic Press Inc .
We thank them for permission to reproduce
Fig. J..6 fro m F R. Eirich (ed .) Rheology, Vol. 5, Copyright 1969 (article by
J. P. Tordeiia).
Fig. 8.21 from C. D. Han, Rheology in polymer processing, Copyright 1976.
American Chemical Society
Fig. 7.7 is reprinted with permission from Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
Fundamentals, Vol. J9,p. 195, Copyright 1980, American Chemical Society.
American Institute of Chemical Engineers
Figs 3.10-3 . 13 are reproduced \l/ith permission fr om the A.l.Ch.E. Journal,
Vol. 18, p. 540, Copyright 1972.
Fig. 5.8 is reproduced with permission from the A .l.Ch.E. Journal, Vol. 22,
p. 910 . Copyright 1976.
Fig. 7.8 is reproduced with permision [rom the A.I.Ch.E. Journal, Vol. 21 ,
p. 796, Copyright 1975.
Fig. 9.8 is reproduced with permission from the A.I.Ch.E. Journal, Vol. 12,
p . 1196, Copyright 1966.
Fig. 10.4 is reproduced with permission from the Chemical engineering progress
Symposium Series , Drag reduction (ed. 1. G. Savins and P. S. Virk), Copyright
1971 (article by S. K . F. Karlsson, M. Sokolov, and R. 1. Tanner).
American Institute of Physics
Fig. 8.28 !s reproduced with permissi o n from the article by R. L. Gear~
M. Keentok, J. F. Milthorpe, and R. 1. T a nner, Physics of Fluids, Vol. 26, p. 8,
Copyright 1983.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
We acknowledge with thanks reproduction of Fig. 6.17 from the article by
J. A. Tichy and W. O. Winer from the ASMEJ. Lubrication Technology, Vol. 100,
p. 56, 1978 and Fig. 9.3 [rom the article by S. Bair and W. O. Winer, ASME
Journal of Lubrication Technology, Vol. 114, p. 8, Copyright 1992.
Figs 1.5, 3.14 and 4.20 are reproduced, with permission, from the Annual
R eview of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 9, Copyright 1977 by Annual Reviews Inc.
Fig. 7.5 is reproduced, with permission, from the Annual Review of Fluid
Mechanics, Voi. 12, Copyright 1980 by Annuai Reviews Inc.
 Xl
ACKNOWLEDGEM ENTS
x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Applied Science Publishers McGraw-Hili Book Co.

Fig. 9.2 is reproduced with permission from The rheology o/Iubricants (ed.
T . C. DaveDport), Copyright: 973 (article by R. F. Pyweii). Fig. 9.7 is reproduced
with permission from Computational analysis 0/ polymer processing (ed. J. R. A.
Pearson and S. M . Richardson ), Copyright 1983.
Cambridge University Press
We thank them for permission to reproduce Fig. 9. 12 from the article by
H. B. Phuoc, and R. I. Tanner, Thermally-induced ex tfudate s'Nel!, 1. Fluid
Mechanics , Vo!. 98 , Copyright! 980, Cambridge University Press.
Cari Hanser Verlag, Munich and Vienna
We thank th~ n1 for perrn! S5 !or: to :-eprodt;cc Fig. 9. i fruin r. Kennedy, Fiow
analysis 0/ inject ion molds, p . 23 , Copyrigh t 1995.
. Elsevier Science Publishers B. V.
We thank them for permission to reproduce
G. Marrucci, and L. Nicolais (ed.) Rheology, Vol. 3, Applications, p . 11, Copy­
Figs 6. 10 and 6.11 are reproduced with permIsSIon from S. Middleman ,
Fundamentals 0/ polymer processing, Copyright 1977, McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Pergamon Press Ltd
The following items are reprinted with permission:
Fig. 3.1 from Mechanics Today, Vol. I, article by A. C. Pipkin and R . l. Tanner,
p . 265, Copyright 1972, Pergamon Press Ltd .
Tab!e 1.5 and Fig. 6.21 frem 'Jtl. R. Scho\valter, 14echanics ofnon-Nervtonian
/Iuids, Copyright 1978, Pergamon Press Ltd.
Figs 8.26 and 8.27 from Computers and Fluids, Vol. 6, article by K. R. Reddy
and R. I. Tanner, p. 86, Copyright i 978, Pergamon Press Ltd.
Plenum Press
We thank them for permission to reproduce
Fig. 10.8 from the article by J .-c. Chang and M. M. Oenn, in G. Astarita,

Figs 3.6 and 3.7 from the Journal o/Non-Nell'tonian Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 6,
right 1980 by Plenum Publishing Corporation.

p. 303, Copyright 1980.

Fig. 3.20(a--<l) from the Journal 0/ Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 52, Society of Polymer Science (Japan)
Fig. 4.8 is adapted with permission from material in the article by Y . Einaga,
p. 153, Copyright 1994; article by Y. W Ooi and T. Sridhar.
K. Osaki, ivi. Kurala, S. Kimura, and ivi . Tamura, Poiymer j. (japan), VoL 2,

Fig. 321 from the Journal (JfNon-Newtonian Fluid M echanics, Vol. 52, p. ]37,
Copyright 1994; "n ick by D. M. BiDding, .! . Maia , and K . '.Valte ls. Copyright j 97 j .

Figs 5.13_ 5.14 , and 5. 15 from I. he lOUI"!?!!! o!iVon-Ne l;.'!ol1iGI7 Fluid /."fec/;anics ,
Vol. 76, p. 249, Copyright 1998 ; article by G. Lielens , P. Halin , 1. Jaumain,
R. Keunings , and V. Legal.
Fig. 5.23 from the .lournal 0/ Non-Newtonian FI/lid Mechonics , Vol. 27,
pp . 225-6, Copyright 1997; article by J. A . Byars , R . J . Binnington, and
D. V. Boger.
Fig. 6.4 from the Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechonics, Vol. 73, p . 120,
Dr Dietrich Steinkop// Verlag
We thank them for permission to reproduce
Table 2.1 from Rheologica Acta, Vol. 18, p. 681, Copyright 1979.
Fig. 9.5 from Rheologica Acta, Vol. 9, p. 155, Copyright 1970.
Fig. 9.15 from Rheologica Acta, Vol. 19, p . 168, Copyright 1980.
Fig. 4.2 (a--<l) a nd Fig. 4.3 from Rheologica Acta, Vol. 24, p. 325, Copyright
1985; article by H . A. Barnes and K. Walt ers.

Copyright 1997; article by B. P . Williamson, K. Walters, T. W. Bates, R. C. Coy , Fig. 4.4 from Rheologica Acta, Vol. 25, p. 554, Copyright 1986; article by

and A. L. Milton . D. C. H. Cheng.

Fig. 8.8 from the Journal 0/ Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics , Vo!. 31 , p. 264, Fig. 4.12 from Rheologica Acta, Vol. 18, p. 688, Copyright 1979; article by

Copyright 1989; article by S. Pilitsis, and A. N. Beris. M . H . Wagner. )

Fig. 10.5 from the Journal of Non-Nnvtonian Fluid M echunic:; , Vol. 14 , p. 182, Fig. 5.26(a, b) from Rheologica Acta, Vol. 32, pp. 460--1, Copyright 1993;
Copyright 1984; article by K. P . Jackson , K . Walters, and R .W . Williams. article by A. l. Johma and P . A . Reynolds .
Table 9.6 from D . W . van Krevelen, and P. J . Hoftyzer, Propert ies o/polymers ,
2nd edn, Copyright 1976. Society 0/ Rheology
We thank the Editor for permission to reproduce

International Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry Fig. 3.23 from the Journal of Rheology, Vol. 35, p. 503, Copyright 1991; article

Figs 3.15-3.19 inclusive and Tables 3.1-3.7 inclusive are reprinted with per­ . by S. Hatzikiriakos and 1. M. Dealy.

mission from the article by J. Meissner, Pure and Applied Chemistry, Vol. 42, Fig. 5.25 from the Journal 0/ Rheology, Vol. 24, p . 804, Copyright 1980; article

Copyright 1975, IUPAC. by F. Gadala-Maria and A . Acrivos .

.i
 xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Springer- Verlag GmbH

We {hank them for permission to reproduce Fig. 5.19 from Advances in
Polymer Science, Vol. 5, p. 267, Copyright 1968; article by G.c. Berry and TG. CONTENTS
Fox.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc. NOTATION XXI

We thank them for pennission to reproduce the following, all of which are the INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY
copyright of John Wiley Sons, Inc.
) 1.1 What is rheology?
Fig. 3.5 from the Transactions of the Society of Rheology, Vol. 14, p. 483,
2

1.2 An historical note

Copyright 1970.
5

1.3 Some rheological phenomena

Figs 4.17 and 4.18 from the TransaClions of the Society of Rheology, Vol. 13,
7

1.4 Purposes and aim of rheological theory

p. 471, Copyright 1969.

!.5 Description of rnateria! behaviour in shear 13

Figs 5.9- 5.! I fro~rn the Transactions of the Socieiy of Rheology, Vol. i 9, p. 37,

1.5.1 Time-independent non-Newtonian fluids 14

Copyright 1975.
1.5.2 Viscoelastic materials 20

Fig. 9.4 from 1. Polymer Science, Vol. 19, p. Ill, Copyright 1956.
1.6 Summary 29

Fig. 7.6 from J. Applied Polymer Science, Vol. 20, p. 18 J, Copyright 1976.
References
29

Fig. 7.9 from 1. Rheology, Vol. 22, p. 280, Copyright 1978.

Problems 30

Fig. 5.1 reprinted from R. B. Bird , R. C. Armstrong, and O. Hassager,

Dynamics of Polymeric Systems, Vol. I, Copyright 1977. 2 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS 33

Figs 9.13 and 9.14 reprinted from Z. Tadmor and C. Gogos, Principles 0/ 2.i introduction 33

) polymer processing , Copyrigh t 1979. 2.2 Stress 33

Table 9.3 (part) from J. D. Ferry , Viscoelastic properties ofpolymers, 3rd edn, 2.2.1 The stress tensor 33

Copyright 198 J. 2.2.2 Definition of stress: Notation 35

Fig. 3.22 from the Journal of Polymer Science, Vol. 10, p. 1067, Copyright 2.2.3 Properties of the stress tensor 36

1972; article by G.V. Vinogradov et al. 2.2.4 Isotropic functions of tensors 39

Thanks are also due to R B. Bird , D. V. Boger (Figs 1. 5 and 8.19), B. Caswell 2.2.5 Remarks about other tensors alld coordinate systems 40

(Table 8.6), M. J. Crochet (Fig. 8.22), M. M. Denn, C. D. Han, K. H. Hunt 2.3 Motion and deformation 40

)
(Fig. 3.2), A. S. Lodge, S. Middleman, N. Phan-Thien (Figs 8.39-8.40), 2.3.1 . Velocity and acceleration: Streamlines 41

R. Keunings (Figs 5.13-5.15), E.Mitsoulis, G. McKinley, S. Hatzikiriakos 2.3.2 Velocity gradient, rate of deformation and vorticity 42

(Flg. 3.23), W.R. Schowalter, S.-c. Xue (Figs 8.15-8.18,8.41), P. Kennedy and 2.3.3 Deformation gradient 42

R. Zheng (Fig. 9.16), for help with sundry material and/or criticisms of draft text. 43

2.3.4 Strain
) 2.3.5 Rate of change of strain. The Rivlin-Ericksen tensors 44

2.3.6 Some kinematic examples-shear and

planar elongation 45

2,4 Conservation of mass, momentum, and energy 47

2.4.1 Reynolds transport theorem 47

2.4.2 Conservation of mass 49

2.4.3 Conservation of momentum 50

2.4.4 Conservation of energy 51

~ 2.5 General rules for constitutive equations 52

2.5.1 Coordinate invariance, determinism, and local action 52

2.5.2 Principle of material objectivity 52

2.6 The classical constitutive relations 54

2.6.1 Linear viscous fluids and inviscid Duids 55

2.6.2 Linear elastic behaviour 57

)
 CONTENTS xv
xiv CONTENTS

2.6.3 Linear viscoelastic behaviour 58

4 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES AND
EXPERIMENTAL DATA 144

2.6.4 Sinusoidal linear viscoelastic response 60

2.6.5 Fitting data [or iinear viscoeiastic materials 64

4.1 Reiner-Rivlin and purely viscous fluids !44
2.6.6 Solving linea r viscoelastic boundary-value problems 66
4.2 Materials with a yield stress 146

2.7 Non-linear viscoelastic behaviour

74
4.2.1 Rigid regions in flows with yield stress 152

References
74
4.2.2 The rigid-plastic limit 155

75
4.3 Oldroyd's developments 157

Problems

4.3.1 The (upper) convected Maxwell model 160

3 VISCOMETRIC A.ND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS 79

4.3.2 The Oldroyd-B model 160

3.1 Introduction 79
4.4 Simple and non-simple fluids 161

3.2 Kinematics of viscometric 110ws

79
4.5 Rivlin-Ericksen expansions 161

3.2.! Steady parallel nows

80
4.5.1 Behaviour of Rivlin-Ericksen fluids in

3.2.2 Skew rectilinear flows 8i

unsteady shearing motions 164

3.2.3 Steady circular flows 82

4.5.2 Steady elongational flow response for

3.2.4 Helical nows 83

viscometric constitutive models 165

3.2.5 Helicoidal flows 83

4.6 Green- Rivlin expansions 165

3.2.6 General kinematics of viscometric nows 83

4.7 Elastic behaviour for rapid defonnations 167

3.3 Stresses in steady viscometric nows 84

169

4.8 The Kaye-Bernstein-Kearsley- Zapas model

3.3.1 Qualitative behaviour of the viscometric functions 4.8. I E!ongationa! flows and KBKZ-type models 172

for polymer solutions 85

4.8.2 Recoil after elongutioj'j 173

3.3.2 Sil'eSS fidus 87

i75
4.9 \Vagnef'S irreversjble iT!odel
3.4 Controiiabie viscomctric tlO\vs. 88
4.9. I Double-step shear straiilS i76
3.4.; TorsioJlal now in paraiiei-piate geometry 90
181

4.10 Other continuum models

3.5 Partially controllable nows 92

4.11 Some applications of approximate constitutive

3.5.1 Skew rectilinear motions 93

equations to experimental measurements 183

3.5.2 Poiseuille nows 94

4.11.1 Some useful results for second-order nows 183

3.5.3 Couette now and helical flows 101

4.11.2 Pressure-hole errors 185

3.5.4 Cone and plate flow 104

4.11.3 Flow in non-circular tubes and channels 190

3.5.5 Open channel methods for finding N2 107

4.1 J.4 General torsional flows i92
3.6 Unsteady shearing nows 109
4.11.5 Eccentric-disc now 195

3.6.1 Pipkin's classification diagram for shearing nows III

198

4.12 Summary
3.7 Elongational flows 113
198

References

3.7.1 Unsteady extensions 116

200

Problems
3.7.2 Biaxial and other related nows 117

3.8 Some experimental data 118

5 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES 203

3.8 .1 Low density polyethylene 119

5.1 The polymer molecule 203

3.8.2 A po!yme~ solution i29 5.1.1 Mean end-to-end length of a polymer molecule 205

3.8.3 Other nuid properties 131

5.1.2 Distribution function for end-to-end length
3.9 Wail slip 133
for ideal chains 207

3.10 Summary
!39
5.1.3 Tension in a polymer chain 208

References
140
5.2 Polymer molecules in dilute solution 209

Problems
142
5.2.1 Equation of conservation of beads 212

5.2.2 Dilute dumbbell solutions 212

J
)
 CONTENTS xvii

xvi CONTENTS

5.2.3 Calculation of the stress tensor 215

6.3 Lubrication with viscoelastic fluids 292

) 6.3.1 The second-order fluid 292

5.2.4 Steady potential flows 216

) 5.3 Constitutive equations for dilute dumbbell solutions

6.3 .2 Plane journal bearings 294

with Hookean springs 216

6.3.3 Norma! stresses in iubrication 296

5.3.1 An equivalent integral form of the constitutive equation 218

6.3.4 Boundary conditions in lubrication 299

5.3.2 Multiple relaxation times 218

6.4 Calendaring and related problems 303

5.3.3 Response of the convected Maxwell model 219

6.4. i Connection with roller and ball lubrication 310

) 5.4 Weak and strong flow classification via dumbbell mechanics 221
6.5 Coating flows 310

5.4.1 Constant velocity gradients: strong and weak flows 223

6.5.1 Roll coating 311

5.4.2 The Deborah number 226

6.5.2 Free-surface coaling 312

5.5 Dumbbells with limited extension 227

6.6 Three-dimensional lubrication theory 3!2
5.5.1 Chilcoli-Rallison and Giesekus models 2"J ' 6.6. i Newtonian short-bearing th.eory 313

5.5.2 Exact models and approximations 232

6.6 .2 Inelastic short-bearing theory 316

) 5.5.3 1he approach of Acierno and co-workers 236

6.6.3 Viscoelastic short-bearing theory 316

5.5.4 Further developments 238

6.6.4 Viscosity a known function of position 3i8
5.5.5 Rigid dumbbells and rods 238
6.6.5 Hele-Shaw flow and die filling 319

5.5.6 Experimental polymer molecule dynamics

6.7 Unsteady flows: the squeeze film problem 320

in dilute extensional flow 241

6.7.1 The Newtonian solution 321

)
5.6 Theories for molten polymers and concentrated solutions 242 0.7.2 Inelastic .ouids 322
5.6. i Theory of rubber elastici ty 243
6.7.3 Viscoelastic effects 322
5.6.2 The Lodge-·Yamamoto network theory 244
6.7.4 Experimentai evidence 324

5.6.3 Variable ratcs of network creation And destructi o n 218

6.7.5 Pure squeezing anion 325

5.6.4 The relaxation of the Gaussian spring assumption 250

6.7.6 Unsteady overshoot action 325

5.6.5 The non-affine deformation assumption- PTT model 250

6.8 Boundary-layer flows 327

5.6.6 Affine PTT models (~= 0) 252 6.8.1 The inelastic case 330

J 332

5.6.7 Fitting experimental data with PIT models 257

6.8.2 Results for viscoelastic fluids
) 5.6.8 The Kaye and Leonov models 259
6.8.3 The Rayleigh problem 334

5.7 Doi-Edwards theory 262

References
336
5.8 Rigid particle microstructures 265
Problems 337
") 5.8.1 Suspensions of spheres 265
7 FIBRE SPINNING AND FILM BLOWING 340

5.8.2 Effects of pa rticle geometry 273

340

7.1 i\lmost-elongational flows

58 .3 Fibre suspension s 275
340

7.1.1 Source and sink flows

5.9 Anisotropic fluids 276
345

7.2 Fibre spinning

510 Use of constitutive models for engineering problems 277
7.2.1 Experimental observations 346

References 281
7.2.2 Steady-state isothermal theory for inelastic fluids 347

) Problems 284
7.2.3 Spinning of viscoelastic fluids 351

6 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING AND

7.2.4 Results for iarge Weissenberg numbers 354

RELATED FLOWS 286

7.2.5 Numerical results and comparison with experiments 355

6.1 Nearly viscometric flows. The lubrication approximation 286

7.3 Film blowing and biaxial stretching 356

6 .2 Newtonian and generalized Newtonian lubrication theory 287

7.3.1 Newtonian solution 360

6.2.1 The plane slider bearing case 288

7.3.2 Non-Newtonian solution 362

6.2.2 lneiastic fluids 289

7.3.3 Maxwell fluid with temperature variation 364

365

.) 7.3.4 Further analyses

)
xviii CONTENTS CONTENTS xix

7A Other extensional processes

367
9.2.2 Amorphous and semi-crystalline polymers 455

References
367
9.2.3 The Williams-L andel- Ferry shift factor 456

Problem s
367
9.2.4 Time- tempera tute sp,j fting 458

9.2.5 The Morland- Lee hypothesis 4,,1

8 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLO GY AND APPLICATIONS 369

9.2.6 Non-linear materials 462

8.1 Computational rheology 369

9.2.7 Non-linear effects in the Giesekus model 465

8.2 Computational pro blems fo r non-Newtonian

9.3 Other thermo physical properties 466

incompressible flows
369
9.3 . 1 Density 4t:t:
vv

8 .3 Discreti za tion schemes 370

9.3.2 Specific heat 467

8. 3. i Finite differences 371

9.3. 3 Thermal conductivity 467

8. 3.2 Finite voiume methods 376

9.4 Effect of pressure on flows 469

701

8.3.3 The boundary-element mel hod JV ' 9.5 Effect of temperature on flows 469

8.3.4 Finite element methods 3g4

9.5.1 Circular tube flow 471

8. 3.5 Spectral method s

388
9 .5.2 Flat pla te now 474

8 A · Boundary conditions for viscoelastic flows

389
9.5.3 Simple shearing fl o ws with heating 476

8.5 Soluti o n procedures and sta bilizati o n 390

9.5.4 Thermal runaway in a viscoelastic slab 47 8
)
8.5.1 The high Weissenberg number problem 392
9.5.5 Flow round a sphere 480

8.5.2 Accuracy o f computations 393

9.5.6 Tension in a cooling rod 481

8.6 So me test problem s

394
9.6 Thermally-induced extrudate swell 482

R.o..! Flow aro und a sphere in ;1 (u be· UCM !1llldel

397
9.7 lnjec ti on rnouldjng 483

8.6.2 Other sphere probiems 402

n/ .0
o
Su mmary 487

8.6.3 Cy iinder in a channel

402
References 488

v0'"
. , Flow near corners a nd sepa ration point s
404
Problems 489

8.7.1 Viscoelastic models 406

8.7 .2 Numerical results near singular poi nts 407

10 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE 491

8.8 Entry fl ow 41 2
10. 1 Flow instabilities 491 J
8.9 Extrusi on 418
10. 1. 1 Insta bility built int o constitutive models 492

8.9.1 Loca ting the frce bound a ry 41 9

10.2 Perturba tion s about a state of rest 494

8. 9. 2 The extrusion process 421

10.3 Couette now stability 501

8.9.3 Die geometry and other e ffects in extrusion 430

10.3. 1 Couette fl ows with inertia and viscoelasticity 501

8.9.4 Mechanism s of swe lling 43 2

10.3.2 Purely elastic instabilities 512

8.9.5 Three-dimensional flows 437

lOA Parallel shear fl ows 512

8. 10 Direct sim1Ji<ltion of polymer flo w 4:19

10.5 Parallel-plate a nd cone-plate flows 513

8. 11 Conclusion
441
10.5.1 Edge fracture 516

R e ferences
441
10.6 Non-viscometric flow stability 518 )
Problems
445
10.6. 1 Stability of fibre spinning. Draw resonance 519

10.7 General rema rk s on stabilit y 521

9 TEMPERATURE AND PR E SSURE EFFECTS 44 7

10.8 Melt fr acture mechanisms 523

9.1 Introduction 447

524

10.9 Turbulence
9.1 . 1 Heat transfer 447
10.9. 1 Friction factor as a function of Reynolds number 528

9. 1.2 The energy equ a tion 449

10.9 .2 Power-law fluids 530
9.1.3 Other forms of the energy function 450

)
10.9.3 Drag-reducing fluids 531

9.2 Pressure a nd temperature-induced variations of viscosity 451

10.9A Computer simulatio n of drag reduction 536

9.2 . 1 Pressure effects a nd cavitation 453

 xx CONTENTS

References 537
Problems 539 NOTATION
APPENDIX. FORM ULAS IN CARTESIAN, CYLINDRICAL, AND
SPHERICAL COORDlNATES 541 Vectors, tensors, ami matrices are in bold-face type. An overbar denotes a mean
A I The gradien t opera tor 541 value. A tilde C) over a symbol denotes a Laplace transform. The trace of a tensor
A2 Mass conservation 542 A is denoted by tr A, and the transpose of A by AT. Vectors and tensors are given
) A3 Acceleration 542 both in direct (for example, a) and component (for example, Gi) notation. Sym­
A4 Velocity gradient 543 bols which have more than one meaning are listed with a semi-colon dividing the
A5 Operations on tensors-the UCM equation 544 meanings.
) A6 Strain measures 547
Roman symbols
A 7 Spherica l coordinates 548 a length of link Of submo!ecuk; bubble radius
References 549 a(ai) acceleration vector; also unit vector tangential to slip surface
) Problems 549 aT time":'temperature shift factor
A amplitude parameter; area
SUBJECT INDEX 550 AR aspect ratio
A(nj(A&'j) nth Rivlin- Ericksen tensor
b magnitude of b
b(b i ) unit vector normal to slip surface; vector
B dimensionless pressure difference
B(Bif) Finger strain defined as C-; ; second Rivlin-Ericksen tensor
I )
[eqn (4.84)]
c distance hetween cone tip and plate; mass fraction; bearing clearance
C(Ci) unit vector normal to a and b in slip plane
) C creep response function
qCif) strain tensor FTF
CD drag coefficient
C p •V specific heat a[ constant pressure, volume
C Ukm elasticity tensor
d diameter
d(dif) rate-of-deformation tensor
) D diameter; depth; diffusion coefficient [eqn (5.24)]
DIDr material derivative alar + Vja~
) (De) Deborah number '
DR draw ratio
) e internal energy per unit mass
e strain, eqn(5.181)
) E(r) tensile relaxa tion function
E, Eo activation energy; Young's modulus.
)
Eij
·
classica I I mear .
stram tensor:21 (au; + Ok
a. aUf)
E, see eqn (7.9) Xl '
Ei see eqn (7.12)
j non-linear factor in step strain responses [eqn (5.166)]; friction
factor [eqn (10.1 J0)] .
fCfi) body force vector per unit mass
F total force; front factor [eqn (9.30)]
) force vector
F
) F(Fij) deformation gradient ar;/aXj
g gravitational acceleration
)

)
 xxii NOTATION NOTATJON xxiii

gi sta bility sensitivity coeffici ent s; elastic mod uli (eqn 2.105)
Q' potential

G pressure gradient ; shea r modulus

r J
ra dia l coordinate; radiu s; z ph)"

G(1) relaxa tio n modulu s

rj rad!us o f fl at en tip of conc
G'(W) storage modulus
r posi tion of particie at time I'

G"(W) loss m od ulus

R gas constant (8 .3143 J/mole K ); radi us; relaxation function;

G- complex modulus G' + iG"

initia l position; R ayieigh number
Gg
glass modul us
R(Rij) orthogonal matrix
Ge
equilibrium modulus
R dumbbell end-to-end vector
(GZ) , Graet z number (Re) Reyno ld s number
G Strain tensor C - I [e'1n (4.42)] s time difference r - I'; hea ting per unit mass; entropy;
h distance; film thickness ; nlemory [aCto r [eqn (4.76)]; amoun t of shear [eqn (5 .65)]; co nstant
entha lpy; hea t transfer coefficient s unit vector tangential to streamline
h netwo rk vecto r (Fig. 5.20) S su rface; Sommerfeld number ; dimensio nless stress
11: he~! tl~ilsfcl ~veffici(;rl i: S dimensionless stress [eqn (5 .95)]
H dista nce; height; memory fa cto r [eqn (4.74)] Sg stretchin g dimensionless number
H ( r) unit step function SR recoverable shear leqn (10.93)]
H ( )., ) distributi o n function for relaxation tim es I ,r' times; thickn ess ( Fig. 8.38)
H strain meas ure [eqn (4 .63)J I( Ii) tra cti o n vec tor
T temperature; as superscript den o tes tra nspose of a tens or;
i" unit vector in a-direc tion
1(8u) unit tensor
'l! 1/21/ in eqn (4.85); tension
11 ,2 integ ra ls [eqn (3.28)J; m odified Bessel functions r ~ + 'l!2 leqn (4.85)]; dimen sionless tension [eqn (7.61»)
J nux vec to r 21/ 1/
(Ta) T ayior numbe r
J creep comp lia nce x -compo nent o f ve loci ty or di splacement
u
Jg glass creep co mpliance displacement ve::dor; unit veC lo r
u( u;)
Je equilib ri um c reep compii.a nce friction velocity
u~
.f" cOlllplex co mpii a nce .i' - if'
k power-law consistency parameter; Bo ltzman n constan t;
v ve loc it y; po tential function
V+ dim ens io nless mean velocit y
thermal co nductivity v y -com p onent o f veloci ty o r displa cement
K dimen sio nless spring co nstan t; drag co effici ent ; bulk modulus V( Vi) veloci ty vector )
I cell spacing; length vo lume; ve locit y
V
L len gth V soluti on vector
L().,) retardation s pectrum function IV z-component of displacement o r velocity
L(Li} )
m
ve loc it y grad ient ten sor OVi/OXj
mass; M /21rr~ [eqn (3 .34»); kin ema tic classifier [eqn (3 .95)J )Vij co mponent 0 f vorticity. . (O'U
i OVi)
tensor -I ".- - ".­
2 U Xj UXi
,\,1 mo ment; molecular weight W stra in-e nergy function ; load o n bearing
n power-law exponent Wei ssenberg number
(Wi)
no number of m olecules per unit volume
X(Xi) p ositi on vec to r
n outward-pointing un it normal vec to r
Xi Acierno struc tural pa rame te r
N number of ' m olecules' ; Bagley co rrection [eq n (3 .62a)] X power-law drag coefficient
NI fir st nor ma l s tress difference [eq n (3. 17)] coo rdinate
Y
N2 second norma l stress difference [eqn (3 .17)] coo rdin ate; function
Y
Ni shape fun ction coo rdi na te
z
(Nu) Nusselt numbe r dimensionless dista nce [eqn ( 10. 103 b)J
z+
p,p + ,p­ pressure
p Z initia l p ositi on of particle
pressure; probability [eqn (5 .8)]
(Pe) Peclet number Greek symbols
(Pr) Prandtl num ber Cf a ngl e; viscosity-temperature coeffi cie nt; coefficient of volumetric
q == Q / rrR3; nux per unit width [eqn (6 .8)]; so urce strength expansion; Giesekus pa rameter [eqn( 5. 111)]

q(qi) hea t nu x vec tor (3 pressure-viscosity exponent; sl ip coefficient

Q vo lum etric now ra te ; potential [eqn (4 .83)] (3(h) network destructi o n function

)
) NOTATION xxv
xxiv NOTATION

(3; sta bilit y coe rlicie nts WI,W 2 firs t and second normal s tress coe ffi cient s
"'( shear strain W rota tion rat e; frequency
i shear strain-rate w vorticity vector "il X "
i amplitude of shear strain in si nu soi da l sheari ng \l rotation ra te
r gamma function ; time co nst. fo r MPTI modc l
c5(w) phase angle Special symbols
c5( I) delta o r impulse function Ie> lIe> Ill,
First, second, a nd third invaria nts of tenso r c respectively.

oA element of area V gradient opera tor

c5ij Kro necker d elta o r unit ten sor () d eno tes average [eqn (5.10»)

)
c5F element o f fo rce 6 / 6.1 convec ted deriva tive [eqn (5.54))

) 6. dilatatio n £. >'L - P dimen sionless m odified velocit y gradient; also L - ~d [eqn (5. 161»)

c:"p pressure difference ~/<Z1 1 derivative operator [eqn (5 . 177»)

6., st rain increment

E tensile stra in; d imensio nle ss fo rce ieqn(7. 33)]; PTT parameter
E elonga tio na l stra in-rate
E:i principal extensio n ra te in i-direc ti o n
ER recoverab le portion of tensile s train
EH Hencky (loga rithmic) stra in
( fri c tion coe ffi cient
) 'r) shea r viscosity

'r}' d ynami c viscosi ty G" Iw

'r}"
== G'I"-'
TiE T r o ut or: or clonga tional vis(;o$it y

ry' complex viscosit y ry' - irf'

(7)] intrinsic viscosi ty

f) angu lar posi tion; di:nension lcs!) lell Jpel aiure {eqn \ i .73)]
e initial angu la r position o f particle
"- therm nl dilTu siv it y; Kanmin cons t:'"t
>. time co nstan t; s tretch ratio
X Lame modulus
) 1\ second viscosi ty coeffi c ient [eq n (2.68)]; length at time f/ initial length

JL friction coe ffic ient ; vi scos it y ratio [eqn (7 .7 1»)

t
JL(I) mem ory function

1/ kinema ti c viscosity rtl P

) ~ Phan-T hien slip pa rameter [eqn (5 . 160)]; zl/'

~( I) pseudo-tim e [eq n (9.25»)

) densi ty: V i !eq n (7.16)]; ra d iu s of c t!rv~tt:,.e

P
0" surface ten sio n coefficient: tensile s tress; sin usoi da l sheari ng stress
0", prin cipa l stresses
) a-(O"ij) st ress tensor
a- amplitude o f stress in sinu so idal shea ring
) T shear stress
Tw shear stress a t wa ll
r(Tij) ex tra stress ten so r a- + pI
</> a ngula r co-o rdinate; velocity potential ; probabilit y fun cti o n [eqn (5.134)];
) volume concentrati o n

</>( T) fluidit y functi o n

1> so luti o n vec tor [eqn (8.18»)

X St o kes stream function ; swelling ra ti o; sprin g potential [eqn (5.42)J

'If; st ream func ti o n ; probability den sit y [eqn (5.24»); function [eqn (9 .56»)

)
 1
INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY

I.l What is rheology?

RHEOLOGY is the science of deformation and flow of materials. The principal
theoreticai concepts are kinematics, deaiing with geometrical aspects of defor­
mation and flow; conservation laws, dealing with forces, stresses, and energy
interchanges, and constitutive reiations special to classes of bodies (for example,
elastic bodies). The constitutive relations serve to link motion and forces to
complete the description of the flow processes, which may then be applied to
solve engineering problems arising in polymer processing, lubrication, food
technology, printing, and many other technologies.
All real materials possess a microstructure at the molecular, crystal or higher
ievel. In mechanics we are often not intere~ted in specifying the materia! in such
detail, as the large-scale phenomena of interest 11'51.131Iy involve the average
behaviour of a very large number of units of the microstructure. Thus it is con­
venient to work with an idealized continuum model of the material, whose
microstructure is not specified. Some systems (for example, multiphase flows,
reinforced concrete) have several regions which have very different material
properties, and each of these may need to be considered separately. While these
more complex systems need to be borne in mind, we will concentrate on homo­
geneous continua to begin with.
Continuum mechanics is the mathematical study of the response of such ideal
bodies to applied forces and deformations. The early success of the theory of
)
(small-strain) elasticity, which is entirely a mathematical construction, raised
considerable expectations from the methods of continuum mechanics. The only )
physical inputs to small-strain elasticity theory are the ideas in Hooke's law and
the observation that most metals undergo only a fraction of a percentile strain
before yielding. In fluid mechanics the success was almost as complete. In the
isothermal case, only the Newtonian viscous law and a connection between
density and pressure are needed as experimentai inputs to the highly precise
Navier-Stokes equations. These two examples are atypical as we shall find that
most other continuum mechanics descriptions cannot match the simplicity and
elegance of these linear models . Thus the pure continuum approach becomes 1
less and less useful as the complexity of response increases. The response of
polymer solutions and polymer melts is very complex (see Section 1.3) and recent
methods have tended to combine continuum mechanics with ideas obtained by
thinking about the microstructure of the bodies under study . We shall term
this study field, rheology.
 2 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY 1.2 AN HISTORICAL NOTE 3

1.2 An historical note While Weber only conducted what we now call creep and recovery tests, he
also stated what would happen in a relaxation test, where a sudden strain was
The term rheology was invented by E. C. Bingham and his Lafayette College
imposed and maintained. Weber al·s o discovered the need to 'condition' the silk
(Easton, PA, USA) associates in t929 (see Table i. i); the Greek root 'rheo'
fibre by imposing a few ioad/unioad cycies, before repeatable behaviour was
implies flow. Clearly, the study of rheology preceded thc invention of the name,
observed. The mechanical conditioning eliminated some non-recoverable creep
and despite their exclusion from Table 1.1, one needs to look back to the
observed in the first few loading cycles.
beginnings of solid and fluid mechanics in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen­
Looking at the state of theoretical work at these times, we note Kelvin's (1865)
turies to trace the origins of rheology. Hooke (1676) and Newton (1687) were
concept of 'viscosity of soiids'. In 1867, James Clerk Maxwell put forward the
the first to set down quantitative t:onnections between forces and deformations ,
idea that the 'viscosity in all bodies may be described independently of hypo­
and so it is appropriate to use the terms Hookean and Newtonian for elastic
thesis' by the equation
and viscous bodies respectively. The disciplines of elasticity and fluid dynamics
developed via the work of Leonhard Euler (1755), Navier (1821, IR23), and do ",dE a
dt=.L.Cit-:x' ( 1. I )
Cauchy (1827). Na'lier developed ~heories of fluid liow (821) and eiasticity
(1823) beginning from 'molecular' ideas, and Cauchy set down the essential
where 0 is the stres$, E is the strain, E is Young's modulus, and A is the time­
mathematical ideas for handling shear and tension as twin aspects of the stress
constant. No real explanation was given for this equation and Maxwell used it to
tensor. Stokes (1845) essentially completed Navier's work on fluids . The book
calculate gas viscosity, given by the product EA. He was aware of the experiments
by Dugas (1988) gives a concise history of mechanics which can be consulted
ofWeber and others and noted that the simple exponential decay ofstress implied
for the origins of these classical theories.
by (1.1) did not agree with their da ta; he proposed that A should depend on the
Before the verification of the classical theories of elasticity and fluid dynamics
stress, an idea which has since been frequently revisited. It is perhaps ironic that
was completed, marked deviations from Hooke 's law began to he observed. (The
the concepts of the rivals Hooke and Newton were united forever by Maxwell in
) a bility to deform metals permanently was long a mat ter of common observation;
his equation (1 . 1).
such behaviour, which is clearly not clastic, is a part of the general study of
) O. E. Meyer (! 874) assumed that thc shea r s treSS ·L anJ :;lrain, could be wri t ten
'plasticity').
in the form:
We begin by noting the work of Wilhelm Weber (1835) on silk threads. At that
time, there was a general interest in improving galvanometer construction and d,

r = G, + TJdt'
( 1.2)
the use of silk fibres for instrument suspensions was common. 'Neber noticed that
the elasticity of silk fibres in tension was not perfect. He applied a tensile load to a
) where G and TJ are material constants. This expression actually describes the
silk fibre and noticed an immediate (elastic) extension; this was foliowed by a
so-called Kelvin-Voigt body; Kelvin did experiments on the damping of metals
continued slow extension with time. Removal of the load led to an immediate
and applied the concept implied by (1.2) without writing down any formulae and
contraction . This kind of behaviour was already well known in metals, but, to
Voigt later generalized the Meyer idea to anisotropic media . Injustice, one ought
V'/eber's surprise, he found that the silk fibre eventually recovered its original
to refer to a Kelvin-Meyer body, or simply a Meyer material.
) length. This differentiates the elastic after-effect from previously observed elastic
A very important contribution to the subject was made by Ludwig Boltzmann,
or plastic behaviour in metals and marks the point of departure for our viscoelastic
who is best known for his work on the kinetic theory of matter and the concept
) studies.
of entropy. Boltzmann's early work in 1874, written as he attained his thirtieth
) year, was apparently motivated by the lack of generality in Meyer's (1874) for­
mulation, and the paper contains a long criticism of Meyer's work.
) Table 1.1 Definition of rheology Considering the isotropic viscoelastic case, Boltzmann assumed that the stress
) at time I not only depended on the strains at that time, but also on those in
'Rheology is the study of the deformation and flow of matter.'
previous times; it was explicity assumed that the longer the interval from the
) E. C. Bingham (1929)
. present to. the past time, the smaller would be the contribution to the current
Flow of electrons and heat were excluded by agreement and it was also agreed that stress resulting from a given (past) strain. This is an expression of the now familiar
because rheoJogists were interested in the properties and constitution of the 'maller' principle of 'fading memory'. The assumption of (linear) superposition was
under investigation, hydro- and aerodynamics and the classical theory of elasticity
also made, with a footnote that stated that the principle of superposition
'> would be excluded.
wouid not hold for iarge deformations. This was then followed immediately by
4 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY .3 SOME RHEOLOG!CAL PHENOMENA 5

the now accepted general theory of linear viscoelasticity, in the form (for the
shear stress r) {J
(CO
r(t) = G"(( t) - Jo dw¢>(wh(t - w). ( 1.3)
Here , ¢ is a memory function a nd w = t - I ', t ' being a past time; "( is the
shear strain . Boltzmann deduced several ways of finding ¢(w) from torsional
experiments using various strain patterns; relaxation , free vibration and short
steps of strain were among the patterns considered.
Some experiments on glass fibres in torsional vibration were shown to agree
well with Boltzmann's calculations, and the closing remarks in the paper concern
the V-,lay the genera! theory coH«pscs to the vis<.;ous case for ceriain forms of
the memory function </>. We conclude that Boltzmann's is the first successful
rheological theory.
Soon afterwards, the viscosity of gelatin solutions was shown by Schwedoff
(1890) to depend on shear rate, and curious phenomena, some described in
Section (1.3), began to be noticed. Weissenberg (1949) drew attention to these
phenomena, but even earlier, in the I 930s, the need for truly three-dimensional
non-linear theories began to be apparent.
Early work by Fromm (1933, i 947) deveioped constitutive equations for
non-linear vi scoelastic bodies, and Oldroyd (1950) set up the now-accepted
cOlJceptual framework for developing non-linear constitutive equations . A more
a bstract approach to this framework was later given by Noll (1955) . The book by
Lodge entitled Elastic liquids (1964) has been very influential in that it recognized
the value of incorporating information from the microstructural level into the
formulation of constitutive equations, especially for complex bodies. Lodge also
made many advances in experimental methods and pointed out the need to work
with both shea r and elongational flows when exploring material response.
A more complete sketch of the history of the subject is given by Tanner and
Waiters (i 998)
The emergence of rheology as a separate field in 1929 occurred when the
mechanical behaviour of important industrial materials like rubber, plastics ,
clays, paints, and many biological fluids began to attract increasing attention in
the fields of physics, mechanics, and mathematics, in addition to the traditional
in terest from colloid chemists.
None of the scientific societies existing at that time provided a forum which
brought together all thos~ concerned with these problems, and by 1928 a number
of prominent workers in both Europe and the United States agreed on the need
for a new interdisciplinary organization and journal. The formation of the
Society of Rheology in 1929 marks the start of international organjzation in
this newly-recognized field.
The Journal of Rheology (1929-32) provided an important medium of inter­
1932, the Society was unable to continue a separate publication for several years,
and its papers appeared in special issues ofother journals until the TransaClions of
the Society of Rheology was established in ! 957. This journal assumed in 1978
the old title of Journal of Rheology.
Two other specialist journals (Rheologica Acta and Journal of Non-Newtonian
Fluid Mechanics) are now available. In addition, some of the national groups
also pu blish bu!!etins and Ii terature surveys; much useful rheological informa tion
also appears in the polymer science, colloid science, and engineering literature.
1.3 Some rheological phenomena
it is \:vell known that liquids with cOlJ1 plex structure, ~uch 2 !'"r13.crc r::1o!ccular
solutions and melts, soap solutions, and suspensions behave in unexp.ected ways
and are not described by the constitutive equations (the Navier- Stokes equa­
. tions) appropriate for Newtonian liquids. Some of the 'non-Newtonian' or
rheological effects which have been observed are:
)
(a) Shear-rate-dependent viscosilY· Most of these fluids display 'shear thin­
ning'; that is, the viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate, sometimes
reaching 10- 2 or 10- 4 of the zero-shear-rate viscosity. The viscosity is o ften
the most inlportant property for engineering calcuiai.ions. Figure i. i shows a
definiti o n sketch of simple shearing, tht ~hear stress r (or a yx) is linked to the
shear rate (-),) by the (shear) viscosity 7j, w"here "'
r =7J U j d=7J7· ( 1.4)
Figure 1.2 shows a large variation (about 5000-fold) of viscosity in a polymer
solution.
(b) Normal-stress effecls in steady flows. Polymeric fluids usually exhibit a
number of second-order effects associated with the inequality of normal stresses
in steady shear flow and related simple flows. These include: the 'Weissenberg
effect', in which a macromolecular fluid climbs up a rotating rod (Fig. 1.3); the )
reversal of direction of the secondary-flow pattern when a disc rotates liquid
in a beaker (Fig. 1.4) and the slight bulging of the surface of a liquid as it flows
down a trough (Fig. 3.6).
)
y
Speed U Shear stress r (0 yx)
)
d u =-yy
7 > )) ; 7 7 7 ) 7 7EY» 7 7 X
j ; j ,. ; j ; ; ) ; ; ; ;

national communication between rheologists for three years, with articles, Fig. 1.1 Simple shearing. Fluid is contained between two infinite para lled plates separated by a

communications, and abstracts covering activities throughout the world. After distance d. The top plate moves with a cons tant velocity U in the x direction. The shear rate -y = U/ d.

)
 6 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY ~
. 4 PURPOSES AND AIM Of RHEOLOGICAL THEORY

ry • (Pa-sJ
(3) mI
(b)

)
ryor--­

101
I ~ ~r

1kt---,

) ,I I ,I
10
.i\!f\

,:[ ,>
10\01 lUlU]

Fig. 1.4 Reversal of flow pattern in beaker. A disc at the top rotat ing in its plane drives the flow .
10- 1 10-' 10 101 loJ 10' 10' Y(s-') The secondar y flows are shown. On the left the Newto nian fluid moves up in the centre; on the right
a no n-Newtonia n fluid moves down in the centre (After C. T. Hill, J . Rheology, 16,213, 1972).
Fig. 1.2 Shear-thinning in a typ ical non-Newloniall fluid. Separ"n i\P-10 in glycerol ,,·,lIcr.

experiments have also been perfonned: these include recoil, shear now with
superposed oscillatory motion and the overshoot in stress at the starting u lLoJ ­
a shear flow.

(d) Other phenomena. The above examples involve mainly shearing nows. In
other flow s there are additional phenomen a, such as: swelling of extrudates
issuing from a die (Fig. 8.23); development of a toroidal vortex in the inlet flow
)
to a die; the 'Uebler effect', which is the abrupt stopping of large bubbles in the
accelerating velocity field where the fluid flow s from a reservoir into a tube;
the tubeless-siphon effect, in which a si phon continues to operate eve n though
the upstream end has been withdrawn from the fluid (Fig. 1.5); the unsteady-state
behaviour in eJongational flow, in which apparently a steady-state elongationai
flow cannot be a ttained ; 'melt fracture' in which very irregular extrudates are
produced (Fig. ! .6); and the solid-like behaviour of poiymeric liquids subjected
to high-speed impact tests.
The reader is recommended to view these and other phenomena in the films
by H. M a rkovitz t and K . Walters~ and his group, and in the book by Boger
and Walters (1993) .

1.4 Purposes and aim of rheological theory

Newtonian fluids do not exhibit the curious effects described above, yet parts of
) Fig. 1.3 Weissenberg o r rod-climbing effect. Beaker on right is Newloni"n (Glycerol) showing a the mathematical descriptions of both Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids
s urface depressio n caused by inertia . Non-Newtonian fluid on the lefl (Separa n AP-JO) climbs the are similar; they obey the same rules fo r the kinematic descriptions and con­
) rota ting rod . servation principles. Generally, the velocity field (Vi) is described with respect
)
(C) Tral/siel7t responses il1l1l1stea!l,· shear/lOllS. A wide variety of small-slrain
) t 'Rheological beha viou r o f fluid s'. A film produced by Educational Services Inc. (Watertown,

experiments, such as 'dynamic testing' (that is. oscillatory nows). stress relaxa­ M ass., USA) for the US National Commitlee on Fluid Mechanics.

1 ' Non-Newto nian fluid s'. A film prod uced al the Department of Applied Mathe matics,

tion. creep. and recoil have been used to obtain inrorma tion on mechanical
Universit y of Wales, Aberys twyth , UK (1980).

properties (see Section 1.5.2). I n addition some large-amplitude time-dependent

8 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY .4 PURPOSES AND AJ~.1 OF RHEOLOGICAL THEORY 9

)
)

)
Fig. 1.6 Mell fraclure. Specimens of polymelhyl-melhacryiale extruded al 170 °C Ihro ugh a shorl
circular ca pillary 1.2 mm diam eler x 0.2 mOl long . Inslabilily sels in Ihe second specimen from Ihe
lOp: fl ow rale increases from lOp 10 bOll o m .
Fig. 1.5 Ascending free siphon . The black band marks Ihe end of Ihe glass lube . The fluid is a
solulion of Separan AP·.~O in a mixlure of 75 per eenl gl vee ro l and 2S per cenl waler .

Table 1.2 Principles o f continuum mechanics

to fixed. Eulerian axes (Xi) and time I. so Vi = lIi(.\',.I). in both cases . Often the I. Conservation of mass:
liquid density changes very little. so the conservation of mass and the con­ 2. Siress concept:
servation of momentum and energy have identical forms. The principles of 3. Symmetry o f stress tensor (from balance o f angular momentum):
continuum mechanics are set out in Table 1.2. a nd they apply to all materials 4. Stress-equations of motion (from balance of linear momentum):
considered hcre. si nce we generally assume symmetry of the stress tensor
5. Defo rm a ti o n an d st'rai n analyses: )
6. Energy conservation.
((T i, = O;i). At each p oi nt in the material one needs to solve for six unknown )
 10 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY
)
stress components plus three displacements (compressible elasticity) or, for
incompressible materials where a pressurepappears, we have p plus three velocity
(Vi) or displacement components to lind. We will mainly consider incompressible
materials in this book, and then there are ten unknown s, while the genera!
principles supply only four equations connecting the (J"ij,P' and Vi unknowns. We
need six constitutive equations connecting (J"ij and the motion, and aiso boundary
conditions. The latter will usually be given in terms of either the forces per unit
) area on the boundary (tractions) or the velocities, or a combi~atio~ of the two .
) (For static elasticity problems, we substitute displacement for velocity in these
and other rem a rks .) Table 1.3 shows the complete set of equations for an
incompressible Newtonian fluid , for any flow problem. For other incompressible
) Table 1.3 A typical continuum mechanics problem
Let x, be the components of the particie position vector x . We choose an incompressib le
Newtonian nuid as an example.
Equations
I . Conservation of mass. (Incompressibility)
Table 1.4
Co mpactly, aVi/aX; = 0; writing this GUI ,t
1.4 PURPOSES AND AIM OF RHEOLOGICAL THEOR Y II
fluid models, we retain (! .5) and (! .6) but (1.7) wiU change. In contrast, Table i .4
shows a set of boundary conditions; they are generally problem-but not fluid­
dependent. Note that p does not occur as a boundary condition; in general p
does not occur in boundary conditions even in a Newtonian viscous fluid,
although attempts to use it are common; physical problems usually give rise to
either traction or velocity boundary conditions. (Exceptionally, it may be
necessary to fix the pressure at a single point to prevent pressure indeterminancy
in cases where velocity boundary conditions only are applied.)
In summary, for isothermal problems, the above shows the constituents of
continuum mechanics : given a constitutive equation and boundary conditions,
the problem is reduced to mathematics . Thermal and other effects add compli­
cations, but the path is similar, and we see that the development of suitabie
constitutive relations is the key problem in rheology and continuum mechanics as
it is these relations which differentiate one material from another.
Notice that we have spoken of models in much of the above; Table 1.3 sets
out the incompressible Newtonian fluid model. For any real fluid, which is
Typical boundary conditions for an example

All the equations in Table 1.3 are to be used in all incompressible Newtonian flows; it is
aVI + aV2 ~ aV3 =0 the houndary conditions which define specific pro blems . Figure 1.7 shows it complex
(1.5 ) p roblem (extrus!on). The boundary conditions h ere are:
aXI OX2 ax )
(i) on AS we can se t in a parabolic (or any other) velocity profile. Hence labelling
This is o ne equation co nnectin g the three components (v;) of the velocity vector
\' (i = I, 2, 3). XI = Z "V I = Vz

2. Angular momentum co nserva tion (equali ty o f cross-shears; this reduces

aij = aii X2 =, V2 = v,

,)
the nu mher of independent components of the stress (en,or aij from 9 to 6). X) = () V3 = Vo

3. Linear momentum conservation.

then (for example) on AS
oa;/ )
-8 + p(j; - ai = O. ( 1.6)
'!
Xl
[ Vz = 21,,(I - ~) (where w is the mean
This yields three equations connecting six independent st ress components (aij); the
density p and the body forces per unit mass, j;, (usually gra vity) are known; the lv, = Vo =0 velocity in the tube).
~cceleration components a; depend on the velocities " nO are not new unknowns.
The mo tion is ax isym metric, since vo = O.
4 . F o r an incompressible Newtonian fluid we have, by definition , the six co nst itutive (ii) on BC we assume no slip at the solid wall , so that the bound"ry cond itions are
equations
) v, = v, = Vo = O.
aVi aV;)
O"ij = -p{,U + 1) ( OXj + OX; , ( i.7)
(iii) On CD we have a free surface and we ass ume that air drag and surface tensio n
where p is the pressure <lnd the symbol ou' (the unit tensor) is such that will produce some known stresses (often zero). Thus the tractions (force/unit area) are
) given on the free surface. Ignoring circumferenti al shear stresses because ofaxisym­
)
oi(is zero if i f / mc<try, this is equivalent to giving O"n" and 0""., the normal stress aod the tangential shear
~ liS U11ity If I =J . stress. 0",,0 and 0"0, are zero by symmetry.
(iv) On DE we may be given a force/unit area {7zz (often zero). We can assume {7" = 0,
He re 1) is the viscosity.
or assume no radial velocity here (a mixed condition).
Clearly, {7ij = {7j' automatically here, so the stress tensor is sym metric.
(v) On the cen treline AE there is no radial velocity (v, = 0) and there also is no shear
)
tHere and elsewh e re, a repealed index is to be su mmed over unless sl<1ted otherwise . stress (0"" = 0).
 ,---­
.5 DESCRIPTION OF MATERiAL BEHAViOUR iN SHE.A.. R
.
~ ,-,-- :-."'"".-., "II .,......., ,.;:..~--- , " 1\ "'" ­

13
12 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY

Free surface (c) Engineering calculations; for example, mould filling, wire coating, viscous

r-­
n
Solid wall heating in screw extruders, now patterns in mixers.
~t
'r"~--­
D
B j ii2 2 2 222 22 ? ? ? ? 2 2 ? Ill;
? 2 ? ? a Considerable intuition has been, and will continue to be, used to select a
~ constitutive equation for these applications, and the choice may be somewhat

~
A
I XJ,z
-L-~ E
subjective. In many areas, there is such a dearth of trustworthy data that dis­
crimination among constitutive equations is difficult.

Fig. 1.7 Boundary conditions for extrusion. 1.5 Description oi maieriai behaviour in shear
Although it is vital to consider both shear and non-shearing motions to fuliy
more or less compressible and has a more or less constant viscosity, the model understand material behaviour (see Fig. 1.5) the present chapter will deal only
beh;:.,.ic;.;r is aii approXiJiiativlI iv the reai behaviour, which mayor may not with shearing motion; more general motions wi!! be discussed later.
be useful. It is the aim of rheological theory to devise relevant models for use Shearing is easily visualized (Fig. 1.1) and for Newtonian nuid behaviour the
in various flows; the same fluid may be represented by different models in dif­ shear stress T and shear rate (-Y) a re linearly related, as in eqn (1.4). The viscosity 7J
ferent circumstances. may vary with temperature and pressure (Chapter 9), but not with time or
Various levels of sophistication in the models are possible, ranging from one shear rate. Many materials are non-Newtonian and display much more complex )
with variable viscosity up to models that can describe and interrelate, at least responses. For example, a mea t product sample subjected to a set of steady
qualitatively, a wide variety of phenomena. Often the use of the constitutive shear rates gave the result shown in Fig. 1.8. The arrows show the sequence of
relations in hydrodynamic problem solving has been (roughly) inversely pro­ testing- from low to high shear rate, then back down to zero. The hysteresis loop
pOi·tional to the complexity of the rdation. The result is that in ihe past for is fairly repeatable from one sample to another and this sample clearly shows
complex hydrodynamic flows one usually used a simple variahle viscosity mock! that a one-ODe relation betv,reen shear stress Rnd shear rate doeS not exisi here.
or some very simple non-linear viscoelastic model. while elahorate equations This fluid is not appr'=:'ciably elasti~, and structural changes on shearing cause
were reserved for steady shearing and other simple flow patterns. Fortunately, it to show a time-dependence (diminution of stress, at a constant 1'). If left at
effective computer methods to solve complex problems have now appeared, so
that more complex descriptions are now more widely used. In this book some
constitutive equations which are known to be useful are presented; the applica­ r (Pa)
tions include the following broad categories of problems: 25
(i) Dimensional analysis and experimental data. Mapping flow regimes using
parameters from a constitutive relation in order to classify flows. 20
1
(ii) Relations among rheological measurements
(a) Rigorous relations for cross-checking results of rheological experiments;
)
15
for example, relations between steady shear flow quantities and various time­ )
dependent shear flow quantities.
10
(b) Rough estimates of one rheological property from measurements of
another; for example, prediction of nomlal stresses from shear stresses; use of the
Cox and Merz (i 958) reiation to estimate shearing viscosity from the complex 5
viscosity.
(iii) Solving fluid dynamics problems ')
(a) Calculations for analysing rheological experiments; for example, s~cond­ o 1000 2000 3000
ary flows in a non-circular tube. i(s- ')
(b) Computations intending to explain the observed phenomena; for example, Fig. 1.8 Meat product flow curves. showing hysteresis. The arrows show the sequence )
ex t ruda te swell. of testing.
 1.5 DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL BEHAV ·I OUR IN SHEAR 15
14 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY

rest, the sample recovers and the results can be repea ted . This beh aviour is termed
thixo tropy ; see Ba rnes (1997) for a surv ey of work in thi s field . R a rely , fluid s can
) build structure instead of des troying it.
In this case, the re is a gradual form a tion of structure by shear, \,vhercas so far
the properties of structured materials ha ve bee n di sc ussed on the basis that
shearing tends to destroy s tru c ture.
In th ese fluids , there is often a c ritica l amount of shear beyond which refor­ ~
m a tion o f s tructure is not induced and breakdown occurs. T his behaviour is ~
observed with dilute aqueous so lution s of va nadium pentoxide and bentonite . '"
'"
There are other material s, however, in which structure only forms under shea r ~
and grad ually disintegra tes when at rest. This is usually termed ' rheopexy '. Eve n i'l
J::
C/l
so, this behaviour is only noted at moderate rat es of shea r, for if shearin g is rapid
th e s tructure does not form. A suspension of ammonium oleate behaves in thi s
) way. Consider the flow of this material through a capillary tub e. At a moderate
pressure difference the flow is ra pid at first a nd then decre ases as the s tructure
buiids up. At a hi gh pressure difference th e flow is a lways rapid and does no t
fall off because th e structure does not build up at hi gh rates of shear. 10
The sample o f Fig. 1.8 was tes ted in a viscometer which au toma tica ll y
a dvanced i with time. If a thixotro pic material is subject to a consta nt she<n rate
for a very long lime, then one can often generate a uniqu e r--y c urve, but it will 10 10' 10 3 10·
often differ fr o m values found from tests lik e th at of Fig . ' .8 which was created Time (s)
from fluid which ha d been 'resting'.
Fig. 1.9 Shear Slress as a fun Clion of lim e, al differenl shear ral es, for a wheal fl o ur dou gh. The
Fi gure 1.9 shows some time-dependent data fo r a whea t flour dough. In thi s
shear ra les -r(S- I) arc nOled nexl 10 Ihe curves.
case no s teady state exists, and the sam ple eventually ruptures in a so lid-like
manner a t a c ritical strain. Sometimes chemical reactions lead to permanent
structural c ha nges, such as o ne find s in therm osc tting plas ti cs (Bro ye r and These fluids ma y conveniently be subdivided into three distinct types
Macosko 1976), which is another class o f time-dependen t phenomena. depending on the nature of the function in eqn ( 1.8) . These typ es are
The structu ral changes discussed above ta ke place over a certai n time span
) (a) Bingham plastics (and related bodies);
which is often much lo nger than the viscoelastic res po nsc times which we shall
discu ss below , but the divisio n between materiai models which und ergo quasi­ (b) 'pscudo-plastic', or shear-thinning fluids
perma nent str uctural c hanges and those with very lo ng rela xa tion times is (c) 'dilatant' o r shea r-thickenin g fluids
) somewhat arbitrary, and the relevant model will depend on the ti me-scale of
the processes of interest. a nd typical flow curves for these three fluids are shown in Fig. 1.10 (a)-(c); the
) linear relation typical of N ew tonian fluids is also shown.
1.5.1 Time-independent non-Newtonian flu ids Note th a t linearity of the r- i relationship in shearin g is not a complete
In many cases one find s that the concerns of the prev iou s section are minimal , a nd definition of a Newtonian fluid model; a non-Newtonia n fluid model is one
) not obeying the eqns (1.7) . For example, a second-order fluid, as we shall see
that s truc tural changes with time can be ignored . For inelastic, non-New tonian
fluid s a possible model is given by the form (1.8) (or its inverse) (Section 4.5), does not obey these equations but does have a constant shear
)
viscosity. In the simple situation discussed here, the second-order fluid and the
du
- . Newtonian fluid a re not distinguishable.
d y= .i=f(r) .
( 1.8)

This equation implies that the rate of s hear (i) a t any point in the fluid is a Bingham plastics . A Bingh a m plastic is characterized by a fl ow curve which
function of the shea r stress ( r ) at that point. Such fluid m odel s may be termed is a straight line having a n intercept r y , on the shea r- stress axis. The yield s tress,
non-Newtonian viscous fluid s, or ge neralized New toni an fluids. r y , is the magnitude of the stress which mu st be exceeded before flow s tarts.

)
 16 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY 1.5 D .~SCR!PT!ON OF MATER! ..' .L BEHAVIOUR IN SHEAR 17

(a> The concept of an idealized Bingham plastic is convenient in practice beca use
some fluids approximate this type of behaviour more or less closely . Common

r t /
/
/
/
/
examples are slurries, drilling muds~ greases, oil paints, toothpaste, and sludges .
The explanation of Bingham plastic behaviour is that the fluid at rest contains a
three-dimensional structure of sufficient rigidity to resist any stress less than
fJ / the yield stress, r y . If this stress is exceeded the structure disintegrates and the
ty i" / / system behaves as a Newtonian fluid under a shear stress r - T y; when the shear
/ stress falls below TV the structure is reformed. Further discussion of this mode!

~ l­
is giver! ir! Sectior! 4.2.
IV /
Pseudo-plastic (shear-thinning ) fluids. Pseudo-plastic fluids show no yield
value ann the tYric:~1 n()\V 1.1lrV~ for th~s~ mater!~!$ !!1.dic3.tes thnt the iutio of

(b) / shear stress to the rate of shear, which is iermed the viscosity,t falls progressively
/
/ with shear ra te and the flow curve becomes linear only at very high rates of shear.
/
/ This limiting slope is known as the viscosity at infinite shea r and is designa ted T/oo
/ (Fig. 1.2). The logarithmic plot of shear stress and rate of shear for these materials
/
/ is often found to be linear over many decades of shear rate, with a slope between
/ zero and unity. As a result, an empirical functional relation known as the 'power
~ law' is widely used to characterize fluids of this type. This relation, which was
~
origir!al!y proposed by de Waele (1923) and Ostwald (1925), may be written as
v ~I-
r = kbl"- l-y, (1.10) ,
/
/ where k and 11 are constants (11 < I) for the particular fluid: k is a measure of
(C> t / the consistency of the fluid, the higher k the more 'viscous' the fluid ; n is a
/
/ measure of the degree of non-Newtonian behaviour, and the greater the depar­
'/ ture from unity the more pronounced are the non-Newtonian properties of the
Y
~ fluid. The index 11 may often be regarded as constant over several decades of shear
rate. Table 1:5 gives some representative values of k and n.
The viscosity for a power-law fluid may be expressed in terms of k and 11 since
\
v ..,y T/ = rh = kbl"- t, (1.11)
Fig. 1.10 Shear s tress (r) vs. sheuing rate (1) for (a ) Bingham bod y. f y is th e yield Slress and the
tangent of the slo pe .6 gives the incremental viscosit y. (b) Pseudoplas tic or shear-thinning fluid . and since n < I for pseudo-plastics the viscosity function decreases as the rate
(c) Dil"tant or she<Jr-thic kening fluid . Dashed lines show Newtoni a n behaviour . of shear increases . This type of behaviour is characteristic of high polymers,
)
polymer solutions and many suspensions. One physical interpretation of this
Hence this mo de! s:.:bstance is really a solid , noi a fiuid . The rheoiogicai equation
phenomenon is that with increasing rates of shear the molecules (or the structure) )
are progressively aligned. Instead of the random intermingled state which exists
for a Bingham plastic may be written h '::> 0)
when the fluid is at rest the major axes are brought into line with the direction of
T - Ty = 7]p-Y; r > ry flow and the viscosity decreases. This concept is further discussed in Chapter 5. )
(1.9) The Herschel-Bulkley equation combines the Bingham and power-law bodies.
i' = 0; Irl ~ ry, Other empirical equations which have been used to describe pseudo-plastic
where 7]p , the plastic viscosity , is the slope of the flow curve. For -y < 0, the curves
in Fig. 1.10 are to be continued as odd functions of -y. t In many older books this ratio is often termed the 'apparent viscosity' . We shall not use this term.
 18 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY .5 DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL BEHAVIOUR IN SHEAR 19

) Table 1.5 Power-law parameters Table 1.6 Parameters for Carreau fluid behaviour
Range of 1'( s- J ) k(Pa-s n
) 11 Fluid '70 (Pa-s) 1]00 (Pa-s) ,\ (s) 11

54.3% cement rock in waler 10-200 2.51 0.153 2% Polyisobutylene in Primol 355 923 0.!5 191 0.358
23.3% Iiiinois yellow clay in water 1800­ 6000 5.55 0.229 5% Polyslyrene in Aroclor 1242 101 0.059 0.84 0.380
Polystyrene at 422 K 0.03-3 1.6 x 105 0.4 0.75% Separan-30 in 95/5 mixture 10.6 0.010 8.04 0.364
1.5% carboxymethyl cellulose 10 2 _104 9.7 0.4 by weight of water-giyceroi
( CMC) in water 7% AJ soap in deca!in and m-cresol 89.6 0.010 1.41 0.200
0.7% CMC in water 2 x 10 3 -3 X 104 i.5 0.5 Poiysiyrene at 453 K 1.48 x 10' 0 1.04 0.398
3% polyisobutyleJle in decalin 25-200 0.94 077 High-density polyethylene at 443 K 8920 0 1.58 0.496
0.5% hydroxyethylcellulose in water 293K 0.84 0.509 Phenoxy-A at 485 K 1.24 x 10 4 0 7.44 0.728
313K 0.30 0.595
333K 0.136 0.645
! % poJy(ethy!ene-oxide) in water 293K 0.994 0.532
313K 0.706 0.544
333 K 0.486 0.599 In fitting these forms of curve 7]00 cal) be taken as being of the order of the
solvent viscosity; jf 7]0 is known then>. and n wil! be the parameters that must be
AI! data are al room temperature (300 K) except where indicated. Dala adapted from
W. R. Schowalter (1978), Mechanics of non-NelV/onian fluids, p. 139, Pergamon Press, Oxford . found; n will usually be clearly defined from a log-log plot.
See also Table 1.6. These equations are considerably more difficult to use than the power-law but if
one needs a close fit for numerical work, they can be useful. For illustrative ana­
) Iyticai work most of the egns (1.12) are too complex, and it is difficult to find any
) physical connection between structure and the values of most of the constants.
behaviour are the following with the names of their inventors:
Di/alant ( shear thickening) fluids. Dilatafit fluids are sirnilar to P!)f::uuo-plastics
Prandtl r = A sin- Jh / C) in that they show no yield stress but the viscosity for these materials increases
Eyring with increasing rates of shear. The power-law equation is again often applicable
r = i/B+Csin(r/ A)
) but in this case the index n is greater than unity. (Compare Table i .5.)
Powell-Eyring r = Ai+ Bsinh - J(Ci') This type of behaviour was originally discussed in connection with concen­
) (1.12) trated suspensions of solids by Osborne Reynolds (1885). He suggested that when
Williamson r = Ai/ (B + hI) + 7]oo'Y
these concentrated suspensions are at rest, the voidage is at a minimum and the
Ellis 1/77 = 1/ 7]0 + m- I/"(r 2)(I - ,,)/2n liquid is only sufficient to fill the voids. When these materials are sheared at
low rates, the liquid lubricates the motion of one particle past another and the
Casson (Solid) .fi = VA + v'WY (r > A).
stresses are consequently small. At higher rates of shear the dense packing of
the particles i~ broken up and the materiai expands or 'dilates' slightly and the
There are many others (Wilkinson 1960).
voidage increases . There is now insufficient liquid in the new structure to lubri­
In these equations, A, B, and C, T/O, 77oc» m, and n are constants which are typical
cate the now of the particles moving past each other and the applied stresses have
) of a particular fluid. An especialiy useful form has been described by Carreau
to be much greater. The formation of this structure causes the viscosity to
(see Bird el at. 1977, pp. 210-11). He sets
) increase rapidly with increasing rates of shear.
7] - 7]00 [ 2] (n-I) / 2 The term 'dilatant' has since come to be used for fluids which exhibit the
'I 1+ (>'i) (1.13) property of increasing viscosity with increasing rates of shear. Many of these,
" 7]0 - TJoo
such as starch pastes, are not true suspensions and do not dilate on shearing. The
which combines all the power-law region and the two Newtonian regions of . above explanation therefore does not apply and the tenn 'shear thickening' is a
the complete curve (Fig. 1.2). Ta ble 1.6 is derived from his data; values are for more accurate one.
room temperature conditions (300 K) unless otherwise stated. A slightly better In the process industries dilatant fluids are much less common than pseudo­
fit can be obtained by replacing 2 by a, where a ~ 1.3, in (1.13), giving rise to plastic fluids but when the power-law is applicable the treatment of both types is
the Yasuda model. simiiar.

'J

20 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY
I
.5 DESCR!PTION OF !'-.1ATER!AL BEHA VI0U R IN SHEAR 21

1.5.2 Viscoelaslic materials (a) r.I

So far we ha ve mainly been considering rna terials in steady shearing, where they 'I
can appear to be viscous and inelastic. In many cases of interest this description is
insufficient, as materials are often both elastic and viscous.
I
In the ciassical linearized theory of elasticity, the stress in a sheared body is
taken to be proportional to the amount of shear. In a Newtonian fluid the
shearing stress is proportional to the rale of shear. In most materials, under ..
appropriate circumstances, effects of both elasticity and viscosity are noticeable.
If these effects are not further complicated by the time-dependent behav iour
mentioned above (Section 1.5), we cal! the material viscoelaslic. The account (b) T i
below follows the method of Pipkin (1972) . From the broader and more unified !
r (00)
I
point of view that the theory 01 viscoelasticity affords, we will he able to see that
perfectly elastic defonnation and perfectly viscous flow are idealizations that are
approximately realized in some limiting conditions.
For some materials it is these limiting conditions that are most easily observed.
The elasticity of water and the viscosity of ice may pass unnoticed. In describing
the behaviour of materials mathematically, we use idealizations that depend
strongly on the circumslances to be described, and not only on the nature of the
material; thus we will find that the distinctions between 'solid ' and 'fluid' and
between "eJastic' and 'viscous' : are not (l hsolute dist~nc!ion s bctv·/een ty pes of (c ) r r
materials.
i
( 0 ) Siress relaxalion. We will consider the behaviour of mat erial in inertia-less
s imple shearing motion. The sample is assumed to be homogeneously d eformed,
with the amount of shear i(l) variable in time. Let ,(I) he the shearing stress
on the material, as before. We first consider the single-step shear history
i(l) = ioH( I) (Fig. 1.11). Here I-I( I) is the Heaviside unit step function , zero for
negative I and unity for I zero or positive. If the material were perfectly elastic, the
corres ponding stress history would be of the form ,(I) = 'OH ( I), constant for I
Fig. 1.11 (a) Step shear strain applied at 1= O. (b) Elastic response 10 step shear strain . (c) Viscous
positive. If the material were an ideal viscous fluid , the stress would be instan­ response 10 step shea r strain. Heavy arrow represent s a delta Or impul se function .
taneously infinite during the step, and then zero for all positive I. Beca use we
have T = rfr for the Newtonian viscous fluid, we have, for I> 0:

i(l )

(Fig. 1.11).
III
=­
17 - 00
,dl = io ,

and i = 0 for 1< 0. Thus r has the form of a delta-function of strength '(1"),0

Observation of real materials shows that neither of these idealized limiting

(1.14)

).

Fig. 1.12
Solid

_ r (oo)
L I ).

Solid and Ouid response to step strain.

cases is accurate; the stress usually decreases from its initial value rapidly at first ,
then more gradually, and finally approaches or 'relaxes' to some limiting value
T oo (Fig. 1.12) .
The limiting value is to some extent a subjective matter, due to measurement
problems, but it is a convenient idea. If the limiting value is not zero , we call the
)
material a solid, and ifit is zero, and the approach to zero is sufficiently rapid, we
call the material a fluid. Evidently the c1assifica tion depends on an interaction
between the nature of the material and the nature of the observation. Let .A be
the relaxation time . Here, we provisionally take.A to be some order-of-magnitude
)
 22 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOG Y i.5 DESCRIPTION OF MA TE RIAL BEHAVIOUR IN SHEAR 23

Table 1.7 Viscoelastic fluid properties (a)

Fluid type Temperature Relaxation Zero-shear Rigidity

(K) time (s) viscosity (Pa)
1)0/)'
T ~ (Pa-s) TJo
Water 293 ~ 10- 12 0.001 109
) Mineral oil 303 7 x 10- '0 0. 5 7 x 10 8
Poly-dimethysiloxane { 303 10­ 6 0.3 3 x 10 5
398 1,7 x !O ­ " 100 6 x lOs
Low-density polyethylene { 388 10 2 x 10 5 2 X 10·

High-density polyethylene {
5\3
453
0.1
0.07
3000
2000
3 x 10·
3 x 10·
(b) y,
I
493 0 .05 1000 2 x 10·
High-impact polystyrene ( dd3 7 2 x 105 3 X 10 4
1. 483 3 I x 105 3 X 10·
0,5% Hydroxyethyl­ 300 0.1 1.3 13
cellulose in water
2% Polyiso buiylene 300 100 1000 10
solution in Primol oil
Glass 300 > lOS > 10 ' 8 ~ 5 x 10 '0

(c)

estimate of the time required for stress rclax a tion to approach completion. Some
yt /

~.

idea of the spread of rela xa tion times for variou s materials can be fo und from
Tabie i . 7. The distinction between solid and fluid is usuall y made on the basis of
a subjective compariso n of the relaxation tim e and the time of o bscrvation. For
exa mple, at ro om temperatures glass is a supercooled liquid , but unless one is
interested in times of the order of centuries, it is best regarded as <l solid.
Silico ne (silly) putty seems odd because it s rela xa tion time is commensurable
with our attention span. It will bounce , lik e an 'clastic solid', the process being Fig. 1,13 Creep test respon se. (") Shear stress applied, (b) Elastic shear s train respon se (c) Visco us
complete before there is time for much stress rel axa tion. It will also flow , !ikc ? shear strain response.
' viscous fluid ', before human pat ience rtlns o ut.
In the stress relaxation experiment on a shcared sample, the relaxation time ),
may be so short that it esca pes observation, and the experimenter ma y th en
conclude that he or she is dealin g with a perfec tly elastic solid or a fluid , as the response is elastic; if it does not jump, it is like a viscous fluid initially . The shear
case may be. If), is so long that no stress relaxation is observed during the period then continues to increase but does so more and more slowly. 1( it appears to
) of the experiment, again the observer may conclude that the material is perfectly approach a limiting value )'(00), the material is said to be solid. If it appears to
el as tic , We call materials viscoelastic, and lise a ppropriate mathema tica l models , increase linearl y after a long time, the material is called fluid. In some cases it is
when the rela xation time and th e period of observation are not greatly different. impossible to tell which type of behaviour is occurring, if either. For example, if
the amount o f shear were increasi ng in proportion to t l / 2 , one might become
)
( b) Creep, Now suppose that the m a terial is subjected to a one-step stress convinced by looking at limited data that a limiting value had been reached, or
) hi s tory -r(c) .= -roH( c) (Fig, 1.13). The response of an elastic solid would be )'( 1) = that the shear were increasing linearly, depending on one's preconceived ideas. In
)'o H(c ), constant shear for I p ositive. In a viscous fluid , the shear would increa se such cases a knowledge of the material microstructure is useful.
) at a con stant ra te, )'(1) = -roc/ T), T) being the viscosity. Viscoelas ticit y theory
) recogni zes more refined observations which show departures from these ideali­ (c) Responsejunclions. Let R()" t) be the stress relaxation function, the stress t
zations (Fig. 1.14). The shear may at first jump; in this case the instant aneo us units of time after application of a shear step o f size 1'- Let q-r, t ) be the creep
 II
24 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY .5 D E SCR!PTIOl'~ OF MATERIAL BEHAViOUR iN SHEAR 25

(a) y t
I at t = 0+ are denoted Gg and J g (g for glass), and the values at t = <Xl are Ge and
J c (e for equilibrium), provided that these values exist. If J(t) tends to increase

r ..
I
like (I + >")/TJO for large t, TJo is the steady-shearing viscosity and .\ is the mean
relaxation time.
Immediately after application of a step in stress or strain, the response is
independent of whether it is the stress or the strain which is to be held constant
in the future. Hence, at time 0+, L
initial values of G and J are reciprocal:
=
GgI and ,=
JgL. Thus, we find that the

(b)yt / JgG g = I. (I.! 7)

1
I
!f the stress ~nd str3.~D 3.pprc2ch limiting ,,,, u ~ucs, for v'isc0ciastic rtiateJiais it is

V
irreievant which one was held absoiutely constant for all positive time. Thus, after
an infinite time, both, = Gel and ,=
J e , are true.
Hence,

JeG e = I. (1.18)

(O',! ~ G(I ) •
T (a) J(I) •

I y,S I J.

I !\ I

G,

J.

Fig. 1.14 Creep curves. (a) Solid-like shear sirain response 10 slIddenly applied shear slress .
(b) Fluid-like respo nse . (e) This curve cannot bc classified as nuid or sol id wilh the dala g.iven.
I
_ )

function, the shear I units o[ time after application or a stress r. Rand Care )
G('lG, (b)
supposed to be zero for I negati ve.
"" 1
1\

If the material is isotropic (meaning that it has no distinguishable directions) it

is evident by symmetry that R is an odd function of,' and C is odd in ,. Hence , )
assuming smooth dependence and supposing that 'Y and r are small. we have

Rh, I) = G(I), + 0 (-y3) , (1.15)

and I
".­
".-/ fl.
)
C(" I) = J(I), + 0(,3) . (1.16) )
--- A ­
The coefficients of the linear terms are the linear stress relaxalion modulus G(t) )
and the linear creep compliance J(I) (Fig. 1.15). The values of these [unctions Fig. 1.15 Relaxation modulus G and creep compliance 1 for (a) solids, (b) fluids.
)
 26 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY .5 DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL BEHAVIOUR IN SHEAR 27

In fact, J(I) and G(I) are roughly reciprocal at all limes; their exact relation­
ship is discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.6.4, eqn (2.97). They are exactly reci­
procal only in the two limiting cases mentioned, and in the trivial case of perfectly
elastic response. The reciprocal relations for the two limits can be viewed as
consequences of the assumplions that the instantaneous response and the equi­
librium response are ela stic.
(d) Spring-dashpol models . To get some feeling for linear viscoeiastic beha­
viour, it is useful to consider the simpler behaviour of analogue models con­
structed from linear springs and dashpots. As analogues for stress and strain, we
use the total extending force and the total extension. It is, of course, not necessary
to assume that the material is constructed of literal springs and dashpots.
The spring is an ideal elastic element obeying the linear force-extension relation
T = G,. lts relaxation modulus is G(I) = GH(I), and its creep compliance is
./(1) = JH(I) . HereJis I j G. [Fig 1.16(a).)
The dashpot is an ideal viscous element that extends at a rate proportional to
the applied force, -y = T/'T/. Hence, J(I) = IH(I)/'T/ and G(/) = 'T/6(1), where Ii is
the impulse or 6-function discussed above. [Fig. 1.16(b ).]
(a)~Y '1
When two elements are combined in series, their compliances are additive.
Thus, for example, the Maxwell model [cf. eqn (1.J)] consisting ofa spring and
a dashpot in series [Fig. 1.l6(c)] has the creep compliance
J(I) = (J g + Ilry)H(I). ( 1.19)
When two elements are combined in parallel, their moduii are additive. The
Kelvin-Meyer model [Fig. !.! 6(d)] consisting of a spring and dashpot in paraiiei
has the modulus
G(I) = GeH(I) + 'T/6(1). ( 1.20)
(e) Superposilion. Knowledge of either one of the single-step response func­
tions G(I) or J(I) is sufficient to allow us to pn,dict the output corresponding to
any input, within the linear range in which stresses proportional to,3 and strains
proportional to T3 can be neglected.
First, we note that in G(I) and J(/), I is the time lag since the application of
strain or stress. An input ,(I) = ,oH(1 - 10) would be accompanied by an output
"[(I) = foG(1 - 10); we say that the response is time -trans!ation-invariant. It i~
here that we insist that only 1- 10 appears in the response; if 1 alone appears
then the materiai is time-dependent in the sense discussed in Section 1.5.
Next, cOi1sidei the slles~ response to a two-step history (Fig. 1.17):

~T ,(I) = H(I - /1)6.'1 + H(I - 12)6.,2' (1.21)

The stress can depend on t , 11,12, 6.'J and 6.,2. We assume that it is a smooth
)
'")~',l function of the step sizes:

= G I (I, II, /2)6.,1 + G 2(1, tl, 12)6.'2 + 0(6.,3).

~T
I
,(I) ( !.22)

We will neglect the higher-order terms, aithough it is not essential to the

T
(c) argument to do so.

(d)
IlY
1

'I l2
Fig.1.16 Mechan ical models. Displacement is 'he analogue or strain, force the analogue of stress.
(a) El as tic body. (b) Viscous body . (c) Maxwell fluid. (d) Kelvin-Meyer solid. Fig. 1.17 Double-step strain input.

)
)
 28 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY I 1.6 SUMMARY 29

Since this expression is assumed to be valid for all small-enough step sizes, it history as the input and the strain as the output. We then obtain the creep integral
holds in particular when 6.."(2 = O. But in that case, the history is a single-step fonn of the relation:
histOiY, for which the stress response must be G(t - t, )6.."(1. Hence G I (t, tl ; t2)
is identified as G(t - I,) . Similarly, G 2(t, II , '2) must be identical with G(I - t2) '
Thus , if
')'(t) = f'
J- Q
J (t - l) dr(l). ( 1.25)

"(( t) = H(t - II )6"(1 + H(t - t2)61'2 The two forms of the relation must be equivalent, as they describe the same
material behaviour. One can also integrate (1.24) by parts and recover the
then Boitzmann form (1.3). We shall further develop linear viscoelastic theory in
Chapter 2 (Sections 2.6.3- 6) .
ret) = G(t- 1,)6"(1 + G( I - (2)1'>. ; 2,
1.5 S,iffiffi~H'Y
('Ir~ mor~ (:'ompact!y ,
The present chapter has sought to present some of the main problems in rheology
2 2
"( t ) = L H(t - IQ)6"(a ---7 ret) = L G(I - t o )61'0. (1.23 )
to the reader, to survey some of tbe unusual flow phenomena that occur, and to
discuss typical responses in one-dimensional shearing flows.
I
The latter is traditional rheology and constituted the main a venue of enquiry
" In the linear approximation, the stress is just the sum of the stresses corre­ until about 1945. Since then the field ha s developed further as attempts have
sponding to each strain step taken separately. Coupling effects depending on been made to explain the phenomena sketched here. This book continues to
both 61'1 and 61'2 jointly may occur but only in higher-order, non-linear explore these more modern aspects. However, the older approach is stiB useful
approximations . and provides some basis for analyses of practicai problems-in some cases
The sa me arguments apply equally well to histories with an arhitrary number mnter:a! i~ so poorly characterized that nothing else is 'vvarranted in any case.
of steps. The sums over ex = 1, 2, a bove become su ms over ~ = !. 2,. ., N. Thu s no apology is needed for spending lime on this vhase of rheoiogy . The

We can approximate any physically realizable stra in history arbitrarily well connection of one-dimensional rheology with real materials is given by Houwink

by a step history invol ving an arbitrarily la rge number of arbitrarily small steps. (1953, 1971). We have tried, finall y, to present the dilemma always posed by

We assume that the response of the material is such that when two strain histories experimental data acquired over limited time domains (long or short) . It is not

are close together , so a re the corresponding stress histories . Then the stress always possible to deduce immediatel y if one is seeing, for instance, stress

corresponding to any given strain history is nearly the same as the stress for a relaxation or material degradation , and in thi s respect it is always useful to make

close-by step history . By pa ssing to the limit in the sums above, we obtain the use of whatever knowledge is available of the material's microstructure when

integral form setting up mathematical models. This we shall attempt to do in the subsequent

discussion, but before proceeding, we briefly review the classical areas of con­

1'( 1) = (' H(t

Jo
- I' ) d l'( I') -> ret ) = l' ­ oc
G(! - I') d;(/ '). ( 1.24 )
tinuum mecha nics in Chapter 2.

Since G(t) is zero for negative /, we can set the upper limit of integration equal to I
or 00 o r anything in between , as convenience dictates . The lower limit will
usually be written as - oc in order to be non-committal a bout when the shearing
began, but we implicitly restrict a tte!1tio!1 to histo ries with 1=0 for a ll tim es
prior to some starting time, unless and until we find tha t il makes any sense to do
otherwise.
If 1'( t) has ajump di scontinuity 6..')'0 at time to, the corresponding contribution
to the integral is, of course, G(t - 10)61'0. Whereveq(t) is differentia ble, by dl'(l )
we mean l'(l)dl.
The relation above is the stress-relaxation integral form of the stress-strain
relation . All of the preceding remarks hold just as well if we regard the stress
References
Barnes, H. A. (1997) . J . Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech., 70, I.
Bingham, E. C. (1929). 1. Rheology, I , 93 .
Bird , R. B., Armstrong, R. c., and Hassager, O. ( 1977). Dynamics of polymeric liquids, "'I
Vol. I, Fluid mechanics, Wiley, New York.
Boger, D. V. and Walters, K. (1993) . Rheolog ical phenomena in focus, Elsevier,
Amsterdam .
. Boltzmann, L. (1874) . Sit z bel' Kg!. Akad. Wiss. W ien, Math-Nalunvisss. C/osse, 7u, 275.
Broyer, E. and Macosko,·C. W. (1976). Am. Inst. Chern. Engrs J ., 22, 268.
Cauchy, A. L. (1827). Ex . de Math ., 2, 42, 60, 108. )
Cox, W. P. and Merz, E. H . (1958).1. Polymer Sci., 28,619.
De Waele, A. (1923) . Oil Color Chern. Ass. J., 6, 23.
Dugas, R. (1988). A history of mechanics (trans. J . R. Maddox). Dover, New York.
 30 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY PROBLEMS 31

Euler, L. (1755). Mem. de I'Acad. de Sci., Berlin, Jl, 217.

Open tank
Fromm, H. (1933). lng. Archiv., 4, 432.

Fromm, H. (1947). ZaMM, 26, 146.

Hooke, R. (1676). A description of helioscopes , and some other instrumenlS. London.

Houwink, R. (1953). £Iaslicily, plasticilY and Slructure of mailer. Harper Press,

Washington, DC.
Moving belt
Houwink, R. and De Decker, H. K. (1971). Elasticily, plaslicily and Slruclure of mailer.
Cambridge University Press. Fig. 1.18 Problem 3.
Kelvin, Lord (W. Thomson) (1865). Proc. Roy. Soc. London , 14, 289.
Lodge, i'... S. (1964). E/asiic liquids. Academic Press, London.
Maxwell, J. C. (1867). Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond., IS7, 49. 4. You are asked to devise a simple model of the kind r = fei) for the ma terial shown
)
Meyer, O. E. (1874). Pogg. Ann. Physik, (6), lSI, 108. in Fig. 1.8 which is to be pumped at a rate of 0.2 litre through a I O-mm diameter circular
Navier, C. L. M. H. (J 821). Ann. de Chemie. 19, 244. tube. The object of the exercise is to estimate the pressure drop which will be involved.
Navier, C. L. M. H. (1823). 8ull. Soc. Philoma/h., 177. What model would you advise? Assume the flow is laminar, and check this assumption
Newton, I. (1687). Philosophiae nalurlis principia malhemalica (translated A. Motte). after the solution is obtained.
Cambridge University Press 1934.
5. An incompressible isothermal Newtonian fluid is located between two infinite par­
Noll, W. (1955).1. Ral. Mech. Anal., 4, 3.
Oldroyd, 1. G. (1950). Proe. Roy. Soc. Lond., A 200,523. allel planes at z - 0 and z = h. The upper plane movesat a speed V in the x-direction and the
) Ostwald, W. (1925). Ko//oid-Z., 36, 99. lower one is stationary. In addition, there is a pressure drop of magnitude b..P per unit
length in the x-direction. Find the velocity profile and the volume rate of flow.
Pipkin, A C. (1972). Lec/ures on viscoelasticily theory. Springer- Verlag, New York.

Reynolds, O. (1885). Phil. Mag , [5) 20, 469.

6. In a steady elongalional flow the velocity field is given by (cylindrical coordinates z, r)
Schwedoff, T. (! 890). 1. Physique [2] 9, 34.

Stokes. G. G . (1845). Trans. Cambro Phil. Soc., 8, 287.

w = V;: = EZ
Tanne r, R. L am] Waiters, K . (i 988). Rhe()logy an hiSlOrical persp('crive. Elsevier,

Amsterdam . u = v,=-Er/2
Weber. W (i835). Ann. Phys ("hem .. 34, 247 . ano i'O = 0; t hf': c!.on.gatioD fate is E.
Wcissertberg, K. (1949). Proc. 1st In//. Congo un Rheoiogy.. 2, j 14. Using a Newtonian model, compute the stresses azz and a". Find the pressure by
Wilkinson. W. L. (1960). Non-Nelvlonianfiuid>. Pergamon Press, Oxford. equating a" to zero (that is. neglecting atmospheric pressure). Hence show that the
elongational viscosity 7}E == a" l i: = 37), where 7) is the shear viscosity.
Probicms 7. Use the d3ia in Fig. i,2 and fit to it
I. Consider Maxwell's equation (1.1). Suppose the input strain < has the form
(i) a power-law mode!
(i) f =0 t s: 0 (ii) a Caireau model
(ii) t: = Eosinwl, 1> 0 (iii) a Yasuda model
8. A fluid is to be modelled as a Bingham body. Suppose it flows down a wide, long
(a) If the material is in a stress-free state for I s: 0, find the stress for I > O. inclined plane in a parallel sheet (Fig. 1.19). Find the velocity field and the amount of fluid
(b) As I ..... 00, show that the steady-state response becomes sinusoidal. As AU; becomes passing the plane x = 0 per unit time and per unit length in the z-direction.
very large, show that the response becomes elastic, and that (IS AW becomes very small, it 9. Consider the flow of (a) a Bingham body, (b) a power-law fluid . Ignoring gravity and
becomes viscous.
surface tension, but not the acceleration terms in theequation of motion, do a dimensional
(c) Consider the Kelvin-Meyer modei (1.2) with the same excitation. What do you analysis of the flow around a fixed sphere to find the relevant dimensioniess variabies on
conclude about its behaviour? which the drag coefficient C D (== F/! plP R2) depends. .
Here Fis the drag on the sphere, p is the fluid density (constant) and Vis the speed of tile
2 . Write out the equations of motion [(1.6), see Table J.3] in full. Substitute (1.7) into
fluid approaching the sphere, radius R.
these equations to eliminate the stresses and find the three Navier-Stokes equations for
the velocity components and the pressure. 10. Fi"nd the stress reTa)[atio'n modu'lus for a Maxwell model [Fig. I. I 6 (c)].
3. A film-coating arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.18. II. By integrating by parts the result (1.24) show that you can recover the Boltzmann
Set up boundary conditions on the coating fluid, including the effect of surface equation (1.3). What is the relation between G(e) and Boltzmann's "'-function? For the
tension on the free surface. Wha t role does the atmospheric pressure play if the fluid is case when G = constant x exp( -II A) show that the response is the same as a Maxwell
i ncom pressi ble? model.
)
 32 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY

y
I
2
REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS

2.1 Introduction

x
THE present c hapter is intended as a reference source for the remaining chapters.
We use vectors and dyadics (orthogonal base vectors only), Cartesian tensors,
c...iravily veC lor and matrix representation of tensors. All of these ideas are easily accessible (for
example, Jeffreys and Jeffreys 1956) and will not be commen ted upon extensively.
Fig. 1.19 Problem g.
Besides the balance laws for mass, momentum, and energy we also need con­
stitutive equations and boundary conditions. The latter have already been men­
12. Suppose that th e shearing stress r(l ) on a viscoela sti c sa mpl e is varied arbitrarily tioned (Section 1.4) and will be discussed as they arise in problems . Constitutive
from time 1= 0 until I = II, and then is kepI at zero. Sh ow that
relations for non-linear materials are discussed later; in this chapter we consider
the classical constitutive laws for the Hookean solid, the Newtonian fluid, and
(a) if ~~ I = J ' (oo) = O. the linear viscoelastic body of Boltzmann. General principles to be obeyed by
Ut 1'=00 non-li near constitutive r~lation s are also discussed prior to considering these
!-elations in later chapters.
the n th e material returns to its initial sta te after it long time , so ,.( 00) = 0:
(b) ifJ behaves otherwise, so th a t J'( XJ) = ~ i- 0 2.2 Stress
The concept of stress is the way continuum mechanics specifies the mechanical
"(00) 11"
~ -
T) 0

r(l) dl .
interaction between one part of a materi al body and another. Here we will
develop the classical theory of s tress in a simple way. From the microstructural
approaches discussed elsewhere in thi s book one finds directly that the stress
tensor is symmetric; furthermore, the author is not aware of any successful
experimental detection of lack of symmetry in polymers. Thus, this symmetry is a
constitutive assumption which limits the class of materials we shall study; how­
ever, there is every reason to expect that it is a good assumption unless some )
specific knowledge about the microstructure suggests otherwise. Examples of
such unusual microstructures can be found in di scussions of liquid crystal )
mechanics (Ericksen 1961). )

2.2.1 The stress tensor )

In mechanics, we recognize two types of interaction between particles: between
touching particles and by action at a distance. In considering a system of particles
we must specify the manner in which one particle is influenced by all the others. )
]n a similar way, in continuum mechanics we have to consider the interaction
between one part of the body and another.
However, since in a continuum even the smallest volume is deemed to contain
a very large number of particles, it would be difficult to approach the interaction
problem through the particle concept. Instead , consider a body occupying a
)
 34 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS 2.2 STRESS 35

tensor is symmetric. While theories involving moments and couple stresses can
be constructed (Truesdell and Noll 1965) we will not use them here.
/
/
I 2.2.2 Definition of stress: Notation
\ D
\ Consider a point 0 in a body and an element of area bA (Fig. 2.2), which is normal
to the direction x. The surface or contact force t oA can be resolved along the x, y,
z directions respectiveiy into components; then the components of force per unit
)
area in these directions can be found. These components per unit area will be
s V
called a xx (direct stress), a xz and a x ), (shear stresses) respectively; in the case of
Fig. 2.1 Slress vector definition . the shear stresses the first suffix denotes the direction of the normal to the
area, and the second the direction of resolution. We shall take a tensile stress
spatial region Vat some time (Fig. 2.1). Imagine a dosed s urface S within the as positive (pressure negative); the reader should be aware of the opposite con­
body. Consider the interaction between the material outside S and that in the vention that is used sometimes. Figure 2.3 shows positive stress components
interior. This interaction can be divided into two kinds: one , due to the action-at­ on the faces of a block. By considering the moments due to the stresses on
a-distance type of forces such as gravitation and electromagnetic forces, can be the block (or any other shaped piece) we can easily see that, in the absence of
expressed as force per unit mass , and is called the body force; the other, due to the
direct action across the boundary surface S is called the sUI/ace force (or contact 10A a..yoA

fY: ~.
force). To describe the surface force iet us consider a small surface element of area
oA on the imaginary surface S. From a point on oA, draw a unit vector n norma! J

to 6A, with its direction outward from the interior of S. Then we can distinguish
the two sides of 6A a<.:<.:ording to the direction of n . Let the side to which this o x (Uo~aA
norm a! vect o r po ints be ca!!ed the positi ve side. COIl~it.ler ihe portion ofmateriai
lying on the positive side. This part exerts a force bF on the other part which is
sit ua ted on the negative side of the normal. The force 6F depends on the 10caLion
l' OA )L-/
a", oA

and size of the area and the orienta lion of the normaL 'vVe make the assumption
Fig. 2.2 Re ~o lu!ion or Irac tion (or stress) vector.
tha i a~ oA tends to zero, the ratio oF/ oA tends to a defini te limit dF IdA, and that
the moment of the force acting on the surla<.:e bA about any point within the area
au
vanishes in the limit. The limiting vector will be written as

dF
t = dA' (2. I)

The limiting vector t is called the traction vector or the stress vector and represents
) the force per unit area acting on the surface. There is no a priori reason why the
interaction of the materia! on the two sides of the surface element bA must be

, moment less. Clearly, the most general action on 6A from the outside would
consist ofa force, as we have assumed , plus a moment (bM) . Here we will suppose
that as 6A tends to zero the effect of any resid ual moment vanishes, so that bF
describes the mutual action across bA completely. Similarly, considering actions­ a yy

at-a-distance (gravity, for example) on a small volume of material, we will sup­ "xx
)
pose that no body moments are present, and that a body force vector per unit
x -y
mass is sufficient to describe actions at a distance completely. With these
assumptions one finds, from an angular momentum balance, that the stress Fig. 2.3 Notation used fo r stress.
36 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS 2.2 STRESS 37

couples on the faces, as assumed in Section 2.2.1, that the stress tensor is sym­
metrical, so that
Vxy = vyx etc.
A more formal deriva,t ion of this result is given by Huilgol and Phan-Thien
(1997, pp. 95-6). Wenow find it convenient to replace x by X"Y by x2and z by X),
so that Vy z for example, is written as V23'
If the stress components on the face normal to n are Vij, (i,j = 1,2, 3) then the
components I ; of : are connected to the siress components by the decomposition
(or resolution of forces)
The transfonnation (2.5) in the plane case is conveniently represented in
termS of a single angle () giving the rotation of the x' system relative to the x
system, and the Mohr circle is a convenient graphical representation of this
(2.2) transformation; see Problem 2.2 and Timoshenko and Goodier (1951).
(2) At each point in the field of vij there is a traction vector t (components I,)
equal to vijnj, where the nj define a unit vector and a plane normal to this vector.
If we try to find a plane so that its normal n is a vector parallel to t, then there
is no shear on this plane (see Fig. 2.2), and we can write
t = (11l = vn, (2 .6)

ij - Vi}"), (2,3) where v is a constant of proportionality. In order that there be a non-trivial

solution for n it is necessa ry, from (2.6), that
where nj are the components of the outward normal unit vector n. (We
always a ss ume that a sum is taken over repea ted indices unless the contrary
det ((1 - vI) = 0, (2 .7)
is stated.)
where I is the unit matrix.
2.2.3 Properlies of Ihe Slress lensor This is the characteristic equation for (1. Expanding the determinant in (2 .7)
We can represent the stress tensor €I, with components Vii. by regarding €I as a gives , for our 3 x 3 mat rices, a cubic equalion for v. Thc three values of v (v = " j ,
symmetric matrix of w hich (>1) :lre the componellis, or by writing it in dyadi c Vb (3) are the eigenvalues or principal values of (1. In the present context th ",y )
form , tlsing unit vectors ~l!0n g three orthogonai axes. will be called the principai stresses. It can be shown (see. for example . J effr eys
.A.I! the r!"opert~es ofs}'l'nmctric m.:1tric\':;s arc enjoyed hy the Si leSS tensor, and and Jeffreys 1956) that VI> V2 , and V3 are real numbers . Each principal stress
we know that (Jeffreys and Jeffreys 1956): has a direction n associated with it as a solution of (2.6), and it may be
proved that these vectors are mutually perpendicular. On planes normal 10 these
(I) The stress tensor possesses a transformation law from axcs x to x' so that ~
directions the shear stresses are zero; the direct stresses will be ordered so
if we write
that vI> V2 > V3·
X' = Rx (x: = R ijxj), (2.4) (3) Expansion of eqn (2.7) gives the cubic characteristic equation for V .,
where R is an orthogonal matrix whose elements are given hy
V
3
- I"v 2 + II"v ­ Ill " = 0, (2.8)
Rij = cos(x: , Xi)
where the coefficients are given by
(one should read this definition as "Rij is the cosine of the a nglc between x: and
x;"), then Ia = v;i = tr(1 (2 .9)
(1' = R(1R T (v:i = R im Rjnv",n), (2.5) II a = ! (viiVjj - vijvij) (2 . .10)
where R T is the transpose o f R. Since (1 is symmetric (1T = (1 . Ill " = IVijl = det €I . (2 .11 )
The reader is reminded that the transpose RT of an orthogonal matrix R is
also the inverse R- I . Hence RTR=R-'R=I, the unit matrix. Taking the The quantities la, II,n III" are called the first, seco nd, and third invariants of the
determinant of this expression, we find det R = ± I. The negative sign occurs stress tensor respectively. These and similar invariants are important in the study
in transformations that change from a right- to a left-handed coordinate system of isotropic materials.
or vice versa . We shall not normally permit such transformations, and hence If the stresses are principal, so that (1 is diagonal, with values VI, (72, v3, )
det R = I, so that R is a proper orthogonal matrix . then, following the summation convention, eqns (2.9)-(2.11) take the simple
)
 38

form

] 0 = 0"1 + 0"2 + 0")

REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS

(2 .9a)
I 2.2.4 Isotropic functions of tensors
2.2 STRESS

We shall frequently wish to express a scalar function of a tensor or matrix so that

the value of the scalar function does not depend on any special co-ordinate
system. The invariants 1", Ii,,, and III" (or combinations of these quantities) are
39

1I0 = H(O"I + 0"2 + 0"3)2 - O"f - O"~ - O"~] (2.IOa) used to perform this operation. If, for example, the viscosi ty ry is a function of the
stress sta te, we write
= (0")0"2 + 0"20"3 + 0")0"1).
7](0-) = 7](1", U ", Il!o) · (2. i 2)
1110 = 0"10"20"3· (2 .lla)
The scalar viscosity is independent of coordinate rotations as is appropriate
We can write out (2.9)- (2.11) in full for a set of Cartesi a n axes (x, y, z): for an isotropic body .
We shall now consider how to address the problem of writing down a matrix or
tensor expression that depend s on the stress state (or other state described by a
10 = O"n + O"yy + O",Z (2.9b)
second order tensor or matrix) in a direction-independent way. To begin , we note
110 = (O"yyO"zz + O"z,O".yx + O"x x O"yy) that (2.8) is satisfied when (7= (7j, 0"2 or 0"3 (supposed unequal). These three
equations can be rewritten in matrix form.
2
+ ([xz
2
+ (7xr
2 )

r
- ( O"yz (2.1 Ob)
)
+ 2(7y z O" zx O"xy
13 r 0"1
Illo = det a ~-= (7xxO"yyO"u 10"1

0"2 I - 10 (72

-
2
o xx o),z -­ 0YY(/.v.z -
2 2
aZZo yx · (2.11 b) i
L O")j l (7d

r 1 r 1
l
0"1 1
Thesc stress invariants do nor. change as we rota te axes (say fr om x to x'). To
see this notc that the roots of eqn (2.8) (7], (72, (73) are fixed numbers inde­
pendent of whatever axes we measure from ; the principal stresses in fact describe
+ IIo 0"2
0"3 J- lil a l I
I J= O .
(2.13)

the stress state in magnitude , but not orientation. Hence, because thc principal Since the nth-power of a diagonal matrix {(7j, (72, (73) is just another diagonal
stresses are fixed, so mu st the coefficients of the cubic (2.8) also be fix ed. I", II o, matrix {CT'"CT'2,CT'J}, we can write {CT'i,CT'l , <T'J} as an Hence (213) may be
) lIla are useful for characterizing a given stress state when the material is iso­ expressed compactly as
) tropic. It is, of course, po ssible to prove tha t (2.9)-(2. Ii) are invariant by other
methods which are more laborious. 0"3 - ],,0'2 + lloa - III"I = O. (2.13a)
(4) In the a bove it has been assumed that all the principal values are different. If
any two (or all three) are equal, then some symmetry occurs and the principal Thus a satisfies its own characteristic equation, and this result is known as
directions are not uniquc. Usuall y this is of little consequence in applications, and the Cayley-Hamilton theorem. Equation (2.13a) ena bles one to express a 3 as
we shallilot spend time on these exceptions; they are fully described in many texts a function of lower powers of a:
on matrix algebra.
(73 = 1,,(7"2 - lI"a + III"I , (2.13b)
(5) It is of interest to note that the principal stresses are extremal values of
the direct or normal stresses. The extremal values of shear stress occur on three and by multiplying (2.! 3b) by a we can extend this rule to a 4 :
'l planes whose normals are orthogonal to one another and inclined at 45 degrees
to the principal axes. It can be shown that these extremal shear stresses are (see (7"4 = loa 3 - lI oa 2 + I Il,,(7", (2.13<0:)
Timoshenko and Goodier (195! , p. 218)).
by reapplying (2 .13b) we find
~ 10"1 - 0"21 , ~ 10"2 - (731 and ~ 1(73 - 0"11,

and hence that the largest is ~10"1- (731. (7"4 = (I; - H,,)a 2 + (III" - IoHo)O" + lomol. (2.13d)

)
40 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS
, 2. 3 MOTION AND DEFORM.".T!ON 41

The net result of such reductions enables us to replace the integer powers respect to an origin O. At some other time I' it will be at a place r with respect to O.
of u(n:> 3) by a function of the fonn, say Thus we regard x, the Eulerian place, as fixed in space; it is occupied by different
particles (in general) at different times. The particle traces out a palh line. The
0-" = O'nU2 + J3nu + ,n I, (2.14) actual trajectory of P is given by r(I'), and
)
where 0'", J3n, and In are functions of the invariants of u. This result is a special r (l) = x. (2.16)
case of the general rule for isotropic tensor functions of a single tensor (Truesdell
and Noll 1965, p. 27 el seq.): )
2.3.1 VelocilY and aeeeleralion: Slreamlines
The velocity \' of particle P is given by
F(u) = /2u 2 + Ilu + /01, (2.15)
. .. dr{ I')

iN:'""',, Jo, JI
and 12 are funclions of the invariants of u. The isotropic property V(l ' )=~ . (2.17)

of the representation (2.15) can be stated as follows. Under a rotation R of

axes the left-hand side takes up a value F (RuR T ). In an isotropic function we Similarly, we can define the particle velocity in the usual Eulerian way, so that
demand that this be equal to RF(u)RT The form (2.15) satisfies this criterion , for each x, at time I, there is a velocity
and gives a useful rule for expanding tensor functions of a single variable.
v = vex, I). (2.18)

2.2.5 Remarks aboul olher lensors and eoordinale syslems Clearly, when (2.17) is evalua ted at time I and place x, it must give the same
All of the above properties of the stress tensor are mathematical consequences vector as (2.18), so th a t the two are equivalent. In fact, the argument ofv in (2. i 7)
that follow from the symmetry of the tensor and the transformation rule (2.5). could be written (x, I') so as to remind one that the particle P is one which
Hence any symmelric tensor quantliy lhat transforms according to (2.5) will passes through x a t I. ,
aiso possess these 4uaiities. The velocity vector is tangent to a streamline at a point. Thus ifd'; is a portion
While the discussion above has used Cartesian coordinates, any orthogonal set of a streamline, we have the defining equation
of axes (for example, cylindrical or spherical polar coordinates) will behave in the
same way, since only a point in space is dealt with in the transformation. d'; = h, (2.19)

2.3 Motion and deformation where k is a constanr.

In steady Eulerian flows the streamlines and the particle pathlines coincide.
We shall usually find it convenient to consider a fixed Eulerian frame of reference The acceleration of the particle P at point x is given by the usual hydrodynamic
as is normally employed in fluid mechanics. Thus we can consider a particle P in a deriva tive (in Cartesian coordinates).
body (Fig. 2.4) which is presently (time I) located at a position (or place) x with
aVi aVi _ DVi
Gi(X, f ) = V. i ( )=
X,I at +J V
ax}-
- -DI
-. (2.20)
)
The D I DI derivative will thus be used as a notation for the particle-following
(or material) derivative as is usual in fluid mechanics. For other orthogonal
coordinate systems, we can write

av
a = -
al + (v . V )v = -Dv
Df'
(2.20a)

where the grad operator is interpreted in the relevant coordinate system.

o The Appendix at the end of this book tabulates results in several coordinate
Fig. 2.4 Motion of a body from lime t' to time I. systems.
)
 42 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANI CS 2 3 MOTION AND DEFORMATION 43
.1
2.3.2 Velocity gradient, rate 0/ de/ormation, and vorticiry a small distance dx at time t, and by a distance de at time t', then several ways of
In nuid dynamics we compute the velocity gradient a s the rate of change of defining strain tensors exist.
velocity with respect to the (fixed) Eulerian coordinate system. Formally we We observe that a particle P which is at a place x at time I is at r at time
have Vi= Vi (Xi, t). t', so
The rate of change of the velocity component Vi with respect to the coordinate
r(t') = r(x, t) [or r; = ri(xi, t)] (2.25)
Xj is given by ov;jox;, or, for the total change dVi (at a fixed time):

,. aVi, describes the deformati on. As we move to a neighbouring particle Q (Fig. 2.4)
d Vi = Lij OXj = c:;- (lXj , (2.21 ) the mapping (2.25) means that the relation between dr and dx is:
) ux;

or, in direct notation

or (2.26)
dr; = - ' dXj
aXj
d\' = l.dx,
We define the deformation gradient tensorF relating de and dx as
where L is the velocity gradient tensor.
dr = Fdx (dri = Fijpxj), (2.27)
It is tempting to write L = Vv , but this is not logical since (Vv )ij = 8V;/ aX i,
which is the tensor Lji. the transpose of L ij . Since L is not symmetric, we shall or
write:
ari
(2.28)
L 7 = Vv (
or /.. = _ov\
i I
(2.22)
Fij = ax)'
) \ J1 ax,) .
Note that F is not necessarily symmetric.
Thcn (2.22) can bc cast into forms appropriate for non-cart esian systems; l\.ltern£ltively \ve have , fo r conven~ence in non-Cartesian ort hogonal sysie3:nS
see Appendix.
~le split L i; into symmetric and antisymmetric parts FT = Vr. (2.29)

,;
-+ -
L = -j (D'Vi
2 [)x} aXi
av,) +- 2
_
i (DVi
aXj
__ .
aVi)
ax, , (2.23)
Often F(t ') is called the relative deformation gradient, and is given a subscript
to denote what time it is relative to. Since we mainly use r(t ') and the gradient
with respect to x, we shall not use an elaborate notation. Clearly F(l) =!, since
or
dx and dr then coincide.
) L ij = dij + \i'ii. In an incompressible medium the volume of an element of material (dxl dX2
(2.24) dX3) transforms under F into an element of equal volume in r-space. Thus
which defines the rate of deform a ti o n tensor (dij) and the vorticity tensor (Wi) the Jacobian of the transformation F must be unity , or
re specti vely . The principal values of the symmetric dij describe the rates of
detF = I. (2.30)
stretching of filaments in the principal directions (see eqn 2.35a) , while the
) three non-zero components of the antisymmetric wij are alternatively computed
) from haif of the vorticity ~ V x v. Precisely, WI2 = - ~W3, WIJ =~2' W23 = - 4w1
where w = V x v. The vorticity gives the solid-body rate of spin at a point in 2.3.4 Strain
the fluid; if w = 0, then the flow is irrotationaf. To relate the magnitudes of dx and dr we can form dr 2 and find

2.3.3 D eformation gradienl c:I.,.2 = dr· dr = c:lr T dr = . 6x T F T Fdx. (2.31)

The quantities di) and wi) are sufficient for Newtonian fluid mechanics but The quantity FTF will be called the strain tensor; often it is termed the right
additional quantities are required to describe solid materials or materials with relative Cauchy-Green strain tensor (Trllesdell and Noll \965), but we shall
memory. Looking at Fig. 2.4, if P and Q are neighbouring points separated by mainly use it (and its inverse) and hence the simplified terminology will be
 ~

44 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS 2 . 3 MOTION AND DEFORM .';'.TION

45

preferred. We define the strain tensor C as Hence, we find, a s I' -> t,

- "T"
r -- ...... , (2.32)
d2CI
-,f = 2LmiLmj
d {Lij + Lji} + LimLmj + LjmLmi
+ dti
and the inverse strain tcnsor"as dl ,'_. ,

C- I = F-1F- T. (2 .33)
= -ddI' Aii(I)
"
(I) (I)
+ LmiAmi" + LmjAmi' (2.38)

Clearly, C and C - I are both symmetric tensors. In any medium the principal
values of C represe nt the sq uares of the relative elongation ratios of filaments of
material. Similarly, it may be shown (Truesdell and Noll !965) that the principal
values of C - I measure relative area changes in an incompressible medium, in
'which , [rum (2.30), we I?USl ha ve det (: = det C-: = I.
2.3.5 Rale 0/ change 0/ sirain. The Rivlin-Ericksen lensors
Suppose the pa thlines of the motion are known and that the strain history C(I') is
)
We term this quantity the second Rivlin- Ericksen tensor A~).
Because of the fact that we have foHowed a particle by working in the I' time
framework, the time derivative dA ( I ) / dl'II'_1 in eqn (2 .38) must be replaced
bv DA ~}) / Dt when the result is referred to fixed Euleri:m co-ordinates. By t.::O!!­
)
ti~ujni this differentiation process one finds a recursion formula for A~+I)
in terms of Lij and the At") (Rivlin and Ericksen 1955). In Eulerian terms (referred
to x and I) we find
(n)

known for all time I'. Onecan then differentiate C with respect to I', assuming we DA·U_
A(n+l) = __ · (n)
+ Ln"A mj + Lm} A(I1)

m,' (2.39)
have a sufficiently smooth motion. We have, from (2.31) and (2.28), U DI

CI} (I') = F,.r;- ._ ark ark or

.(I .J. kj - ~~. (2.34 )
O)(, OX,
(r.,
A (n+l ) _ ~...L I.?A(n )...L A (n)L. (2.39a)
. Differe nti::-ting with respec t !0!' '.He o bt ain, sinc~ tit i3 n functiofi. of /' , (bu t Xl .. Dr ' .
IS not)
Clearly, the Rivlin- Ericksen tensors are symmetric.
dCI} ark (}Vk aVk ark We can thus replace C ij in sufficiently smooth motions by a Taylor series in
- = - - + _ ._- . (2.35)
dl' fJXi ax) OX; ax) the A&'l, Since CI} (I) is the unit tensor bij, then we find

Hence, at I' = I, when rk = Xk. we have )

C(I') = b - A(1)(I-I') +..!..A(2)(I_ 1')2
,/ '} I) 2! U
+ .. (2.40)
dC,) I -- b . aVk aVk b . - av;
k, a x}. + a x}. k, - a x}
av) - 2d - A(I)
+ a x, - (2.35a)
dI ' ,'=1
U - iJ'
which is sometimes useful. )
where A(I) is the first Rivlin-Ericksen tensor, and bki is the unit tensor; Dk ;= I 2.3.6 Some kinemalic examples--shear and planar elongalion
if k = i and is zero otherwise. (a) Consider a shearing deformation in the XI - Xz plane where the velocity
Differentiating (2 .35) again, we obtain field is given (Fig. 1.1) in Eulerian coordinates by v = (ix2, 0, 0); that is, flow is
in the Xl -direction , with a shear rate -y. The particles move along straight lines
+ ark ~ (aW)' -I- ~ (aVk) ark
2
d Cij = aVk OVk + aVk aVk . (2.36) and their positions are described by
dr,2 aXi OXj aXidl' aXj dl' ax; aXj ax; ax)
rl (I') = XI + -YX2(I' - I)
Now using the chain rule of differentiation , we have: (2.41)
r2 ( I') = X2; r) ( I') = X).
d (aVk) d (a w arm) = ~ {Lkm(I')} arm + aVk avm . (2.37) Hence, r( I) = x, and VI (I') = drl / dl' = -YX2 = ir2. The streamlines are clearly the
dt' aXj = dl ' arm aXj dl' aXj arm ax) lines of constant X2, X), and the acceleration of a particle is zero. The velocity
)
)
46 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS 2.4 CONSERVAT!ON OF MASS, MOMENTUM, AND ENERGY 47

') gradient tensor is, in matrix form, The solutions of (2.45) satisfying ret) = x are

r~ ~ ~, 'I = XI exp[E(t' -1)J;

ax, ax, ax)
,I '2 = X2 ex p[-E(I' - i)],
I~l. ~
L(t) = ax, ax, ~
x) (2.42)
'3 = X3'
aU1 a1)1
~
LaXI ax, ox)...;
Note the exponen tial separation of particles, in contrast to the algebraic sep­
aration in the shear case. The streamlines are hyperbolic, XIX2 = constant. The
and all terms except OVljOX2, equal to i, are zero in shearing. The rate of L tensor is diagonal, [E, -E,OJ; the acceleration a is E2(ixl + jX2).
deformation tensor then has d l2 = d21 = ~i, all other terms zero, and Wl2 = The vorticity is zero, and all matrices are diagonal: d = diag {E, - E, A}, so
- W21 = ~ i, all other terms being zero. d=L,F = diag (X,X~l,l), where X=exp[E(I'-I)], and C- I is diag
) The deformation gradient F can be computed from (2.4i) to be, in matrix (X~2, X 2 , i). The second Riviin-Ericksen tensor A(2) = diag (2&2,2E 2,O).
form,
2.4 Conservation of mass, mO,mentum, and energy

W)~ [i
'1(1' - I)
We have already considered, in effect, the conservation of angular momentum
I
?l (2.43 ) by insisting on the symmetry of the stress tensor (Sections 2.2, 2.2.1, and 2.2.2).
° 1 J We now consider the conservation of mass, linear momentum, and energy. For
most of this book, up to Chapter 9, the energy conserva tion principle wil! not
and det F = i, as required. be needed.
The strain tensor e(1 ') can be computed from (2.43) to be There are many derivations of the consequences of the conservation principles.
The simplest methods usually involve a brick-shaped small element and con­

q,') ~ FTF ~ ['w~- ,) I

~l
i(I' - t)
+ i 2(1' - 1)2 (2.44)
sidera tion of fluxes across the surfaces and accumula tions of quantities within the
brick. For example, see Timoshenko and Goodier (1951) for a derivation oflhe
equations of motion following from momentum cOllserva tion. Here we will take
°
• j

a more genera! approach based on a control volume (Fig. 2.5). In order to pro­
ceed, we first need a purely mathematical result, the Reynolds transport theorem,
Note, e and d are symmetric; while F and L are not; w is antisymmetric. C~ I
) is also symmetric and has the same pattern of entries as C: which enabies us to compute the rate of change of certain volume integrals.

rI +i2(1- 1')2 2.4.1 Reynolds trampurt theurem

~l.
-i(I' - I)
C-I(I') = I -i(t' - I) I (2.44a) The physical laws to be considered are fOI-mulated in terms of a constant col­
lection ofparticles t and we need to be able to transform these into a fixed Eulerian
L ° (L I J formulation. This may be done by using the Reynolds transport theorem:
One can compute A(I) = 2d, and A (2) from (2.39a). A (2) is of the form. since
DA(I)jdt = O, where all elements are zero except (A(2»)22, equal to 2'12. ~
dl
r
Jparticles
p1/J dv = r ~ (p,t,b)dv+ Jrs fY1I;v· ndA.
Jvul
(2.46)
In this case, one can show that all A (n) for 11 ;c:: 3 are zero.
(b) In a contrasting case, we consider planar elongation where VI = EX], Referring to Fig. 2.5, we see that the volume Vwith surface S is fixed in space and
V2 = - EX 2, V} = 0; the elongation rate is OVI j OXI = E. Particles move according
the material cloud of particles under consideration drifts through the control
to eqn (2.17) so that volume. At time I we choose that the material particies occupy the control
volume. The quantity 1/J in (2.46) may be any specific (that is, per unit mass)
drl d'2
dl' = trl; dr} = 0.
dl' = -tr2; (2.45) t In this COntexl a 'particle' is shorthand for 'a small quantity of rna Iter' and does not specify a
dt' microstructure.
48 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHAN!CS

D
I 2.4 COI..JSER V ATiON OF MASS. ?\10M ENTUt.t., AND ENERGY 49

This formula must also apply at the instant I, when r = x, and so one finds

dv= V· v dv.
If (2.48) is rewritten in terms of the fixed control volume (V) we find

~~ = 1{:I (p1/J) + (v . V+ VV)p1jl }dV

-_ Jrv {8Of ~P1fJ);- V . (Vp'P
Conlrol volume
~f)} .
V
I ,\ ,
01/, (2.49)
Conlrol surrace S
Fig. 2.S Control volume sho\l/ing its relation to a malerial cioud of particies. or, using the divergence theorem on the last member of(2.49) we recover (2.46).
Equation (2.46) sta tes tha t the rate of increase of a rna terial quantity is equal
to the rate of increase of that quantity in those particles inside the fixed
quantity of a scalar, vector, or tensor nature. Then p dv is a mass element, and control volume plus the net flux of the quantity through the boundaries of the
multiplication by 1/J gives an element of the quantity which is to be integrated control volume. This formula may be applied to the angular momentum of a
over the control volume. An elementary proof of (2.46) is given by Streeter system to deduce that CTij = CTji under the conditions we assuD1ed in Section 2.2.1
and Wylie (1979). (Huilgol and Phan-Thien 1997).
To demonstrate the truth of (2.46) let Jparlicles p1jJdv = P. Then
2.4.2 Conservalio/1 of mass
dP _ ! ~ {p'ljl dv}. (2.47) w~ J
car! apply (2.46) hy sett.!I1g -:.t' = 1. Theil :Ne h,] v~ particles {J UiJ =- tn, the iotal
dl - .!pa,, ; .:~~; d! mass of the material system.
We assume dm/cll = 0; that is, the total mass of the particles is constant
The inversion of integration and differentiation is permitted because we are
and hence,
integrating over a fixed set of particles. Now p1/J is supposed a function of x , I,
and hence (2.47) becomes

dP r-
D(p1/J) 1 D (dv).
0= iV:1Pdl/ + 1 pv nds. (2.50)
-dv + p1/J- (2.48)
df ./ v Df V Df
Using the divergence theorem the second term in (2.50) can be turned into
Now the rate of change of the material element (j;) needs to be computed. a volume integral over V
Let the volume element dv belong to the fixed (x) coord ina te system. After
deformation let the element be dv' in the r-system, say. The ratio of the two
volumes is the determinant of the transformation matrix (see Jeffreys and
0= iv (0; + v· P\')dV. (2.5 I)

Jeffreys 1956, for example). In the present case, (2.27), Section 2.3.4, gives F as
the transformation matrix and so Since V is arbitrary,t we must have at all places x

dv' = det F dv. 8p + V. P" = O. (2.52)

8,
Noting that dv is fixed in space, we can differentiate this with respect to time
(over a fixed set of particles) to find (Mase 1970, p. 115)
lin this and similar arguments one must always bear in mind that the scale of the microstructure
is small enough so that the 'infinitesimal' element dv still contains enough material so thaI the
dv' = V· v dv'. continuum hypothesis is valid. For an elaboration of this argument see L. C. Woods, Math. Chron.
9 (t980) 75.

')
, 50 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHAN!CS 2.4 CONSER VATION OF MASS, MOMENTUM, AND ENERGY 51

') We shall almost exclusively be concerned with materials of constant density, If account is taken of the equation (2.52) for mass conservation, and
hence (2.52) reduces to noting that the integrand must vanish everywhere, one finds the equations of
) motion
) V·" =0 (OVk
\OXk
= 0). (2.53)
OO"ij {OVi OVi}
" OXj + PJ; = p 8t + Vj OXj = POi· (2.60)

) t'orms of this equation for various coordinate systems are given in the
2.4.3 Conservalion of momenlum
) Appendix a t the end of this book.
The linear momentum of an element dl/ is Py du, and hence in this case we use
) 'l/J = yin (2.46). The rate of change of linear momentum of the materia! particles
is the net force on the control volume due to s urfa ce and body forces . 2.4.4 Conservation of energy
)
If e is the specific internal energy of a particle and !v 2 is the specific kinetic energy
Total force = ~1 pYd l/ (2.54) of that particle, then the first law of thermodynamics states that the rate of
d { parlicles
increase of energy of the material is equal to the rate of working of the ex­
To obtain an expression for the total force we note that the total body force terior forces on the material minus the net rate of heat loss from the body.
on the particles in the control volume is Now the rate of working can be expressed as the sum ofa surface integral and a
volume integral , a nd hence we write
r pfd!',
.Iv
where f is the body force vector per unit mass.
(2.55)
lliVi dA + !v pJiv, dl/ - 1qini dA + !v ps dl/

The total surface force is the integral 01" I dA [see eq n (2. 1)] over thc surface S: =~
dI
r
.JpM!;cles
p{e+!v 2 )dl/. (2.61 )

1 IdA . (2.56)
Adding together these forces and equa ting to the rate of change of momentum
in the Eulerian frame we find
Here, qi is (h e heat flux vector (positive outwards), and we have included the
term of the form f v psdl/, the heating term . In the present studies this form of
heat transfer. is not important and we will be able to ignore it in appiications;
a standard example (Carslaw and Jaeger 1959) of its use is in a wire heated by an
electric current.

Is tdA+ r pfdl/ = Jvr g(PY)dl/+ipyy.ndA .

Jv I ,
(257) Following the paths outlined in Sections 2.4.2 and 2.4.3 we arrive at the
energy equation
)
Now we can express I (in compo nen ts) by eqns (2.3) and (2.57) becomes. in De Oqi
p DI = O"ijdij - OXi + ps. (2. 62)
coordinate form

1s
0"ijlljdA +
)
r
v
pJidl/ =
}
r:
V I
(pj};) d l/+ !PV;j}JnjdA.
.f
(2.58)
Fonus of the terms in this equation in various coordinate systems are given in
the Appendix. It should be noted that it is usually necessary to express e and q
in terms of the temperature and/ or its gradient.
Use of the divergence theorem yields. from (2.58), The first law does not exhaust the subject of thermodynamics. However, we
shall not need to appeal directly to the restrictions on processes or constitutive

l {~:~. + pJi }dl/ = l {:I (PVi) + O~j (PViVj) }d Ll. (2.59)

equations imposed by the second law of thennodynamics and the reader is
referred to the literature for further discussion. A source which uses fluid
mechanics as a context is Woods (1975).

)
52 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS 2.5 GENERAL RULES FOR CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS 53

2.5 General rules for constitutive equations event (x', I') according to the transformation rule

Here we discuss some basic principles which govern formulation of constitu­ X' = C(I) + R(I)x
tive equations as a preliminary to the treatment of materials with responses (2.63)

t' t - Ct,

more complicated than that of the classical Newtonian f1l1id By the term con­
stitutive equation we refer to an equation relating the stress on some material
to the motion of that material. Only mechanical interactions are considered,
and although in some cases the effects of electric and thermal fields may need
to be included , we shall not do so here. In this section, the major requirements
which we expect constitutive equations to satisfy are outiined.
where C(I) is an arbitrary vector-valued function of time, R(I) is an arbitrary
time-dependent orthogonal transformation, and Ct is an arbitrary constant.
Entities which are invariant under the change of frame (2.63) are said to be
frame-indifferent or objective. By invariant we mean that a scalar is unchanged ,
that a vector preserves its same pbysical meapin g; that is, if

2.5.1 Coordinatei::vG;"ia,v:ce. det2Ttni;7isi"i'i, and local aCiioii y. .:. . :. y - x,

The requirement of coordinate ;nvariance merely states explicitly what is always

then
assumed for physical laws: their validity does not depend upon expression in a
unique coordinate system. When this principle is applied to constitutive equa­ I
\' = Y -
I
x,
,

tions, the nature of the physical law requires that the principles of coordinate
invariance apply to transformations between inertial coordinate systems (tha tis.
the coordinate system s are not undergoing relative acceleration) at any instant
of time . The requirement ensures that one will not obtain a new 'law' every time a
different coordinate system is used. The principie aiso estah!ishes the ohvious
value of lIsing coordinate-free (for example , veclor ilnd tensor) notation to
describe constitutive equations. The idei! of de l.ermi!"!is!TI ~!".tes that, though
and that a (second-order) tensor is equivalent to a linear transformation which,
when operating on an objective vector, yields an objective vector. These
requirements lead one to conclude that under the change of frame (2.63),
objective scalars, vectors, and tensors transform, respectively, according to
b' - h

fluids may exhibit memory, they cannot possess foresight. Consequently, the v' = R(t')\, (2.64)

most general constitutive equation relates the stress in a materia! at , say, the
A' = R(t')ART(t ' ).

present time, to the present and previous experience of the material. We say tha t
the stress is determined by the history of the material. Not all entities possessing physical significance transform objectively. For

A third idea , introduced by Oldroyd (1950), is that only the neighbouring example , we can consider the deformation gradient ten sor F defined in (2.28) .

particles in a material should be involved in determining the stress at a point. This

We have )
local action principle is consistent with the idea of short-range forces between
molec ules in a real material , while excluding long-range forces , such as those F _ ar;(l') F''J -_ ar!(I')
--._ .
of electrostatic origins, which are included as body forces. ij- ­
aXj , ax}

2.5.2 Principle 0/ material objectivily Now if

This principle is an expression of the belief that response of a material to a x: = Rij(I)Xj + C;(I),
given experience or history of motion is independent of any motion of the
person observing the response and the history. The principle itself has a long, then
confused history (Tanner and Walters 1998). It appears to have been enunciated
near the turn of the century by Zaremba (1903). However, it was first generally r;(t') = Rij(t')rj( I') + C;(I').
made known to rheologists through the important paper of Oldroyd (1950).
In order to discuss the principle of material objectivity we must first define Hence, by the chain rule
what is to be meant by a change of reference frame (or observer). By this
phrase we mean a time-dependent but spatially homogeneous transformation "'r',
U or,' _
aXk_arm
__ __ D.
.I."1fJ1 {, I')RJ'kFmk,
of space and time; that is, a transformation of an event (x, /) into a corresponding
Fij = aX') = arm ax} aXk
 54 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS
')
or
') F'(t') = R(t')F(t')RT(t). (2.65)
This is not the rule (2.64) because of the different times in volved, and hence F
is not objective.
) considerations. By definition, no shear stresses occur in a fluid at rest, and the
The principie of material objectivity is an assertion that constitutive equations
are to be frame-indifferent or, equivalently, must transform objectively under
the change of frame (2.63). Physically, this principle embodies the belief that a
) constitutive equation expresses material behaviour, and that this behaviour
must be indifferent to the motion of an observer. As noted by Truesdell and
Noii (1965), one can also state what is essentially the same result by requiring
that the response of a material be indifferent to rigid body transiations
and rotations of the material. It may be shown that the stress tensor u is objective
and that the strain tensor C and the Rivlin- Ericksen tensors A are also objective.
It is easy to construct physic?1 systems whcre this principle does nOi hold. As
an example, Ryskin and Rallison (1980) have shown that the principle does not
hold for a dilute suspension of spheres when the microscale Reynolds number is
not negligible. in most cases we shall merely lise the above ideas to check con­
stitutive relations produced by other methods; it is generally necess?ry to have
some microstructurai knowledge [0 apply this principle with confidence .
2.6 The classical constitutive relations
The classical constitutive equo tions arc those for an inviscid fluid , a linc,lr viscous
fluid , the linear elastic body and the linear viscoelastic body. One might also
consider the theory of plasticity as classicai but we shaH not examine it here. These
) cases will now be treated to introduce some ideas involved in formulaLing con­
stitutive models and in the soiution of problems.
In Chapter I we discussed material response in one-dimensional shear
) CTij
motions. Now it is required to connect these simple cases to fully three-dimen­
sional flows. Generally, for (isotropic) compressible materials, one needs to
consider both the shear and the bulk (or change ofvoiume) response. The shear
part of the total stress tensor will be denoted by Tij, and the bulk portion by -polj'
In the compressible case the pressure p is a function of the volumetric strain
(and other variables possibly) while Tij is independent of volume change.
We write
CTIj = -pbij + Ti). (2.66)
Each one-dimensional shearing motion yields aij = Tij(i f= j) and T'i may be
described by a suitable response as in Chapter 1. The bulk notion needs extra
material response information which is not deducible from shearing motion
alone. By contrast, in the incompressible case, which is our main consideration
here, the pressure p is not connected to the motion via a constitutive equation ,
)
~
2.6 THE CLASSICAL CONSTITUTiVE RELATIONS 55
and must be found using the incompressibility condition (2.53) and the
momentum balance (2.60).
2.6.1 Linear viscous fluids and inviscid fluids
In any fluid at rest, there is always a pressure (,0) determined by equilibrium
pressure acts equally in all directions. Therefore the constitutive model for
any fluid at rest is simply
u = -pI (CTtj = -pbij). (2.67)
Euler took this over in his theory of inviscid flow and it is the simplest con­
stitutive model possible . It contains no shear stresses and hence is not a good
model of real fluid behaviour. A more complex model is the linear viscous
(Newtonian) fluid (Stokes 1845):
CTij = - pblj + Adkkbij + 2rydij, (2.68)
where A is a second viscosity coefficient which in general is not related to ry, the
usuai viscosity coefficient measured in shearing motion. For incompressible
fluids dkk = 0 and so the value of A is irrelevant and we find
CTij = -pbij + 2rydij == - pbij + T}AU)· (2.69)
Note that for any incompressible material we have the incompressibility
constraint (V. v = 0) and p must be found by using the equa tion of motion (2.60)
and boundary conditions; it cannot be found from the constitutive equation
aione. lL is often convenient with incompressible fluids to write
+ POij = Tij (cr + pI = T), (2.70)
T is then the extra stress (or deviatoric stress) and is the part of the stress tensor
which can be computed from the constitutive equation when the motion is
known. Substitution of (2.69) into the equations of motion gives the Navier­
Stokes equations. Thus we get three equations plus the incompressibility
condition to find the three velocity components and the pressure. All of the
above constitutive forms can be seen to satisfy all of the general principles
for constitutive iaws laid down in Section 2.5; the relation (2.69) is isotropic
because it has been made so; we expect isotropic behaviour from fluids with
. a random isotropic microstructure. Before leaving these fluids we shall examine
their complete responses in simple shearing flow and in elongational flow. In
the former we shall consider the velocity field v = i-yy (Fig. 2.6), where i is a unit
vector parallel to the x-axis, and consider only the incompressible case. Then
the proposed velocity field satisfies the incompressibiiity condition (2.53) and
 I
56 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS 2 .6 THE CCASS1CAL CONSTITUT!VE RELAT!ONS 57

kI

steady elongation . Here, the velocity field is assumed to be

,,= ~ £ {2ix - jy - kz}. (2.73)

I (This IS not the same field as that described in Section 2.3.6). Thus the elonga­
tiona! rate au/ax is equal to E, and ov/8y and ow/oz are both - !i. The flow is
symmetric around the x-axis and satisfies the incompressibility conditions (2.53).
A possible way of producing the irrotational velocity field (2.73) is to elongate
a viscous rod, so that it is a tensile test, rather than a shear test. We shall ignore
body forces and accelerations. It is then clear that the only quantity of rheolo­
gical interest is U xx - U yy' since all shear stresses are zero and U yy = U zz . Again,
XJ X, the absolute values of the dij-eet stresses wiii be sei by some boundary condi­
Fig. 2.6 Simple shea ring kin eJllai ics; X, is lhe fiow directi on, Xl is the vel oci ty gradient direction, tion, which in turn detennines p. We find
and XJ is the neutral direction. The speed V, = -YX2; the other velocity components Vl and "3 are zero.
U xx - U yy = 3'1]£ =' 1/EE. (2.74)
from (2 .69) we find
The quantity l7E is the Trouton (J 906) or elongational viscosity; in a Newtonian
fluid it is exactly 3'1]. Unsteady elongations, in which E is a function of t, simply
U zy = Uxz = 0
make the left-hand side of (2.74) time-dependent also, following £.
u xx = u YJ ' = UZ! = -p
== 'TJi = r(c:onst~nt). (2.7 j )
;
a x)' 2.6.2 Linear eiasiic behaviour
I
\Ale no'.v check thnt (2.7!) and the nSSUi{i\':U velocity field satisfy the equations I Here we expect to reia te the stress tensor 10 a strain . Suppose a body is at rest in
the configuration x at time t. If it is then strained (I' > I in this case) so that the
of motion, under the assumption that no variation of quantities in the x and z particle which was at the place x is now at r then we can define the displacement
directi ons occurs. Somc assumption a bout the body force must be made; it will vector u as
be ignored here for simplicity. (If required a gravity body force can be easily
added; it simply produces a hydrostatic pressure distribution.) Then we find u = r - x (u; = r; - x;). (2.75)
p = constant, the level being set externally by some boundary condition and not
in fluenced by the flow. We emphasize tha t since the hydrosta tic pressure p is not The strain tensor C" can then be written in terms of au;jaXj = Fi; - 0", giving,
set by the flow, only the differences of normal stresses from (2.32) and (2 .34)

au; OUj aUk aUk

NJ = Utt - un, Cij = 0" + -8 + .,,-- + -8 J:l . (2.76) )
(2.72) Xj uXj x; UXj
N2 = U22 - U]] ,
)
This strain measure is non-linear. In classical elasticity theory it is supposed
and the shear stress r are of rheological interest. The quantity Nt, the first normal that all displacement gradients are small, so that we can rewrite (2.76) as
stress difference, is defined by the direct stresses along two axes, one along the
( (8U;) 21
flow direction (x: = x) and the second along the flow gradient direction (X2 = y).
The second normal stress difference, N 2 , is defined using X2 (= y) and X3 (= z). 2£IJ =
- C I)·· - ° = -au; + -au) +
I) J:l _
uX)
J:l
UXj
0 iJ -'"
l uXj
f . (2.77)
)
For the Newtonian fluid , N J a nd N2 are both zero, and, by assumption, 'I] is
constant. Eij is the classical small-strain tensor. There is no pressure term in a compressible
When i is a function of time, and conditions are such that inertia can be solid, hence the most general linear relation (Hooke's la w) between stress and
ignored, then the same solution will hold; the shear stress r merely follows the strain is
shear rate exactly, with no delay or change of waveform . Thus the Newtonian :1
fluid has instantaneous response and no memory. A second basic flow field is U" = C;)'kmEkm. (2.78)
 58 REV J EW OF CONT1NU U M MECHA N ! CS 2 .6 THE CLASSiCAL CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS 59

) This reflects the physical assumption that (Tij vanishes when the strain is zero.
Note a further approx imati o n here: (Tij now ri ghtl y belongs to the configuration
after displacement (r - coordinates) but in classical e las ticity theory no account
is taken of the difference between r and x . There is no requirement (as there is
in a fluid) th a t the material should be isotropic, but if microstructural con­
siderations indicate that it is (for example , a polycryst<llline metal) (hen it can
be shown (see Mase (1970» that (2.78) reduces to
)
Oij = ).EkkOij + 2GEij, (2.79)
where>: and G are moduli (the Lame constants).
If the material is incompressi ble, then the stress is not completely determined
) by the displacements, and (2.79) must be rewritten as
(Tij + pOi) = 2GEi). (2.80)
.i
Here, because of the approximation to Cij, the constitutive model may not be
objective; thi s is of no consequence when the theory is used correctly within its
limitations on sma ll strains and di splacements.
1f one subjects the linear elastic materi;]1 to thc s teady now fields mentioned in
the previous section, then there are no steady solution s, and the stresses rise
linearly in time . The stress so lutions for con sta nt slrain s a re identical to the
stress fi elds in a Newtonian fluid with constant s t rail1-r(l/l!S.
2.6.3 Linear viscoelasl ic behaviour
The main features of linear viscoel<lstic behaviour have been Jiscussed in Section
1.5.2 for one-dimen siona l shearing motions. The result obta ined for the shear
stress , egn (1.24), wa s
r(l) = 1~ G(I - I ') d/(/'). (i.24)
By appropriately defining an elongational rela xa lion function E(/) (Pipkin 1986)
in place of G(t) we can a Iso ex plore the exten sional behaviour in a form similar to
generalized function in order to deal with step jumps in strain. In this case A~I)
will formally be written but one has to bear in mind that delta functions are
now implied in its definition.) Furthermo re, because tr A (I) vanishes, so does
the trace of the extra stress or stress deviator (rij), and the sum of the direct st resses
is just -3p, as in a Newtonian fluid; similarly, after motion has ceased, (Tv­
approaches a hydrostatic state, as expected. Equation (2.81) is in fact the proper
generalization of (1.24) to three dimensions for an isotropic incompressible
material. We shall derive (2.8 i) by a n alternative method later. \A/hen the fluid is
compressible, or for viscoelastic solids, the matter is not as simple as one then has
two memory kernels corresponding to >: and Gin eqn (2.79) (Bland 1960; Pipkin
1986); in egn (2.81) G(/) corresponds to the constan t shear modulus G only. The
form of the linear viscoelasticity relation for compressible materials can be
written (Pipkin 1986)
(Ti) = oij /~ >:(1 - t')e (t') dl ' + 21~ G(I - I') dij(/') dt', (2.8 Ia)
e
where = dkk, the rate of volume s train, and >.: is an appropria te memory
function. In ad diti o n , one could aiso have a purely elastic term in (2 .8! a).
Equations (2.81) and (2.81a) hold only in th e linear regime; in thi s case
doubling the strai n doubles the stresses, for example . The range of strain which
may be employed before lea ving the linear range vafj~!S q uile wiueiy; a 10 per cent
strain may well be linear for some polymeric materials, but Phan-Thien and
Safari-Ardi (1998) have shown that bread doughs need to be subjected to less
than about 0.1 per cent; (0.001) shear strain amplitude to be in the linear range.
To complete thi s section we shall inves ti ga te some simple cases to parallel
the sections above. If we consider a suddenly s tarted simpie shearing motion
then the results are the same as eqn (2.71) for a viscous fluid, except that th e
shear stress r is not reached immediately. All the direct stresses are the same,
equal to th e externa lly imposed pressure, and the norma! stress differences N\
and N2 are zero.
Similarly , except for the delay in reaching the final state, the response in
steady elongational flow is the same as (2.74). We have imposed the fluid-like

,
(1.24). This should be borne in mind , although we shall not write down explicit
relations for extensional motions.
behaviour here, of course; in case we have solid-like behaviour then the results
correspond to those in Section 2.6.2.
A suitable three-dimension a l form for incompressible materials may be found Thus the interest in incompressible linear viscoelastic fluid behaviour resides
by replaci ng ..y( /') by the first Rivlin-Erick sen tensor A ~.I ) and the shear stress r by in the shear response . With a step strain input of magnitude, the shear com­
the extra stress tensor ri/ ponent of A (I) is a delta function ,o(t). Hence the relaxation function G(/)
is the impulse respo nse of the fluid, in terms familiar in linear systems theory.
+ pOij = ri) = 1~ G(t -
. For the Newtonia n fluid we have the special form
(Tij l'lAbl)(/') d/'. (2.81 )
)
G(I - I ') = TJOO(I - I '), (2.82)
Then A(.I) can be interpreted as the rate of stra in ; (2.81) gives the same result
lj ( I)
as (1 .24) for th e shear component of (Tij. (It will be necessary to regard Ai) ;]S a where relaxation is immediate.
 60 REVIEW OF CONTINlJlIM ME C HAN!CS 2.6 THE CLASSiCAL CO NSTITUTiVE RELATiONS 6!

J / ~ .,
Use of this relation in (2.8 1) gives the Newtonian fluid case

ai} + pOi} = 1]0 1~ o( t - t l)A~) (I') dl = 1]OA~I) ( t ) (2.83 )

Ir;<~;.t
/1
/ ~ __
--!" c5;­
i

Fig. 2.7 Sinusoidal shearing response. The shea r signal h) lags behind the stress signa l (a) by an
angle 6; 0 < 6 < rr/2.
2.6.4 Sinusoidal linear viscoelaslic resp onse
We have mainly concentrated so far on step-strain signals, but a very important
test procedure a ppli es a time-sinusoid a l signal to a sample in the linea r regi on We call C "/w = 17 ' the dyn a mic viscosity; it is equal to the steady-flow Newtonian
a nd measures it s response. Useful sources of informati o n are Ferry ( 19 70) , viscosit y for a Newtonian Ouid. As w --+ 0, from (2.89) and (2.90) we find the
j.
Pipkin ( !986) and Lodge ( 1964). zero-shear rate viscosity T/o:
Lei us suppose that the input signal to the specimen is a sinusoida l shein
strain desc ribed by the complex expression (i= ';-1) 1]0 = 1 00

G(s) ds. (2.91)

'Y = i exp(iwt), (2.8 4 )

Using the inverse Fourier transform theorem , we find, from (2.89)
(where the real part of this a nd later expressions is understood to be relevant) .
The (complex) shear stress response 1: is then, beca use the system is linear G(s) = - 21
1T 0
00
Gil
-coswsdw
w

(2.92)

r = c7cx p( iwt), (2.85) 2

= -,
r AJ -sin (.:..Isd!.:..,.
G;
,,. .,
\L . 7J}
('\''') \

1T)0 w
where L~' is the csciH atior! fre q uency of input anu outpu t. The n fron1 (2 .84)
If we record the results of experiments we have a phase shifl 0 (Fig. 2.7) a nd
l' = h.v'i e ;"" . (2.86) °
clearly if 0 = C" = O. Hence tan o = G"/C
1

Substituting in (2.81) we get Example

For the Maxwell model G(t) = Gge- II >' .

= iw-y 1~ G(I- II)expiwl ' dI

Hence
ae iW I 1
(2.87)

We define the complex modulus G' as ali; hence from (2.87), with 1- I ' = 5,
C*(w) = iw 1 De

Gge - sjAe-iws d s = iw)" Gg/ (i + i)"w).

G ' = iw 100

G(s )e- iwS ds. (2.88 )

Ratio nalizing the denominator,

G'(w) == G'(w) + iG I/(w) = G g [)..2w 2 + i)..w]/( i + )..2w2 ). (2 .94 )

Separating into real and imaginary components
When )..w --+ 00, the behaviour is elastic, and G ' --+ G g , G 1/--+ O. A s w --+ 0, the
roo r OO
beh aviour is visco us, C '--+ 0, G 1/ --+ T/(j.IJ. The phase angle is ta n - l( I /w)..) , going
G' = G ' + iG " = Jo wG(s) sin ws ds + i Jo wG(s) cos ws ds. (2.89)
from 90° as w --+ 0 to zero as )..w --+ 00 .
One can rega rd IG'I as a measure of 'signa l' a ttenuation .
\\le will term C '(w) the storage modulus and G "(w) the loss modulus. We can When we have an elastic solid, 0 = 0 (lossless); for a viscous fluid 0 = 7r /2. We
also define the complex viscosily 1]' = /;Y, hence a can argue that 0 cannot exceed certain limits on phy sical grounds . The rate of )
dissipation of energy/unit volume = ry instantaneou sly; that is, if l' = ;Y cos W I
G" .G '
1]
,
= I
1] -
."
17] = -;- = -G " - 1 -. (2 .90) and 'Y = (i/w) sin wt then the average dissipation per cycle is (a;Y/2) sin o. In
IW W W order for the dissipation to be positive we must have 1T :;; 0:;; O. The stored energy
)
62 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHAl'!!CS 2.6 THE CLASSICAL CONSTJTUTlVE RELATIONS 63

') is q; when averaged over a cycle, if is ~ (6i/ w) cos O. I f this is also to be positi ve, Another usefui concept is the relaxation spectrum defined by
7r/25 05 0, which is what is observed in experiments.
We have shown that (;0 is real here) {'''''
G(l) = } >.=o H().) exp( -1 /).) d in).. (2.98)
1 r(/) = G'(whoe iW ' in this case.
Note the (traditional) logarithmic basis for )..
If we had started from the creep integral description (1.25) a nd performed the Thus, if we set). = ~, d)' = ~ dp
same kind of analysis we would obtain ,(t) = r (w)r. Eliminating r from these
equaiions shows that G(l) = roo H(~) exp( _pI) dp . (2.99)
./0 p p
r(w)G'(w) = l. (2 .95)
Thus, G(l) is the Laplace transform of
While this result is good for solid materials where ic exists (Fig. i. i 5) there
are convergence problems for fluids because no finite J c exists (Pipkin \986) . HO) or )'HP..) .
In Chapter I we sta ted that J(t)G(I) "'" I, but in fact (Pipkin 1986) JG S. I,
P
and the exact relation between J and G can be found by taking Laplace trans­
forms of (1.24), and (1.25) and then eliminating the transforms of the stress (r) We can regard H()') as the density (on a log basis) of elements of the form e- '!).
and strain (f). If ](s) is the Laplace transform of J(I) and C is the Laplace making up G(t). We can define analogously the retardation time spectrum L()')
transform of G(l), then we have using the creep compliance J:

) its) = sG(s)i
(2 .96) J(/) =.10 + roo L()')(J _ e-'!).) d)'). .
./0 (2.100)
--y(s ) = s](s)i,
and eliminating i and i we find the res ult I Now substitute (2.98) in (2.89)

) 52 Jc = i. (2.97) G'
G"
1f = Joroo w{ cosws
sin ws } I ( 00 H(A 'e-x!>, d).l.
Jo ) ).
Example: Maxwell /fuid Interchanging the order of integration
Here G(l) = Gge-'!>' and if we note that the Laplace transform of a quantity y(/)

) is given by

G'l = {'Xl wd)' li()') ;,(00 e-s;;..f sinws ~ ds. (2.101 )

Jo ). .0 J
Hs) == lco exp( -SI)y(l) ot
G" (

We find
/
l cosws

we find
G' = t "" w 2 ). 2 H()') (2. i 02)
10 I +w2).2 dIn).
C(s) = Gg/(s + 1/),) .

From (2.97), we find ](s) = I /s 2 C or r/ = Gil = {'X) H().) d)'

(2.103)
w Jo ' 1+ w 2 ).2·
J(s) = (I + I/).s)/Ggs.
These results can be reduced to Stieltjes or Fourier transforms by a change of
Inverting the transform we find J(l) = H( I)G gI (J + 1/ ).) which agrees variables. By numerical inversion-'exact' or by analytical approximations- we
with (1.19). can find H(A). In practice, it is usually more accurate to use G."in lossy materials.

)
64 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS 2.6 THE CLASSI CAL COi~STiTUT! VE R.E L.A.. T!ONS 65

Ferry (1970) gives many useful rules for finding spectra. For consideration of
the discrete line forms of (2.102) and (2.103) are
temperature effects on G' see Chapter 9.

N J)..2
Special case- Maxwell liquid
G'(w) = Lg; I +J)..,
,= !
(2.102a)
Ifwe take NO.) to be a set of N delta functions, a discrete spectrum, that is,
I

/I ) ~
G (w = L g ; - - - -
w)..;
(2.103a)
N
fI()") = L )..ngn o().. - )..,,) (2.104) ;= l

n=1 Unfortunately, only a finite range o ffrequencies is availa ble, and the problem
of finding a suitable fit is ill-posed; many spectra will reproduce G' and Gil fairly
then from (2.98) accurately. There is a vast literature on computing the inversion problem, and we
only cite a paper by Brabec et ai. (1997) which compares several methods of
,IV
computation, the papers by Baumgaertel and Winter (1989, 1992) which seek to
G(i) = LgneXp(-I I An) (2.105)
n ::::;; 1
fit a minimum number of spectral lines, and the use of a variant of Weese's
NLREG method by Phan-Thien and Safari-Ardi (1998). Often 1-2 spectral lines
Differentiating, we get dG l dl as per decade of frequency have been found adequate. Various regularization
methods of fitting (regression, least squares) can often produce spectra that
reproduce the G',G" data within a few per cent over the given range, which is
\
f.L ( I, = -dG = - ~g"
L -exp( -1 1)..n)' (2. 106) often within experimental accuracy. If the range ofexperimental data is from Wmin
dl ,,=1 )..n to W max then the relaxation times needed are often considered to lie in the range
w;;;~. to w;;,in. However, this is only a crude approxima tion, a nd the da ta can only
When n == I we have a M axwp/lliquid, one of the t'}.'o sin1plest linear viscocI C:"1 stic I be reiiabiy determined on a shorter mterval. According to Davies and Anderssen
materials. For the Maxwell fluid , if )..: = .J.., g i 77 T)u'\' from (2.102) we ngnin find I (i997, i998), the interval ot" accurate spectra lies in the range ePw;;;!x to
(2 .94):

2
I e-~/2w;;,ln' more than a decade shorter than the simpler estimate. The lowest
frequency limit is usualiy set by the inability of the instrument'S force trans­
G' = TJow ).. ducer to respond to the very small forces produced at very low frequencies, so
(2.94a)
I + w 2 )..2 that noise becomes a problem. At the high-frequency end, the instrument mass
dominates the response, and the material impedance often cannot be measu··
Gil, TJo
(2.94b) red accurately. Hence near the limits of Wmin and W ma • data may not be accurate,
--:; = TJ = I + w2)..2 thereby making the deduction of spectra even more difficult.
I Alternatively, one might try and fit a relaxation curve G(I) directly, using
tano = )..w ' (2.94c) (2.!05), and compute G' and G" from this fitting, or sometimes one can use
G(I) over a suitable interval, without resorting to discrete spectra. We now give
giving the frequency response. some examples.
Example 1: Polyelhylene mell (Laun 1978)
2 .6.5 Fi/fing data lor linear viscoelaslic malerials
Table 2.1 shows a one-line per decade least-squares fit over eight decades of the
So far we have discussed representing G(I) by a sum of discrete exponentials data shown in Fig. 2.8. The curves show slight ripples not present in the experi­
(2.105). Roscoe (1950) showed that all spring-dashpot models can b~ reduced to mental data .
two canonical forms~ither a series of Maxwell elements in parallel or a set of
Kelvin-Meyer elements in series. Thus there is considera ble support for the use of Example 2: Polyvinyl chloride
discrete spectra models . A second set of data is shown in Fig. 2.9 for a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sample
If a discrete spectrum is chosen to fit a set of experimental data, then the at various temperatures (OC). PVC is not truly molten at the temperatures at
number of relaxation times (N) in (2 .104) needs to be specified, together with which it is formed, and at higher temperatures than those shown it decomposes,
t he values of the relaxation times ()..n) and their strengths gn in (2.105). Then so Fig. 2.9 shows data for a soft solid. It is noticeable that for temperatures

)
)
66 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS 2 .6 THE CLASSICAL CONSTiTUTiVE RELA nONS 67

Table 2.1 Linear relaxation data for (a)

lo w-density pol ye thylene at 150 °C

G(/) = I:::=,g,exp( -I /).., )

)
)..,(s) g, (Pa)
-;;;­
1 e::­ 103
I 10 1.00
2 10 2 1.80 x 10 2 2:
G
) 3 10 1.89 x 10 3 10'
4 I 9.80 x 10 3
5 0.1 2.67 x IO·
6 10-. 2 5.86 x 10
4 10
10 - 3
7 9 .48 x 10 4
8 10- 4 1.29 x 10 5
10- 3 10-' 10-' 10 IcY 103 10·
Data of Laun (1978)
W(S - I)
above 100 °C the relaxation data is very well fitted by a power-law rule Storage modulus
)
G(l) = G(I)I-D (2107) (0) 10' . - ­

Taking the 140°C curve, we find G( I) is 0.749 !V!Pa and B is 0.09 , whe re; is in I I. ~I
seconds. An alternati ve exponential fit to the G(l) curve using a standard least­ I " JI
'0.

I
squares fitting pa ckage is shown in Tahlc 2.2. It uses sevcn rel ax ati on times.
) The curves agree eloseiy with the experi menial ciala lor G'(w) (Fig. 2.9). The
i I

"'v
measured data are shown by crosses and the lines are computed fr om (2.102a) " 00'
J
for the Iii'''' Sped, UJII . t\ilt::rnativeiy , on e can fllld the (j'( w ) corresponding to
the powcr-law fit (2.l07) directly. From (2.89) we find
2:
G
) G ' = G(I)wo0 9 r(0.91)cos(.09r./2) I
10
) where r is the gamma function , or G 1 = 0 .78 7 ",,009 MPa. which is plotted as the
upper curve in Fig. 2.9(b). The agreement is a self-co nsi stency test of the da ta sets.
)
2.6.6 Solving linear viscoelasl ic boul1dary- value problems 10- 3 10- ' 10- 1 10 10' 10 3 10'

For incompressible linear viscoe las tic ma teria!s, G(I) co ntains all the informatio n w(s- ')
needed to describe the flow. For compressible materials a second, volumetric Loss modulus
) response kernel is also needed, corresponding to the :'\-modulus in equation Fig. 2.8 Storage and loss moduli (G ' and G il ) for the low-density polyethylene melt I, Table 2.1.
(2.79). We shall refer to Bland (1960) fo r a discussion 01 compressible so lid The slight ripples in the curves could be removed by using more relaxation times. G' and GI/vanish,
materials, and here we discuss only incompressible materials, which are com­ as w -> 0, like vJ and w respectively.

) pletely described when G(t) is known.

We list the principa l types of lin ear viscoelastic boundary-value problems.
These are classified as In class (a) we can take such problems as a pressure (or displacement) sud­
denly applied to the inside of a cylinder of material. Flow starts at t = 0 and
) (a) Quasi-sta tic
the hole gets bigger, but with many 'plastic' materials the process is so slow that
(b) Sinusoidal oscillation one can ignore the inertia telms [p(Dv / DI)] in the equa tions of motion. This
(c) Wa ve propagation . is the quasi-sta tic approximation.
 68 REVIE\V OF CONTiNUU7Vj MECHANjCS 2.6 THE CLASSICAL CONSTiTUTiVE RELATiONS 69

(a)
0"[---------------------------------- _____ Table 2.2 Relaxation modes for PVC AT 140 °C
·Vs) gi(MPa)

I 10- 2 2 x 10- 5
2 0.1 0.26!
3 1 0.170
'"
p..
::E .,
90'C 4 10 0.117
1\'8 5 10 2 0.105
(5

120
6 10 3 0.068
~er-Iaw
140
7 104 0.406

160
and the equations of motion and mass conservation:
0.1 I "",1
0.1 10 102 10 3
V· u = 0; V · y = O.
Time(s)

We can take the Laplace tra nsform of all these equations obtaining
(b) I
~
~~+'''.C l
;
1 I i7 = - pi + GA
1 I V · ii = 0; V· V = 0;

~ 160"C I I taking the Laplace transform of the boundary conditions we have vlbou!!da,y = vo,
and so
'"
"-
::E \lp = Gv. A = GV 2 y. (2.108)
G'
I Thus, with the exception of changing G for 7] in (2.108) the results are identical

.J
to those for the Newtonian problem. Hence, one may solve (2.108) and V· y = 0
by the usual methods for viscous cases a nd at the end replace 7] by G, then
invert the transforms.
0.' As a specific example we consider a Couette flow s tar t-up. Here, in the absence
0.1 10 10 2 of inertia, the viscous solution is independent of material properties and hence
Frequency,", (rad/sec) so is the viscoelastic velocity field. However, the stresses are different. We assume
Fig. 2.9 (a) G(/) for a polyvinyl chloride samp le at variolls temperatures ("C). At higher tcmper­ r, 8, z coordinates:
alures reiaxation foHows a power-jaw. (b) G'(w) for polyvinyl-chloride sample of Fig. 2.9(a). )
- - Computed from G(I), where G'(w) = .10 wG(s) sinwsds. x Direct measurement of G'. y = {O, r!1(r, t),O} .

Thus mass is conserved and we may, from symmetry, ass ume 8pj88 = O. Also
Suppose we consider the specific case when the boundary velocities are given
as yo(t), then we have
0 r'iJ} 0]
u = -p I + l' G(t - t')A(I)dt' , (2.81)
A (l ) ­

[
r'iJ}
o
0
0
O·
°
)
)
)
70 REVIEW OF C ONTINUUM M EC HANI CS 2.6 THE CLASSICAL CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS 71

) Thus all stress deviators except a(Jr are zero , and the only equation of equili­ The stresses and moments are different; in the Newtonian case
brium not satisfied reduces to
G= 1'/0, because G = 1'/0 6(1), .
8
_(,.2 ) = 0,
8r ar(J and hence

or, integrating, 47T R~r/o 0 .

MN = (I - R~/Rn
i
)
M
v rH = 27rr2 where /vi = M(I). For the viscoelastic case

Laplace transforming, we find !VI = 27rr 2 (jr(J. - 47T R~ -- - -­

M = " Gn; or M = constant x Gn;.
Also, from the constitutive equation

Suppose we have a Maxwell material. Then

ar 9 = Gr dD
dr '
G = 1'/0 e-' / A
A '
Thus
and, Laplace transforming,
,11 = C-27f1' 3dD
-
or 27rG
!VI dr = ciD, ~
·,0 iroo - <Ie-II). dl = ~ I
..!.... _ _ _ .

dr' ;-3

G = -A }0 A (s
e . 1)

-I-
1
ilnd

Suppose we have a s udden start-up

_ n

1'-2 !VI ..L r fs) ,

{) = - T 27T G . -\ 0.; = 0.oH(/ ) or st; = HU

S '

where s is the Lapl (lce tra nsform variable. Suppose th a t at where s is the Laplace transform va riable and

D = D, - C1'/00.o_1 I '

r = R, ,0 = 0.,( / )11( /), then

M = A s(s + -X)

) {
I' = Ro 0=0, D = o.
where C is a constant.
Hence In ve rting the tra nsforms, we find

M
0- = - Nt- R2)
( I- ~

M = Cryo0.o[H (I)Jl1 - exp -(I / A)] or MN = I - e-'/A .

47T R~G 1'2

There are a good many such problems in linear viscoelasticity where a cor­
and
respondence principle can be established between the viscous (or elastic) problem
and the viscoelastic problem in the Laplace transform domain . For further
_ = - _Nt._ _ ( I _ Ro2
0.,
47T R~G R; ) . Then
examples see Bland (J 960) and Pipkin (1986) .
In type (b) problems we must use a slightly different treatment from quasi­
static problems, with Fourier transform s instead of Laplace transforms. U sually
D I - R~ 1/, 2
2 2
. h ' h
whlC . I'
IS t e same as the Newtoma n so utlOn. inertia is not to be neglected and many o f the difficulties are common to types
D; ( I - Rol R i ) (b) and (c).
72 REVIE\V OF CONTINiJUivi iviECHANiCS
I~ 2 . 6 THE CLASSiCAL CONSTiTUTiVE RELATIO~':S 73

In type (c) problems inertia cannot be neglected. As a simple example we will

consider a sudden step velocity applied to a half-space (Rayleigh problem) in
which the velocity u of the boundary plane y = 0 is uoH(t) in the x-direction .
'''l e assume the vel o city field is of the form y -= {u( y, t), 0, O} .
Then we have, where -r is the shear stress CT xy ,
I and we get the well-known result

ii
1.10
=~exo-vJ(S\
s . , \1/0) ,

where I/o = 7]0/ p.

-ret) = 1~ G(t- t')i(t')dt' Inversion gives

where
u=uoerfc2~=uo
y 2 Jo e - qdq ,
( 1- .j00 t ' )
"r(t ) = ou(y, t)

oy
where z = y/2~) .

This is equivalent to a diffusion of momentum.

Continuity is satisfied. The only component of the equations of motion (2.60)

In case we have an elastic solid

tha t is not iden tically sa ti sfied is

~(!) = GH(t)

ou or
{
G = G/s
PDt = oy

Taking Laplace transforms and substituting for r. I 1~0 ~exp -YV (P: ) ~exp -'YSV (~).
= =
(2.109)

psii = oy
or - d 2ii
= G dy2 .
This may be readily solved to give
I We know that the inverse transform of F(t - a), denoted as L{[F(t ­ a»}
e- aSLF(t), and thus the inverse transform of (2.109) gives

r
= "

u=uoHlt - y (2.110)

ii=A(S)eXp-y\1 (.?s) +B(s)expy\1

~ G(s) ~
(-f!!-).
G(s)
Equation (2.110) describes a shear wave propagating at speed
for a Maxwell liquid,
J(G/ p) . Now

Clearly, B(s) = 0 as we have ii(CXl,S) = 0 as a boundary condition. To evaluate G(t) = rio e- rl >' .
A ..

A(s) we Laplace transform the boundary conditions a I y = 0

Gs _7]0_1_ _ ~

( )- A (s + ±) - AS + j (2.1 j I)
\ , 0) =
£irs 1.10 - A \(s') .
S
ii! I (s ( I + AS)
Thus - = -exp -
Uo s
yd I
V\ 7]0
p)\ .
ii
Uo =
j
-; cxp - YV
pPS)
\<7(.0)'
The exact inversion of eqn (2. j 11) (Tanner] 962) is

The transform inversion is often difficult; in case we have a viscous fluid :0 = exp(-i/ A)H[t - YV (~) ]

we have
[1 ~-
2J(~2-r2)] xH(~ - r)d~,
r (' I>' e-(/2
+2Jo J(e_r2)Il (2.112)
G(t) = 7]oo(t) {; = 7]0
)
74 REVIEW OF CONTlNUUM ME C HANI CS
where
r=yf(jJ,
a nd 1\ is a modified Bessel function. Equation (2 . I 12) describes a damped w ave.
Th ese a nd other results for more c omplex cases were given by Tanner (1962).
More complex values of G u sually only a ll ow asy mptotic or nume ri ca l inver­
s ions fOf u . See also Seciiun 6.8.3 for a graphicai description of (2 . j i 2).
In s ummary, we see th a t man y difficult pro blem s in linea r viscoela s ticity ca n
be soh'ed by transform method s. Numerica l plus tran s form methods ha ve a ls o
hee n II sed (Booker 1973). In !Y!af!Y cases!t!s u seful to f!nd the !:r:e[:.r v; scoe l(1st;c
res ponse to obtain the qualitati ve changes with viscoelasticity; to obtain quan­
titative changes in non-N ew tonian fluid m ec hani cs we ma y often need to mov e
) Mase, G . E. (1970). Continuum mechanics. McGra w- Hili, New York .
outside th e linear regim e. . Noll, W. (1958). Arch . ration . Mech. Anal., 2, 197.
2.7 Non-linear viscoelastic behaviour
There a re severa! possible paths for s tudyin g th e response of non-linear fluid s. In
the earlies t phase, (Weissenberg 1949, Oldroyd 1950) ideas of mate rial sy mmetry
wt: re disc ussed fo r ~i mple fl o ws . i .lI ler (1945- 56), man y equations were written
down o n a fairly ad hoc ba sis using gener<:lizalions of the N e\-v ton ian fluid and
linear viscoelasticity.
I n most cases these were inte nded as a complete description of fluid behaviour,
)
but they often fa iled to agree irJ detail with ex peri ment a l results . Seve red writers
(Green and Rivlin 1957; N o ll 1958) th e n postulated th a t th e stress wa s il jimc­
l iol1al o f th e h: s to ry of the s trtiin tCilsor C [eq n (2.32)).
Alth o ugh thi s general sta tement mu st be correct for man y fluid s, unfor tuna­
te ly one can predict little from this approach that cannot be found by W eisse n­
berg 's (1949) sy mmetry arguments; see, for example, the book on vi sco m e tri c
flows by Colem<Jo , Markovitz, and Noll (1966). More rece ntly guidan ce a s to the
form of th e respon se functional h as been so u g ht in mol ecular or s tructural
a r guments a nd we shall consid e r this approach in Chapter 5.
Many u se ful result s for res tric ted / lolV classes can be found w ithout re sort to
th e formal functional approa c h. We di sc u ss these in C hapte r 3, togeth e r with
) relevant experimental work . Th e n we show (Chapter 4) how th e older approaches
approximate to these basic expe rimental res ults. Finall y, attempts to see k th e
, form of th e response for general flows usin g microstru c tural arguments are
ou tlined in Chapter 5.
} References
l3aumgae rl el, M. and Winter, H . H . (/992). J. Non-Newtonian Fluid M ech., 44 , 15 .
(iii) DijAik = A jk .
Baumgaertel, M. and Winter, H . H . (1989). Rheol. Acta, 28, 5 11.
Bland , D . R . (1 960). Th e theory o/ Iinear viscoelast icity. Perga mon, Oxfo rd.
2. A primed se t of Cartesian axes (x') is obtained by ro tation through an angle B
Booker, J. R . (1973) . 1. £ngn . Mar!?s, 7 , !O!.
about the X3 axis. Show that the components of the ro tation matrix (R) relating the two
)
PROBLEMS 75
Brabec , e. J., Rog!, H ., a nd Schausberger, A. (! 997). Rheol. Acta, 36, 667.
Carslaw, H .S. and Jaeger, J .e. (1956). Conduction 0/ heat in solids. Oxford University
Press.
Coleman , B. D ., Markovitz, H., and Noll, W . (1966). Viscometric /Iows 0/ non-
Newtonian /Iuids. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Davies, A. R. and Andersse n, R . S. (1997). J . Non-Newtonian Fluid Me ch ., 73, 263.
Davies, A . R. and Anderssen, R . S. (1998). J. Non-Newtonian Fluid M ech ., 79, 235.
Erick se n, J. (1961 ). Trans. Soc. Rheo!. , 5,23 .
Ferry, J. D . (!970). Viscoelas tic properties 0/ polymers. Wiley, New York.
Green, A. E. and Riviin , R . S. (i 957). Arch. raliOIl M ech . Anal., 1, I.
Huilgol , R .R . and Ph an-Thi en, N . (!997) . Fluid m echanics 0/ viscoelasticity. Elsevier,
Amsterdam .
Jeffreys, H. a nd Jeffreys, B. S. (1956). M ethods 0/ mathem a tical physics. Cambridge
Uni versity Press.
Laun , H . M. (1978). Rheol. Acta, 17, I.
Lodge, A. S. (1964). Elastic liquids. Academic Press, London.
Oldroyd, J. G. (1950). Proc. R. Soc., A 200,523.
Phan-Thien , N. and Safari-Ardi, M. (1998). J . Non-Ne wtonian Fluid Me ch., 74, 137.
Pipkin, A. e. (1986). Lectures on viscoelasticilY theory, 2nd edn. Springer-Verlag,
New York .
Rivlin , R . S. "n(i Ericksen, J . L. (1955). 1. ratioll . M er" Aiwl., 4, 323 .
R oscoe, R . ( ~ 950). 13r. J . Applied Phys., i , i 7L
Ryskin, G. and Ra!lison, J. M . (1980) .1. Fluid lvfech ., 99, 5 i3 .
Stokes, G. G. (J845) . Tr ailS. Camb. phil Soc., 8, 287.
Streeter, v . L. and Wylie, E. 13 . (1979). Fluid m echanics, 7th ed n, p. 89. M cGraw-Hili ,
New York .
Tanner, K . i. (i 962). 2 . angell'. Math . Phys. , 13, 573.
T a nner, R. 1. il nd Walters, K. (1998). Rheology: An iristorical perspec tive. Elsevier,
Amslerdam .
Timoshenko , S. and GoodieJ', J. N. (195/). The ory 0/ elas ticity. M cG raw-Hili,
New Y ork.
Trouton, F . T.( 1906). Proc. R. Soc., A 77, 426.
Truesdell , C. and Noll, W. (1965). The nonlinear field theories 0/ mechanics. Springer,.
Verla g, Berlin .
Weisse nberg, K . (1949). Proc. int o Congr. Rheol. (1948). North Holland, Amsterdam.
Woods, L. e. (1975). The thermodynamics o//Iuid S yslems. O xford Uni ve rsit y Press.
Zarem ba , S. K . (1903). Bull. A cad. Sci. Cracovie, 85, 380-594.
Problems
I . Use the summati on convention on repea ted indices a nd the definition of the unit
tensor oij to show that
(i) D,; = DijOij = OUD;kOjk = 3
(ii) Oij~jk = Oik
76 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM ME C HAN!CS I PROBLElvjS 77

sets of axes (x' = Rx) are where v is the velocity vector, v is the kinematic viscosity and D / D! is the materia !
deri va ti ve. Show th a t in a two-dimension a l m o tio n the tenn containing v vanish es.

~J.
cose sine 10. Show that in a plane flow the introduction of tile stream function 7/J(x, y), where the
R = ~ - s~ne cose velocity co mpo nent s a re u = fhj)/ ay, v = -a7/J/ax, satisfies the conservation of ma's
r o equat io n, Show that in a Newtonian creeping plane fl o w the stream function 'f/; satisfies
the biharm o nic equation. V 4'f/; = O. Draw strea mlines for the plane Poiseuille flow fi eld
Show that R is an orthogonal matrix. v = (3/2)i( I - i)
( I :> y:> 0).
3. For the vectors a = 3i + 4k, b = 2j - 6k a nd the dyadic 0 = 3ii + 2ik - 4jj - Skj , find
11 . In axisymmetric incompressible flows we can introduce the Stokes stream fun c tio n ,
the products a· 0 , D· b, and a· o· b.
X( '-, z). so that
4. Determine the principal va lues a:'1d prin cipa l di rectio ns o f th e sy mmetric te nsor T
whose matri x represe nta tio n is I aX I ax
Vy = --, Vz = -- - .
r fJz r or
r3
~]
-I . Draw accurately th e strea mline pattern for the P oiseuille flow in a tube of ra dius I ,
l .~1
T= 3 where v = 2k( I - ,-2). Compa re with the pl a ne case.
o
12(a). A bar 100 mm long with a square cross-section o f 400 mm 2 is deformed h o m o­
Show tha t the principal axes form a ri g ht-handed se t of o rthogo nal axes, and tha t when geneo usl y so that th e 100mm side is extended to J20mm and the cross-sec tion remai ns
transformed to these axes, th e tensor (T') is dia go nal , with entries (1,2.4). Calculate the square and is 333! mm 2 Define convenient co-ordinates and compute compo nents of F(! ')
invariants ofT. and C(/ '). Let {' refer to the time corresponding to the initial state and I the time fo r th e
present (deformed) state .
5. Usin g the res ults of Problem 4 find 0'T (b). The bar is deformed from its initial state as shown in Fig. 2 . 10. The cross-section is
not chan ged. Compute F ({') a nd C(t ') lor this defonnation .
6. The Sto kes solution for th e drag Oil {l slcH ionary ~ ph(:re (uidi\Js u) iJi a New(unian
creerinr; fl ow of undisturbed ve ~ oci!y U i ~ h c '.v s th~t:.::~: point c n th e surfnce nf thc :; rhcrc i 3. Suppose o ne poslUiaies a ma teriai such that the st ress a t a material point X is a lin ea r
the three component s of the tracti o n vect or t are . ' functi on o f the ve locity gradien t at th. at rnateriai po~nL Thus,

x 3 U z
{y = - ~ !)o + "2 '7 -;;; ; I ..
" - Ya,n{~; !: = - - Pc ­
(1
r eX. I) = KL(X, I) ,
where L T = V v. Show tha t the principle of materia l objecti vity ca n only be obeyed if
Show th a t the to tal drag on th e sp here is 67r'7aU.

7. A rectan gular block o f material is 20 mm long in th e x direction , 6 mm hi gh in the y r = Kd,

direction, and 2 mm thick . A compress ive load of 800 N and a shearing force are a pplied
uniformly on the two surfaces no rmal to the x -ax is (x = ± 10 mm) . On the top sur face
(piane y = 3 mm) is a shear fo rce of 300 N directed along the nega tive x-direction. If the
block is in equilibrium, fmd the maximum normal a nd shea rin g stresses. Al so find the
normal and shearing stress compo ne nts o n a diago nal plane which contains the z-ax is
a nd the block ed ge formed by the intersectio n of the pla nes x = 10 mm , y = 3 mm .
8. D oes equilibrium exis t for the following stress distrib utio n in the absence of body
force?
T
where d = 1(L + L ) .
Hinr: Write the equation as r = K(d + w), where w = ¥ L - LT), and show tha t this
must be reduced to r = Kd because, for two equivalent motions, w' = RwR T + RRT
14 . Prove tha t the principal ax es of the stress and strai n tenso rs coi ncide for a homo­
geneous isotropic elastic bod y (small strain theo ry).
15. Show th a t the ten so r DA/ DI is not objective, where A is a symmetric objecti ve
tensor.

a.<-, = 3x 2 + 4xy _ 8y2,

= 2x2 + xy + 3/.
ax), = _ ~X2 - 6xy - 2y2
= = o.
r-- 100 -----j

-r~ -z ~
a .l,y OZ! CT x ! = Oyz

C-
9. Consider a n in co mpress ible viscou s (Newtonian) fluid . Show th a t the equation for
the vorticit y w is, in three dim ensio ns. ~ 100 ~ C . J~20-J
Dw Initial stale Deformed state
Dt = (w . V)v + 1/ \l 2w Fig. 2.10 Probt em 12.
)

)
 78 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS

Kl
)
0(1)
'1 K,
) 3

)
y(r)
Fig. 2. 11 Problem 17. Standard solid .
16. Consider a compressible Newtonian fluid with a constitutive equation o f the form
au = - po,), + I\Oijd kk + 2ryd;;where 1\ and ry are viscosities. Find the cond ition that the m ea n
norm a l pressure -1;0;; is equal to the thermodynamic press ure p .
17. The stan dard linear solid is a mechanical model relating components o f stress and
st rain thro ugh the fo rm show n in Fig. 2. i I wherc K, and K2 are sp ring constants and 1] is a
viscosi ty. Write a differenti a l ope ra to r rela tions hip between stress a nd strain for thi s m ode l
a nd o btain the corresponding relaxation fun c ti o n, c reep func ti o n and complex m od ulus.
Sketch the rea l and imaginary parts of the complex m od ulu s as a function o f frequency.
18. The co mplex co mpliance .r (iw) is defined as the complex operator rei a tin g the
steady- stale harmonic stress and stra in throug h
.ye'WI = .r (iw)a./W{
)
a
where l' and are the amplitudes of co mponents of s train a nd stress respectively . Using the
rehnionship J" - [G'" l- ' find the rea! ~nd irnag inory pari S of the cOlllpkx cOlnpijaoce for
the mat e ri a l in Problem 17.
19 . When G(/) = G,I ' '', where G, and p are positive constants (0 < P < I) we ha ve a
power-law material. Show thai .1(/) = IPsin(prr)/G,pr.. For a sinu soid al s trai n find the
va lues of iC'1 and tali 6.
20. Find t he re sponse o f a thin semi-i nfinite ro d o f M axwe ll model materi a l which is
subj ec ted to a suddenly applied te nsile st ress [ao H(r)] on the end x = O.
2 I. Suppose an incompressible linear viscoelastic fiuid ha s been sheared for a lo ng time
al a shear ra te 'Yo . Then m o ti on ceases, at 1= O. Find the shear stre ss in the fluid for ' :> O.
VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGA TIONAL
FLOWS
3.1 Introduction
IN THIS chapter Wp c()n.sider some SpeC!2!, but very COiTiillon, ciassts of fjows
applicable to a very wide group of liquids. This approach contrasts with that
used in the classical theory of linearly viscous (Newtonian) fluids , in which a
special kind of fluid description is used to examine a very wide class offlow fields ..
We first discuss those motion s calied viscometric, which are motions sub­
stantially equivalent to steady simple shearing, such as Poiseuille and Couette
flows, but we do not make any very restrictive prior assumption about the
nature of the relation between stress and deformation in the fluids considered.
We then co nsider unsteady shearing f!m.vs, aga in without much restriction on
Iiuid respon se, and then a cla ss of simple elongational flows, in which the stress
system is easily deduced from symmetry. We also consider the problem of wall
slip and ad herence. The fiuids are supposed to be incompressible, and no ther­
mal effects are con sidered . Non-isothermal flows are considered in Chapter 9 .
The viscometric motion s di scussed here can be visualized in terms of sheaf of
inexte nsible material surfaces in relative sliding motion , but the elonga tio na!
flow s are not so readil y defined in geometrical terms.
3.2 Kinematics of viscometric flows
In vi scometfic fluid motions, each fluid element is undergoing a steady simple
shearing motion, plus possibly a rigid translation and rotation. The primary
example of such a motion is steady simple shearing itself, in which the velocity
field has the form

v =-)« b·x)a. (3. I)

Here a and b are orthogonal unit vectors and -)< is a constant, the shear rate. In
such a m o tion , the fluid in a plane b - x = constant form s a material surface that
is called a slip surface . Each slip surface moves as a rigid body, and the motion
can be visualized as th e relative sliding motion of a sheaf of slip surfaces. The
vector a is tangenti al to the slip surface and represents the direction of relative
sliding motion, while b is the direction normal to the slip surface. It is convenient
to define a third unit vector c, orthogonal to a and b and thus tangential to the
slip surfaces. We call a , b, and c the shear axes [Fig. 3.I(a)]. The velocity
fieid (3 . i) is easiiy shown to be divergence-free, and hence it is possible in an
incompressible fluid .
80 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS 3.2 KIN EI'..1A TI CS OF V jSCOivi tTR-ie FLO\VS 81

b
Name Sketch
t1-:elocitY -Yb·,

c~a
b Screw pair
1-1 ~
~~
(b)

l~
(a)
Hinge

/-1

I
f es b
~:
v
@>
.
.. I~

,L? ~
'

'_,
"'''''.'',,- f /

Slip
,""""
(<I
Prism p.a!!

/-1

~
~
(c)
I

Cylinder pair

~
/:("_ b
/-2

I
I wi
I
(e) I I.f'.... /0.

i~
Spherical pair

i \' I I [=-3

Fig. 3.1 Various viscomelric kinematic fields. (a) Shear axes in si mple shearing. (b) Steady parallel
now . (c) skew rec !i!i~c?; P c'.\' Cd) c:rct;!a. flow. {c) helical flo\v .
I Fig. 3.2 Lower kinernatlc pairs in mechanisms, showing contact over an area.fis (he number of
degrees or rreedom.

All viscometric flows can be visualized as the relative sliding motion ofa sheaf
of in extensible rna terial surfaces. In the examples most useful in practice, the slip normal direction b is parallel to V w. The shear rate -y is equal to !V wi, and it is
surfaces move steadily as rigid bodies, and each slip surface occupies the same constant in time at each particle, as required. '''Ie note that
locus in space at all limes. It is known from kjnematical studies that the relative
motion of two rigid bodies contacting over an area (a 'lower pair') is described Vv = Vwk = -yba, or (%x;)Vj = -Yb;aj. (3.3)
by combinations of sliding, turning and screw actions (Fig. 3.2). We can use
this information when thinking about viscometric motions with rigid slip sur­ The result can also be expressed as follows. The only non-zero components of
)
faces. In these kinds of viscometric motion the slip surfaces mu'st be general Vv are ow/ox and Ow/oy. The shear rate -y is V(ow/ox)2 + (ow/oy)2 and is

cylinders, surfaces of revolution, or helicoids. We now list the main categories equal to IVwl. The a direction coincides with k and b is the direction of Vw, by ')

of these restricted viscometric flows without as yet considering the dynamical definition. Thus we can write OVj/ox; = (ow/ox;)kj ; resolving the gradient with

admissibility of any of them; the incompressibility condition is always satisfied. respect to the a, b, and c vectors as axes we find the coordinate form in eqn (3.3),

where kj , b; and aj are the components of k, b and a respectively, and a = k.

3.2.1 Steady parallel flows

In steady flows with velocity fields of the form 3.2.2 Skew rectilinear flows >
v = w(x,y)k, (3.2) Another class of flows in which all particles move steadily in straight lines are
those with velocity fields of the form
where k is a unit vector in the z-direction , the slip surfaces are the general
cylinders w(x, y) = constant [Fig. 3. J(b)]. The shear direction a is k, and the v = u(z)i + v(z)j. (3.4)
'\"
)
 82 VISCOMETR1C AND ELONGATlONAL FLOWS 3.2 K!NEMATlCS OF VlSCOMETRiC FLOWS 83

These flows have parallel plane slip surfaces z = constant moving steadily in
skew directions. The normal direction b is parallel to k [Fig. 3.I(c)]. By taking
r 3.2.4 Helical ftows
Coaxial circular cylinders can move parallel to their common axis and simultan­
the gradient of (3.4) we find eously rotate about it, to produce a velocity field of the form [Fig. 3 .1 (e)]

LT = Vv = V zv'(z) = kv'(z). (3.5)

v = rw(r)i e (8) + w(r)i z . (3 .9)

The normal direction is evidently the radial direction, b = i,. As in the case of
To give (3.5) the form -yba as in the preceding example, then -ya is given by skew rectilinear flows, the direction of shearing a is not obvious; applying the
gradient operator we obtain
";/a = v'( z) = u'( z) i + v'(z)j. (3.6)
Vv = i,(rw'io + w'i z ) + w( i,i e - ioi,). (3.10)
Then a is orthognn:-ll ~o b as it must be, 2.!'1d D"':// D: = 0, Vv'hcrc D/Dt jHcanS The antisymmetric term proportional to w is evidently the contribution due to
the materiai or particle-following time-derivative. We notice that the shear the rotation of the shear axes at a particle as it moves around the axis. The
direction a is generally not parallel to the direction of motion v. There is a remainder has the form iba if
broader class of skew rectilinear flow s in which the slip su\:faces are non-parallel
planes, tangential to a general ruled surface, with each piane moving parallel to -ya = rw' (r)io + w' (r)i z · (3.11 )
the line where it is tan ge nt to the ruled surface (Yin and Pipkin 1970). Although
these flows satisfy the kinematical requirements for vi scometric flow, we do not Then a is perpendicular to b as required, and the value of -y at each particle is
consider them further. conserved.
I
3.2.5 Helicoidal flows
I
3.2.3 SII?ady circu lar flows I The helical streamlines in the preceding example have a rise per 111rn 2r.w jw 'Nhich

I
is constant over each cylinder but may vary from one cylinder to another. If all
In steady flows with coaxial circular streamlines, the velocity field is given in
) term s of cylindrical coordinates by
helices have the same rise per turn, the slip surfaces need not be cylindrical but can
be general helico ids. In these helicoidal flows , the velocity field has the form
v = rw(r . z)io(e), (3.7 ) v = (rio + ciz)w(r,z - c8). (3.12)

I
)
where io is the field o f unit vectors in the azimuthal direction [Fig. 3.1 (d)J. The slip The shear direction a is the sa me as the direction of motion, and the normal
)
surfaces are the surfaces of constant angular velocity w( r, z). Evidently the shear direction b is parallel to V w, orthogonal to the helicoids w = constant.
direction a is io, and the normal direction b is parallel 10 Vw . At a given particle, Since the velocity gradient transpose has the form
the shear axes rotate as the particle circles the axis. An observer moving with the
Vv = VLv'(riO+ ci z ) +w(i,io - ioi,) , (3.13)
shear axis system for a given fluid element would see a motion locally equivalent
) to a steady simple shearing, but the velocity gradient observed from a fixed frame hy identifying the first term as i ba we find that th e shear rate is given by
of rcference is more complicated:
-y2 = (r2 + c2)Vw. Vw. (3.14)
Vv = Vrwio + rVwi o + rwV{ij~(e)
By computing its material derivative, we find that the shear rate is constant along
= rVwi o + w(i,io - iai ,). (3.8) streamlines and is thus constant in time for each particle.

The right-hand side of (3.8) contains an antisymmetric part that corresponds
to a rigid rotation at the angular velocity w. The remainder, rVwie, is identified
as -yba, and we find th a t the shear rate is rlVwl. Since this is constant on each
circle, then Di jDt = 0, as required in order for the motion to be a locally-s teady
shearing.
~
. 3.2.6 General kinematics of viscometric flows
The preceding examples are of the kind that Lodge (1964) calls steady curvilinear
shearing motions. These examples include all viscometric flows that have so far
proved to be of any practical interest, but they do not by any means exhaust the
kinematicai possibiiities.

)
84 VJSCOMETRJC AND ELONGAT!ONAL FLOWS
The definition we use is that the history of deformation of a fluid element is
viscometric if its motion, viewed from a system of possibly rotating axes, is a
steady simple shearing motion. Let a, b, and C be the (time-dependent) shear axes
at a given particle. Consider infinitesimal material elements of length dx along
the directions of the shear axes at time I, a(l)dx, b(l)dx, and c(l)dx. The config­
uration of these material fibres at time I' defines the deformation of the infini­
tesimal volume element containing them between time I and time I'. The
I history of deformation . However, if the fluid is sheared at a constant rate, these
deformation is viscometric if, for all I', the directions and lengths of the three
fibres are given by
a(l) dx ---> a(I ' )dx, c(l)dx -> C(I') dx,
b(l)dx ---> [b(I') I- (I' - lha(t')Jd x , (3 . 15)
In drawing conclusi ons from symmetry as we have done here, we implicitly
where i is a constant for the particle considered.
This form of the definition of a viscometric' deformation history does not
req uire that all particles in a given flow be in viscometric motion in order to call
the motion of one of them vi scometric, but we are generally concerned with cases
in which in fact all particles are in viscometric motion. Some of the global geo­
metrical features of such flows are immediately apparent from the definition.
Consider the trajectories of the field a , the curves with the vectors a as tangent
vectors. Call these a-lines. The definition states that a materiai eiement along an
a-line at tinle f!S stiH aloug an u-jine at time l, and jts icngth is not changed. Thus.
a-En es a.re nUd..:: i'ia I JiBes, convected by the Inotion, and they move without
stretching. Similarly, c-lines are inextensible material lines.
It is also true, bui much more difficuil to prove (Yin and Pipkin 19 70) that
a-lines and c-lines must mesh to form material surfaces, the slip surfaces. If this
is granted , then it is evident that the slip surfaces are material surfaces that
move without stretching. In the examples already given , the slip surfaces not only
do not stretch during the motion but also do not change shape. The latter feature
is no t a genera! kinematical pro perty of globally viscometric flows. Velocity fieids
in which the slip surfaces curl up during the course of the motion can be con­
s tructed mathematically (Yin and Pipkin 1970). In such cases the slip surfaces are
necessarily ruled surface s, and the st raight rule lines are materia! lines tha t remain
s traight when the surface curls.
It is natural to conjecture that viscometric flows must be steady with respect to
some global frame of reference, but this, too , is not a general kincmatical prop­
erty . Motions with curling slip surfaces are unsteady in every frame , and motions
with rigid slip surfaces are in general unsteady as well, even though the steady
shear rate is constant in time at every particle. For detaiis see Yin and Pipkin
( 1970).
3.3 Stresses in steady viscometric flows
When a viscoela stic liquid is brought from rest into a state of steady shearing
motion, the stress is time-dependent because of the transient effects of the past
3.3 STRESS E S IN STEADY VISCOiviETRiC FLOWS 85
transients die out in the course of time, and the shearing stress approaches a
steady-state value that depends only on the shear rate. It is also assumed that
the rna terial properties are not changing with time due to struc turaJ breakdown
(see Section 1.5).
For the simplest special case, with a vclocity field of the form v = iyi, the
zx- and zy-components of stress must be zero by symmetry, and the shearing
stress (J x y is some odd function of the shear rate,
(J xy = ~/7)h), 7)( -i) = 7)h)· (3.16)
assume that the fiuid is isotropic, so that any directional properties it may have
are induced by the flow itself. The ratio (J xy / i = 7) is the viscosity function, or
simply, the viscosity.
The normal stress components (Jxx , (Jyy, and (Jzz are even functions of the
shear rate by a symmetry argument; reversal of shearing cannot affect these
components. Consequently, the differences between these components must be
zero in any theory depending linearly on shear rate; this does not apply to visco­
elastic liquids. Thcse symmetry arguments for deducing the form of the stress
field in shear flows are due to Weissenberg (Russell 1946).
The two independent differences,
(Jxx - (Jyy = NI h) and (JYJ - (J zz = N zh), (3.17)
are functions of the shear rate that vanish when i = O.
We call these two functions of the shear rate the first and second normal stress
differences. Under the classical conception of a fluid as a material tha t cannot
indefinitely remain at rest when under the action of even a very small shearing
stress , there can be no shearing stress on any surface element in the case i = 0,
since here the statement that i is zero means that the fluid has been at rest for
so long that all transients have disappeared. This implies not only that (Jxy must
)
vanish, but also that all normal stress components must be equal when i = O.
It is often convenient to make this explicit by writing )
NI = iZ ilI,h) and N z = i Z'lIz(i) (3.18)
The functions WI and wz areeven functions of the shear rate. Wecaii them the
first and second normal stress coefficients.
3.3.1 Qualitative behaviour of [he viscometric functions
for polymer sohaions
Most of the results to be discussed do not depend on any special assumptions
about the forms of the viscometric functions 7), ilI l , and wz; indeed, for the
most part we discuss experimental methods of determining the forms of these
)
 86 VJSCOMETR!C AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS
functions. However, for the sake of concreteness it is useful to understand their
general nature in the case of polymer solutions. Figure 3.3 (full lines), shows the
three viscometric functions N" N 2, and r( == Try) for a 6.8 per cent solution of a
polyisobutylene (Oppanol B-IOO) in cetane at 24°C; note that the SI unit of
viscosity (I Pa-s) equals ten Poises.
The viscosity function typically decreases, as the shear ra te increases, from a
limiting value TJo at zero shear rate to a much lower value Tioo in the limit of high
shear rates. (See Fig. 1.2.) In Fig. 3.3 these iimiting values were not reached
experimentally. Special forms of the viscosity function were discussed in Chapter
l; an especially simple and useful form is the power-law approximation
T, = k-yJ1-I, with / 1 - ! the slope of a doubly logarithmic plot. This kind of
appro}l.illlaiion is useful for the region of intermediate shear rates in which the
viscosity is dropping from Tio ioward Tioo. For shear-thinning (pseudo-plastic)
fluids the power 17 is less than unity. For any fluid, n must be greater than zero in
order to satisfy the stability requirement that the shearing stress increases with
the shear rate (see Chapter 10); occasionally (rheopectic) fluids have /1 greater
) than one.
The first nonnal stress difference is positive, at least for polymeric fluids, and
the coefficient ~I has roughly the same form as Ti. The slope in the power-law
region is generaiiy greater than that 1"0r7], and no iimiti'1g vaiue at high shear rates
has ever been reached to the author's knowledge. Theoretical models based on
) microstructural ideas (Chapter 5) indicate that~! -) 0 as -y --> (X) .
Early measurements with polymeric systems always found N, (and ~,) to be
positive, but liquid crystal systems can show negative N, . Kiss and Porter (J 978)
seem to have been the first to report this phenomenon. In such systems one can
have a reg.ion (or reg!ons) of positive IV I in terspcrscd with a region of negative JV 1·
I (J
I
::r
in a form that is more useful in further developments by letting p = jJ + N2 be
€ 10'
i,
:;: 10~r /-N,
II -- ---.,-.,v~<~'1(Pa-s)
) I 10 l,(}l ,1'03
Y(s-')
Fig.3.3 The rheological functions r, N, and -N, shown as funclions of shearing rate for a 6.8
per cent poiyisobutylene in celane solution at 24°C. The viscosity function is also shown.
3.3 STRESSES IN STEADY VISCOMETRiC FLOWS 87
The second normal stress difference is negative for concentrated polymer
solutions. It appears that W2 is generally smaller than ~ I, and is often less than
20 per cent of ~ I. Partly for this reason ~2 is more difficult to measure than WI,
and less is known about the fonn of this function. Weissenberg's hypothesis that
N2 = 0 is not correct, but for some purposes it is qualitatively adequate. In
broadest terms, the effect of normai stress differences is that there is an extra
tension NI in the direction of shearing, and this extra tension is not small. Further
discussion of material properties is given in Section 3.8 below; data for Nzi NI are
given in Section 3.8.3.
3.3"2 S!r"ss ji,,!ds
We are only considering situations in which the fluid can be treated as incom­
pressible. The pressure is then a reaction to the constraint of no volume change,
and it cannot be specified directly as a function of the shear rate. Instead, the
momentum equation and the boundary conditions are used to determine the
pressure required to enforce the constraint. Both because of this arbitrariness and
because normal stresses in different directions are not equal, the term 'pressure'
must be used with great caution.
In steady simple shearing mOiion, with v = -yyi, the shear axes 2, b, and c
correspond to the Cartesian unit vectors i, j, and k. It is convenient to write
the stress in dyadic notation as
= -pI + -YTi(ab + ba) + Nlaa - N2cc.
This is only a formal statement of the symmetry of the stress field discussed
(3.19)
above.
Here the reaction pressure jJ is the pressure normal to the slip surfaces
(direction b), and it can be written as -b· (J - b. The stress tensor can be written
a new, equally arbitrary pressure:
(J = - pI + -YTi(ab + ba) + (N, + N2)aa + N 2 bb (3.20)
In this case the pressure p represents the normal pressure in the neutral direc­
tion, - c· (J. c (or o"cc).
In any viscometric flow, each fluid element is performing a steady simple
shearing motion. Consequently, the stress in each element is given by an expres­
sion of the same fonn as that derived for steady simple shearing, with the same
-response functions TJ, WI, and ~2, but with shear axes and shear rate appropriate
to the particle considered. For the special flows considered in Sections 3.2.1 to
3.2.5, we can immediately write down expressions for the stress by substituting
the expressions for the shear axes and shear rates found in those sections into
eqn (3.20):
88 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGA.TJONAL FLOWS 3.4 CONTROLLABLE ViSCOMETR!C FLOV,/S 89

Steady parallel flows: simple shearing the pressure p is the hydrostatic pressure plus an arbitrary
constant. Since a conservative field of body force can be equilibrated by a
(T = -pI + 1)(k Vw + Vwk) + -/(1J!1 + 1J1 2)kk + 1J1 2VwVW hydrostatic pressure, we ordinarily omit both the body force and the hydrostatic
'1'2 = VW- VW_ (3 .21 ) pressure in discussing solutions of problems; it can be added in easily if it is
needed. Unfortunately, simple shearing, because of edge effects, is in practice
Skew rectilinear flows: difficult to realize.
Steady shearing between til ted plates is a completely con trollable flow in which
(T = -pI + 1)(v'k + kv') + (WI + W2)"'''' + 1J1 2'1'2kk the shear rate varies with position. If one plate is at rest and the other, tilted at
'1'2 = v' . ,,'. an angle go to it , moves with a constant speed V paraiiel to the line where the
(3.22)
plates would in tersect, then the velocity field v = (VO /Oo)k is kinematically
Steady circular flows: adl!ljssible. The slip surfaces are the planes 0 = constant in cylindrical coord­
inates. The stress field , found by setting w = VB/Bo in eqn (3.2l) is
(T = -pi + 1)1'(10 Vw + V wio) + '1'2 (IJI I + w 2)ioio + W2r2V wV w
(T = - pI + 1TY(kie + iok) + (Nl + N2)kk + N2ieie, (3.26)
'1'2 = r 2 Vw· Vw. (3.23)
where the shear rate (see Appendix) is '1' = V /rOo. Since the shear rate depends
Helical flows: only on r, then whatever forms the viscometric functions may take, their values in
this flow can depend only on r. We will ignore body forces in the problem . From
(T = -pI + 1)(--j-ai, + i,'1'a) + (WI + W2)(-va)('Ya) + '/1JI 2i,i r , (3.26) ore and Orz are zero, and from the form of the velocity field it is clear that
'1'2 = (/'(..;,)2 + (w,)2, '1'3 = rw'i o + )V'i,. (3.24) the particle accelerations are also zero. Hence, from the Appendix, noting that all
quantities are independent of z, we can deduce that clp/df) = 0, since /1,12 is
Helicoi<i81 flow s: independent of (j; we also know that N, is independent of from 0 -26). Hence e
two of the equilibrium equations are satisfied. The remaining equilibrium
(J = -pi + 1)1(rio + ci.)Vw + Vw(rio + ci,)] equation is
: (\I'I + \l:2 ) VW' V w (riO+ ci,)(ri o + ci,) + (/,2 + ( 2)W2 VwVw,
dp
'1'2 = (1'2 + c2)Vw · Vu:. (3.25) r
dr
+ N2 = O. (3 .27)

It remains to consider whether these flows are dynamicaJ!y possible or not. Now '1' = V / rOo, and N2 = 1J1 2'1'2, where 'liz is only a function of --yo By changing
to '1' as a variable instead of I' in (3 .27), it is easy to verify that the momentum
3-4 Controllable viscometric flows equation is satisfied if p has the form
For the experimental determina tion of the viscometric functions 1), 1J! I, and \J!2 for
a particular fluid , it is desirable to be able to set up experiments in which the p = p(ro) + '2(V/r()0) - /2(V/ro()0), (3.28)
velocity field is completely or at least partly known from the outset. The analysis
of experimental data is then not complicated by the simultaneous determina­ where '2h) = J~'y 1J1 2'1'di' . Despite the completeness of the solution, practical
tion of an unknown veloci ty field. A few speci fic velocity fields have such a high realization of this flow is difficult, due to end and edge effects.
degrce of symmetry that they satisfy the momentum equation exactly, or with There is a flow somewhat like Couette flow that formally satisfies that
neglect of inertia , no matter what forms the viscometric functions may take. We conditions for a controllabie viscometric flow. The angular velocity is
call such flows completely controllable. All such flows are known. w = '1'log(r/ro), where the constant '1' is the shear rate. Since the shear rate is
Homogeneous steady simple shearing, with a velocity field v = iyi, is a com­ independent of position, then so are the physical components of stress with
pletely controiiabie flow. Since there is no acceleration, the momentum equa­ . respect to the shear axis system, except for p, which is not directly determined by
tions reduce to equilibrium equations. If the pressure p is uniform, then all stress the shear rate . By using eqn (3.23) in the momentum equation we find that it is
components are independent of position, and the equilibrium equations are satisfied if p has the form
satisfied identically , no matter what forms the viscometric functions may have.
If the momentum equation involves a body force term, then in the case of
p = 2'1'1)(} - NI log(r / ro) + 1pr2(w2 - '1'w + h 2) + constant. (3.29)
 90 YISCOMETRIC AND ELONGAT!ONAL FLOWS 3.4 CONTROLLABLE V!SCOMETRJC FLOWS 91

Because the pressure has a term proportional to B, such a flow can be sustained If the fluid is in contact with the plates out to the radius ro, then the moment
only in a sector and not in the full annular gap of a Couette viscometer. The flow required to turn the rotating disc or hold the fixed plate is
is of interest as an example of an inhomogeneous flow with a uniform shear rate.
('0
) The preceding examples, together with others obtained from them by supcr­ M = 2r. Jo i1]l"2 dr. (3.33 )
imposing rigid-body motions, exhaust the list of completely controllable flows
(Yin and Pipkin 1970). In the hope of finding more useful examples, we
In terms of the variables
loosen the requirements slightly by considering flows that are completely con­
trollable ifinertia can be neglected. Since the Reynolds number is often extremeiy
m = M/ 27ir~ and io = rowo/h (3.34)
) jow in experiments on complex fluids, neglect of inertia is often a reasonable
approximation. this rela tion is
There are only two new kinds of flows that are controllable if inertia is
ncglectcd. O .. e is an illirin:sicaiiy unsieady motion with shp surfaces that curl "10
up (Yin and Pipkin 1970), which appears to have no experimental value. The
other is the class of helicoidal flows with right helicoidal slip surfaces for which
m
.- 3
= 10
1o
·3
1]/
d.
J. (3.35)

the velocity field has the form Thus, the relation among the four measurabie quantities M, ro, wo, and h is
)
reduced to a relation between only two variables, m and i'o . Data that cannot be
v = k(z - cB)(rio + ci z ). (3.30) reduced to a single curve of m versus i'o usually indicates that the fluid is not
adhering to the plates, contradicting our implicit assumption of a no-slip con­
The stress for this case is given by eqn (3 .25) , in which dition~ or that the plates are not truly set up, or that edge effects disturb the fiow.

w = k(z-cB) and i=k(r+c 2 /r)

Since the shear rate depends only on r, then so do the values or the viscometric
(3.31)
I The viscosity function can be detennined by numerical differentiation of a
plot of m versus -Yo· For, on differentiating eqn (3.35) we obtain

m [ d(logm) ]
functions, and it is found that the momentum equation is satisfied with neglect 1](io) = io 3 + d(log i o) . (3.36)
of inertia if the pressure has the form
The pressure p is given by eqn (3.32) in which we set c = 0 and k = wo/h.
p(r) = p(ro) + .f [r- I
(2ck1] - ";hvz) - ki({l,] dr. (332)
Since the r-direction is the direction of the c-vector (neu tral direction) in this
flow, the radial stress a rr = -po Hthe fluid is held in the gap by surface tension or
by the tension along streamlines, so that the outer boundary of the fluid is
/\mong these flows, there is one special case that is convenient experimentally, approximately the cylinder r = ro , then - a" there is approximately atmos­
the case c = 0 (torsional flow). We consider this particular kind offlow in detail pheric pressure, which we set as zero gauge pressure. (Surface tension can also be
in Section 3.4.\. included if required; it will add a pressure of a / ro to the atmospheric pressure
at the rim where a is the surface tension coefficient; if the outer boundary is of
a more complex shape, then this needs to be considered, too. This tenn is only of
) 3.4. J Torsional flow in parallel-plate geometry importance experimentally if it changes with shear rate.)
The torsional flow in a parallel-plate viscomeier is the only compietely con­ Then eqn (3.32) gives
trollable flow tha t is used in practical viscometry. In the flow between a fixed disc
and a disc rotating with angular velocity wo, the velocity field has the form
v = (worz/h)ie, where h is the separation between the plates. The slip surfaces are
per) = ro i(WI + ((Iz) di'.
Ji (3.37)
the parallel planes z = constant, rotating with angular velocity w = woz / h
about the z-axis. The shear rate is i = rwo/h. Consequently, at any given shear The pressure increases as r decreases because of the squeezing caused by the
rate centrifugal force can be made arbitrarily small by decreasing the angular extra tension along the circular streamlines. The axial stress is, from eqn (3.25),
velocity wo and the gap width h in the same proportion. Thus inertial effects,
proportional to prow6, can be made negligible. azz(r) = -p + N2· (3.38)
92 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATJONAL FLOWS 3.5 P~.RT!A.L LY CONTROLLABLE FLOW S 93

Measurement of the distribution of normal thrust can give information about a skew rectilinear motions, some Poiseuille flows , the helical flows, and the motion
combination of the functions WI and W2. However, if these pressure measure­ in a cone-and-pla te viscometer.
ments are made by attaching pressure gauges to smaJi hoies in the surface , the We now examine the various types of partially controllable viscometric flows
holes introduce a large systematic error (see Chapter 4). Since this was discovered and indicate how to determine the velocity fields in detail.
on ly in i968 , earlier data invoive such errors. By using flush-mounted pressure
transducers, one co uid use (3.38) to measure N2 directly, since, at least ideally , 3.5. J Skew reel ilinear mOlions
p = 0 at the rim of the flow. Skew rectilinear flows can be visualized in tenns of the motion o f a fluid between
The total thrust on the plates can be measured without interference from any two plates in parallel translation, with a pressure gradient in the fluid that is
hole error. The total thrust is, from eqn (3.38), noting that we assume p = 0 ge neraiiy not paralie! to the direction of rela tive motion of the pIa tes . These flow s
at ,. = ro , can be used as approximations to fiows between two cylinders of almost equal
radii, in which, for example, one cylinder is rotating with respect to the other and
r
~ r~
F =27r ( p - N 2)rdr = - 7r (2rN2+r2p')dr. (3.39) there is also an axia l pressure gradient. If the gap width is smali in comparison to
)0 )0
the radii, so that the curvature can be ignored, the flow may be treated as a
By letting .-y = rwo / h be the integration variable and using the expression for skew rectilinear flow .
p'(r) found from eqn (3 .3 7), we obtain Since there is no acceleration, the momentum equation reduces to the form
V • a = O. The stress is given by eqn (3.22). By using this expression in the
momentum equation, we obtain, since there is no variation o f Vi in the x and y
/ = F/7rr~ = -)'0 2 10'"'0 .-y(NI - N 2) di (3.40) directions

The comoination N I - N2 can be determ ined from a plot of the force per unit Vp = (d/dz)(r/yl + kN2)' (3 .42)
area/"vers us th e rim s hear rrir~ ~o . By diffe re nti a tin g eqn (3.40) '.ve find th~u Since the right-hand member is independent of x and y, the partial deri va tives of
p in these directions mu st be constants. Thus, the pa rt of the pressure gradient
NI - N2 = f (2 + dloglog/-Yo) .
d
(3.41 ) parallel to the pl a tes is a constant vector, -G say, and we obtain

d (1]Y')/dz = - G, (3.43)
Thus ca reful total thrust measurements ma y be used to find N I - N 2 .
and
3.5 Partially controllable flows Vp - -G + kdN2/d z. (3.44)
Among controilable flows, in which the veiocity field is fuiiy known in advance The eq uation for v(z) involves the viscosity function. However, no matter what
of any knowledge of the forms of the viscometric functions, only torsional the velocity turns out to be, and no matter what form the function N2 may
flow has been used as a practical method of viscometry. Many other flows a re have , th e equation for p ca n be integrated to give
used for viscosit y measurements. In these fl ows the velocity field is not com­
pletely spccified at the outset, but its general nature is known . p = -G· x + N2h) + constant. (3.45)
There is a category of fl ows in which the shapes of the slip surfaces are known
in advance, but their speeds depend on the form of the viscos ity function, which Normal stress differences affect the pressure distribution but do not affect the
is to be determined. These flows have such sy mmetry tha t the no rmal stress velocity field , so the mo tion is of the kind that we cali pariially cOnlroiiable.
distributi o n does not influence the velocity distribution. Whatever forms the From eq n (3.43) we obtain
normal stress functions may have, the distribution of normal stress differences
1]V ' = - C z + C, (3 .46)
can be equilibrated by an appropriate di,stribution of pressure. Such flows are
called partially controllable. All practical methods of viscosity measurement where C, like G , has no z-component. It is convenient to u se the inverse of the
involve flows that a re at least partially controllable. All such flows are known viscosity function, called the fluidity , <p( r), at thi s point. ¢ is defined by
(Yin and Pipkin 1970). Aside from the completely controllable ca ses already
mentioned in Section 3.4, the only flows that are partia lly controllable are the i=r¢(r), (3 .47)

,
)
J
94 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATlONAL FLOWS 35 PARTIALLY CONTROLLABLE FLOWS 95

where r is the shear stress. Then we have, since the magnitude of the shear stress The former is used with the boundary conditions to determine w, and we see that
r is given by I1)V'I , the form of w will depend on the form of the viscosity function but not on the
) normal stress coefficients.
v' (z) = (-Gz + C)<I>(r) , r = IGz - q. (3.48) The latter equation is to be used to determine p+ when w is already known.
However, there is no solution of this equation unless the right-hand member is
If we consider the plate in the plane z = 0 to be at rest, then the gradient of some function; that is, it must be irrotational. The final term

v(z) =- G r <I>(r)zdz +C r <I>(r) dz. (3.49)

is equal to w2i V i, so this term is the gradient of a function of i and hence is
irrotational. Since the first term on the right is paraiiei to Vw, it is irrotational

I
if and only if V . (W2 Vw) is constant over surfaces w = constant; that is, constant
)0 ./0
on each slip surface. To see this denote V . (W2 Vw) by /(x,y) . Then if this term
The integration constant C is to be determined by using the boundary condition is the gradient of some function 'IjJ, w~ h".ve
at t.he oth er plRte, say Y(h) - U. Ord:i1::liily :.his cailoOt be dOiie;: t:xaciiy t:::xcepi by
numericai methods. However, when ¢ is proportiona l to r2. corresponding to a7jJ =faw and a7jJ =faw
the fairly realistic law 1) = ki ~/3 . the integra tion is easy. (See Problem 3.1.) ax ax ay ay
For consistency we need that
3.5.2 Poiseuille /Iows
The parallel flows described in Section 3.2.1 are partially controllable if the
slip surfaces are parallel planes o r cO<lxi a l circular cylinders. The former case
~
ay
(/aw)
ax
= ~ (/aw)
ax ay' (3.54)
corresponds to plane Poi seuille flow and the latter (0 Poiseuille flow in a tube of
i This is equivalent to
cin..:uiar cro ss-section or in the annuiar gap h CI,vce;-' n (\VO coaxial tubes. In bo th
ca ses the boundaries Illay he in relati ve !n o ti o n r(.lr ~d!e! to the directi o n of the I 8f / 8f _ aw j ' ow
pressure gradient. I Dy / ax - dy / ax ' (3.55)

")
Before considering these special cases. let liS examine steady parallel flows
more generally . in order to unders tand why other ca ses such as (he flow in a
square duct are not partially controllabl e. Since th e velocity v is or the form
w(x,y)k th ere is no ~ cce!e!"at!on. and the monicDtUi11 equaiion beconles
I or the V/ is parallel to V w everywhere. When this is true the contours of con­
stant/wj]! coincide with the contours of w' which are the slip surfaces.
Thus, in generai ine equations mayor may not be satisfied exactly depending

) {JOij / ax) = O. By using eqn (3.2 I) we obtain on what the boundary conditions are and on the relation of the function >!t l to the
function 1). Itis possible to invent various special forms of 1} and \[12 that allow
")
Vp = V . (1}Vw)k + V· ('hVw)Vw + \[I 2 VW' V(Vw). (3.50) certain special velocity fields to satisfy the equations exactly. However, in order
to be assured in an experiment that the flow is indeed rectilinear as assumed,
Since the right-hand member is independent of the axial coordinate Z, then
is a constant, -p', say, where p' is the magnitude of the pressure dro p per unit
ap/az without any prior knowledge of the forms of the functions '1'1 and W2 , the flow
must be such that V . (W2 Vw) is automatically constant on each slip surface,
length in the axial direction . Th e n regardless ofwha t form the function W2 may take . These are the special cases that
we call partially controllable. It can be shown (Yin and Pipkin 1970) that the
p = - p'z + p+( x ,y) . (3.51 ) partial controllability conditions are satisfied oniy if the slip surfaces are parallel
planes or coaxial circular cylinders. I t is elementary to verify that eqn (3.53) can
The momentum equation ca n now be split into axial and non-axial components be integrated in these cases. In the case of plane Poiseuille flow, with w = w( y)
to give and i = w'(y), we obtain
2
) V . (1)Vw) = -p' , (3.52) p+ =i \[12(i) + constant = N 2 (i) + constant. (3 .56)

) and

For flows in tubes or annular gaps, with w = w(r) and i = w'(r) we obtain

Vp+ = V· (\hVw)Vw + \[I2VW' V(Vw) . (3 .53) p+ = N2(i) + r

)0
N 2 dr/r + constant. (3.57)

)
)
96 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGAT!Ol'lAL FLOWS 3 5 PARTIALLY CONTROLLABLE FLOWS 97

To illustrate the calcula tion of the speed w(y) or w(r) , we first consider the case which returns to the Newtonian profile when ro becomes very large. Calculation
of plane Poiseuille flow between fixed walls in the planes y = ±h. We suppose of the discharge rate Q gives
that the fluid adheres to the walls , so that w(±h) = O. In this case, egn (3.52)
yields Q=2P 'h
3T)o
3
[I +~(plh\l
5 ro ) J
I ,
TJW = -p y, (3.58)
Equation (3.56) can be used to find the pressure distribution across a section and
where we have set the constant of integration equal to zero in anticipation of (3.21) gives the compiete stress distribution.
a velocity profile symmetrical about the middle plane y = O. Then , on inverting For fiow in a circuiar tube, eqn (3 .52) yields
eqn (3.S8) in terms of the fluidity ¢, we obtain
a rz = TJW ' = - p'r/ 2, (3.61 )
w'(y) = -r(b(r), r =p'y. (3.59)
and thus,
Integration yields w(y), which must satisfy w(l1) = O.
The quantity of primary importance in experiments is the volumetric discharge , dw (
rate Q. which is found by integration by parts to be w = dr r) = - r¢(r), r =p ' r/2. (3.62)

Q == j ." w(y) dy
-II
= -} /h y w'dy =
-It
(2/p'2 ) 1'''
0
r2¢(r) dr. (3.60)
Integration of (3 .62) with the no-slip boundary condition will give w(r) . As an
important example consider the power-law fluid where

Here r". = p'h is the wall shear s tress; this is a more fundamental quantity than
the axiai pressure gradient to use when describing tube or channei flow , a lthough
the latter is the directiy measurabie quantity.
Examp/e
Suppose the shear-stress _. shear rate relation is given by
r + r l/ r~ = TJoi',
I .1 dw !"-I
TJ = KI ct,:' ! (3.63)
i
The absolu te value of dw/dr is relevant here; pi is positive, being the magnitude of
8p/8z, and 7] is also positive, hence dw/dr is negative; r is the (positive) magni­
tude of the shear stress. The actual shear stress a rz is negative in pipe flow, from
eqn (3.6 I) when w is positive (in annular flow, r changes sign between the walls).
From (3.62) we have r = kldw / dr/", and hence

­ (r)I /" =
where TJo is the zero-shear viscos ity an d ro is a constant. For small shear rates dw (plr)I/"
this relationship gives dr= k. -r¢(r) = - 2k (3.64)
')
r ~ rli' ~ TIOi'll - p.i') 2 + 0(-/)], Integrating, and setting w = 0 at r = Ro, we find )
where), '= TJo/ro , and for high shear rates the result approaches a power-law
~')1111 R6+ J/ n { 1­ ( ~
. )1+1/"}
r = TJi' = ro(),i')l [ I - ~(),i')-2/3 + O(),i')- I].
W=
( n_n_
+ I )( 2k Ro' (3.65)

In this case, the fluidity function ¢ is clearly given (1 + (r/ro)2)/7]0, and inte­ Dimensionless velocity profiies w(r)/w for various values of n are given in
grating the vel ocity equation (3.59) with the boundary condition w(fJ)=O gives Fig. 3.4, where the mean veiocity wis given by w = Q/,rrR6. The rate of discharge
the result is given by .

2
p'h r (y)2, I (P'h)2{. (y)4}l Q= -rrn
3n + I
(p')I/n
R~3+l ln)
w(y ) = 2TJo lJ - \h ' 2 70 J - h "' 2k (3.66)
 9S V!SCOMETR!C AND ELONGATJONAL FLOWS 3.5 PARTIALLY CONTROLLABLE FLOWS 99

(3 .67) becomes

,o~~oo Q= -7f foRo r2 w'(r) dr. (3 .67a)

"­
--- 2.0 Using the fluidity function ¢(T) and the transformation r = 2T/p' (3.67a)
) ,O~ becomes, recognizing that dw / dr = w' = -T¢(T) ,

) ,,,
"i
Q = (87f / p'3) 1 TO
T\p(T)dT . (3.67b)
)
!.I) Using the definitions of q and Tw, division of (3.67b) by 7fR~ gives the result

q= T:3foT~ T3 ¢( T) dr. (3.68)

By differentiation with respect to T", we find

0.0 0.2
rlR o
Fig. 3.4 Power· law rluid pro files in a full y·d evel o ped c ircular tube rl o w " ~ a fun c tion of n . The
s hear-thinnin g fluin s; (II < I) h (lve fl a He !" pro files . !he s he~ :- th ick cn ;:-:g (n > l) :; :cc pc. pi v fil cs, ihon
th e N f> w! o nja n ca~e (Il'- 1)
)
In general, the discharge from a tube of radius Ro is found to be
{RO
Q= 27f Jo tvrdr. (3 .67)
Poiseuille flow in a circular tube was one of the most important experiments
not only in the early history of Newtonian fluid dynamics bu t also in early
investigations of non-Newtonian flow. By 1929 the key formula relating meas­
urable quantities to the viscosity function (or fluidity) had been discovered by
Weissenberg (Rabinowitsch 1929), and it was extended to allow for slip at
the tube walls shortly thereafter by Mooney (1931). For the case of no slip
manipulation of the result (3. 67) yields the required relation. This result reduces
the relation among the three measurable quantities Q,Ro and p ' to a relation
between only two quantities, Tw (= p ' Ro / 2) and the reduced discharge,
q = Q/7fR~ . If da ta from tubes of various sizes cannot be reduced to a single curve
of q versus Tw, then wail slip or some other wall effect is indicated; we will consider
wail slip in Section 3.9
To show the relation between Tw and q, we note that the shear stress magnitude
T at a radius r is rp' / 2, and at the wall (r = RO )Tw = p' Ro / 2. If(3.67) is integrated
by parts, and it is assumed that no slip at the wall occurs, so that tv(R o ) = 0, then
dq
dTw = ¢(T IV ) _ 3q (3.69)
Tw
Now ¢ (T w) = 1/7)(T",) = 'Yov/Tw, hence (3.69) can be rearranged as
'Yw = q(Tw) [3 + d(log q) ] (3.70)
d(Jog Tw) .
Thus, the shear rate at the stress T IV has been obtained from a plot of q versus
Tw. Although this relation is usually convenient, it does require differentiation of
the data , and numerical schemes for direct inversion of egn (3.68) have been
devised (Tanner and Williams 1970).
In some cases results are simply presented in terms of a nominal shear raie
equal to 4w/ Ro (or 8 V/D as it is often written), so that (3.70) is not used. It is easy
to show that this nominal shear rate assumes a parabolic (Newtonian) velocity
field, and that it is equal in fact to 4Q/7fR~ or 4q; it can be seen that for highly
shear-thinning fluids gross errors can occur if the nominal instead of the true
shear rate is used. It is easy to derive corresponding formulae for the plane case
from eqn (3.60); defining q as Q/ 2h, the inversion formula is identical to eqn (3.70)
except that the 3 is replaced by 2.
Practical precautions that need to be observed in the Poiseuille experiment are
connected with inlet and outlet effects, temperature control , generation of heat
by vjscous dissipation increase of viscosity with pressure, and transition to tur­
bulent flow. Many of these factors are discussed later in Chapters 8- 10.
Here we will mention the end-effects which affect the determination of the
shear stress. The flow in the instrument will consist of an inlet region , an exit
region, and the flow in the fully-developed central tube region on which the

)
100 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS
analysis above is based. Couette suggested that two lengths of tube be used and
that the difference in pressure drop over the difference in length be used to find pI,
thus eliminating end effects. Some commercial viscometers use this technique,
normally the pressure is measured in a reservoir upstream of the capillary tube
entrance, and the exit pressure is assumed to be zero .
Although the effective exit length is short (a few radii at most), the extra
pressure dropat inlet is significant, and can amount to an apparent extra length of
tens of radii, so care is needed. Bagley (1957) proposed a modification of
Couette's method and the so-called 'Bagley correction' is often used to deal with
entry and exit pressu re losses . Bagley assumed that the entry pressure drop is
independent of the capillary length for a given di scha rge rate and tube diameter.
Tests with several capillary tube lengths (L), following Couette, enable one to
deduce the entry losses as an equivalent extra tube length , (NRo) and the ' true'
shear stress can then be computed to be
Tw = 6.pRo/2(L + NRo) (3.62a)
where NRo is the entry (and exit) correction. Unfortunately, N is usually a
function offlow rate, temperature and other variables for many non-Newtonian
fluids. Some instruments use two tubes, one v'/ith a ~zero' :engtn, \vhich should
enable one to directly eliminate end effects, but there must be some doubt tha t
such short dies truly mimic the end effects in longer tubes (see Chapter 8) . Despite
these probiems, the capillary rheometer is widely lIsed because it often enables
very high shear rates ( > 10 5 S- I) and stresses to be reac hed relative to those values
attainable with o th er instruments .
These problems are well known from Newtonian fluid mechanics , but are less
severe in that case. When adequate precautions have been taken , it seems to be
possible to ohtain values of the viscosity function wit h errors of order of one per
cent from Poiseuillc nows; accuracy is greatest with neariy Newtonian fluids.
No information on normal stress differences is obtained from this test. Some
attempts have been made to measure the actual normal thrust on the walls as a
function of distance from the exit. Linear extrapolation appears to show that a
non-zero stress (-orrLv exists a t the end of the tube. This is consistent with the
qualitative idea that with an extra tension in the direction of shearing, the fluid
will tend to contract in the axial direction and thus swell in the radial direction on
leaving the tube, as viscoelastic fluids are observed to do. However, this is a
dangerous argument, as the flow outside the tube a nd inside the tube near the
exit is not viscometric and cannot be described by using the viscometric con­
stitutive equation. (See Chapter 8.)
Axial flow in the annular region between two cylinders is of interest as an
arrangement that allows measurement of the second normal stress difference .
Usually a pressure gradient drives the flow , but the use of a moving inner cylinder
is also possible. Whether the inner cylinder is moving or not, we find directly from
the equations of motion and the symmetry of the flow that the difference between
3.5 PART!ALLY CONTROLLABLE FLOWS lOi
the radial thrusts at the outer radius ro a nd the inner radius rj is related to the
normal stress difference N2 by
['0
[-o,, (r o ) ] - [-orr(rj») = Jr, N2 dr/Y. (3.71 )
There are at least two difficulties associated with this method of testing. First,
the basic velocity profiie is no longer governed by eqn (3.62) but by
i'/W ' = - p'r/2 + C / r, (3.72)
in which the constant of integration C is to be determined by using the boundary
conditions at the two walls. This generally needs numerical solution. For
example, one can attempt to use the power-law model , and it is immediately clear
that there are simpler and more convenient methods of viscosity measurement.
The second difficulty is that pressure-hole errors must be considered (see
Chapter 4) . From the early sets of data using annular flows it appeared that the
second normal stress difference was positive. However, when the data were
corrected for pressure-hole errors, the sign of N 2 was reversed , and the N2 is
negative, which is now believed to be the case. But since the corrections a re larger
than the measured quantities, the process is of dubiOUS accuracy. Tests with
flush-mounted (ho le-free) piessure transducers are possibie, but, due to the wall
curvature, these are not easy experiments. See Tanner and WaIters (1998) for past
attempts to measure N2, and the history of pressure-hole errors.
3.5.3 Couelle flow and helical flows
The heiicai flows listed in Section 3.2.4 are all partially con trollable. We will not
give a detailed verification of this, but merely note that with three unknown
functions , w, w, and p at our disposal , it is always possible to satisfy the
momentum equations. These flows , with coaxial cylindrical slip surfaces, can be
visualized as flows between two coaxial cylinders which may be in relative
motion . Cases in which the motion is purely axial have already been discussed in
Section 3.5.2. Cases that would require an azimuthal pressure gradient, such as
the example in Section 3.4, can be considered. Such instruments are not discussed
further here; there are some practical problems (Kraynik el al. 1984).
If the gap between the inner and outer cylinders is small in comparison to the
radius of either one, by ignoring the curvature one can treat a helical flow )
approximately as a skew rectilinear flow (Section 3.5. I). For the present we
confine our attention to the special case of Couette flow. In the Couette visco­
meter, the flow is driven by steady rotation of one or both of the cylinders, with
no applied pressure gradient. Since there is D O angular acceleration, the moment
M per unit axial length on each slip surface must be the same, and by expressing
this moment in terms of the shear rate we obtain a first integral of the azimuthal
)
)

t02 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS 3.5 PARTIALLY CONTROLLABLE FLOWS )03
)
) component of the momentum equation (Jzz = -p here):

.-l~
1'.1 = 2r.r2~"T) h} (3. 73 ) ~y (r) = p(..}r - Nt/I' + dNddr. (3.77)
di
Recalling that the shear ra te is nJ(r) and expressing the relation in terms of
the fluidity ep, we obtain Here p is the density of the fluid. We omit the hydrostatic pressure, which can
be added to all normal stresses when the computation is otherwise complete. The
) radial stress, from cqn (3.24), is
rw'(/') = Tep( r), r = M 127r/,2. (3.74)
)
Then , integration yields a rr = -p + N2· (3.78)
)
Consequently, on integrating eqn (3.77) we find that the difference between the
w(r) - w(r;) = 2'1(" ep dT, ri = M 1 27rr~, (3.75) normal thrusts on the Quter and inner cylinders is
JT

where r; is the radiu s of the inncr cylinder. The dirrerence in angular velocities [-arr(ro)] - [- arr(ri)] = .{o[prw2 - (Nt/r)Jdr. (3.79)
between the cylinders is

n=- If" ep
2, ' 0
dT, TO = M 1 27rr~ , (3.76)
where 1'" is the radiu s or the o uter cylinder. This relation among the four meas­
urable quantities ri , lv1, ri , a nd 1'0 shows that the data from cylinders of various
sizes can be reduced to a relation amo ng only three quantities, n, r and roo Data
) execution: we note tha t the pressure-hole errors are rOllnell 0 h.. offh", same order
that cannol h~ rp.(It.l C'1?0 in '.his \,v2Y i!'!d ic2 te th 2! the hyp o thesis o f" ~G s!ip:Jt the
wall may have failed or some other efrect may be prese nt.
!n order to Cb!2in 1] (or ¢ ) fr o m the measured qi.iai1litjes~ it is necessary to
) invert eqn (3.76). In the case or a gap h = 1'0 - I'j that is small in comparison
to either radiu s, the shear rale is nearly uniform at the value "t = r ril h, where r
The difference in thrust due to centrifugal force is positive, of course. The
remaining thrust difference is negative if the first normal stress difference is
positive, and thus the radial pressure at the inner cylinder can exceed that at the
outer cylinder.
Although this test is sound in principle, and there are some examples in the
literature, there is the serious pressure-hole difficulty associated with its practical
of magnitude as the quantities measured .
The axial componen~ of stress Ozz is equal to -po !n 2. flc'.v \vith g!-;J.vity uctiiJg
in the negative z-direction , by adding the hydrostatic pressure (pgz) we obtain

)
is the average radius, and there is no difficulty in finding Ti("t). Using this - (Jzz = -pgz + N2 + (f [prw 2 - (Nt / r)] dr + constant. (3 .80)
approximation is equivalent to using the midpoint ruie or numerical integration. .hi
Many approximate schemes of inversion are available (Coleman el al. 1966); a
direct numerical a pproach is straightforward. If the upper surface of the fluid is open to the atmosphere, the shape of the free
There are several commercial viscometcrs that use thi s configura lion. Co m­ surface can be found approximately by using this relation to find the value of z at
)
monly the inner cylinder rotates and the speed an d torque on thi s cylinder are which -a" is equal to atmospheric pressure:
) mea sured. Problems due to end effects and Taylor instability (see Chapter 10) can
be minimized by using a guard-ring design similar to Couelte's original proposal.
The sma ll quantity of fluid needed, compared to that needed for Poiseuiiie vis­
pgz = N2 + r
J r,
[prw 2 - (Nt/r)] dr + constant. (3.81 )
cometry, is an attractive feature of this type of instrument.
Measurable norma l stress erfects occur in the Couette configuration. The stress The effects of centrifugal force and the extra tension Nt are opposite to one
is given by eqn (3.24), with IV set equal to zero. Since the angular velocity is a another, if NJ is positive as expected. If N2 is relatively small and the effect of
function of radius alone, then whatever forms the norm a l stress runctions may centrifugal force is small, then the surface stands highest at the inner cylinder.
have, they too are functions of r in the present problem. Consequently, the This is the classical Weissenberg effect (Fig. 1.3). The result (3.81) is valid only for
momentum equation is satisfied ir the pressure pin eqn (3.24) is a function of small surface disturbances; a large climbing effect disturbs the flow near the
r determined by the radial component of the momentum equ atio n (noting surface.

)
104 VIS CO METRIC AND ELONGI'.TIONAL FLOWS 3.5 PARTiALLY CONTROLLABL E FLOWS 105

Example: Th e Weissenberg rod-climbing effect The slip surfaces in a cone-and-plate flow are cones rotating about a common
The shear stress at radius r in a Couette flow is given by [eqn (3.74») r = M /2u 2 , axis- Let 0' be the latitudinal angle, so that 0' = 0 is the equatorial plane and
where M is a constant. If we assume NI = arm, where m ( > 0) is often nearly 2 0' = 7r/2 is the axis of rotation. The fluid is contained in the gap between a plate in
(Fig. 3.21), then we can integrate (3.81) to find the plane 0' = a and a cone 0' = 0'0 . Either the cone or the plate or both may
r 1
rotate. To be definite we suppose that the plate is fixed and the cone rotates with a
pgz = N 2(r) + [ pre,} dr + -2 [N I (r) - NI (r,)] + constant.
constant angular velocity woo
. 'j 111 Typically the gap angle 0'0 is small, say 4° or less (0.07 radians). The shear rate
Ifinertia is negligible, and z is set at zero when r is very brge . then in the fluid depends on the angular varia ble 0', but a itself changes so little that
this vari a tion is insignifica nt. The shear ra te at a given radius r is then the linear
pgz = N2(r) + NI (r)/2m. speed of the co ne there , rwo, divided by the gap width , roo, so the shear rate is
constant at the value i = wo/O'o . A more detailed analysis shows that the error in
Hence one reqllire~ "': + 2rn.N z > 0 for :'" od climbing. If JI\/ j > 0 «lid ]\l/. < 0,
this estimate is O (O'~), which is often negligible (Lodge 1964).
then if m = 2, IN2/ Nil must be less then 0.2 5 to get climbing.
If the fluid fills the gap out to the radius R o , the moment M exerted on slip
The inertia term will always be negative a nd ca n be found easily if the viscosity
surfaces out to thi s radius must be th e sa me for each surface, since there is no
is constant ; in this case the second-order m odel [eqn(4 .30c»), with m = 2, gives ,
angular acceleration, and it is equal to
when the outer radius is very large
Ro
pgz = N 2(r) +~NI(r) - ~pw;rf/r2, = = (27r/3)R~iTJ(i)1I + O(o~)I.
M 2Jr fo
. 0
iTJ(R cos 0')2 dR (3 .82)
where w, is the angular speed of thc rod and 1', is it s radius.
Thus, measurement or the moment required to turn the cone or hold the plate
3.5.4 Cone and plalc f low gives practically a direct reading or th e shearing stress:
The cone-and-plat c device (Fig . 3.5 , with c = O) produces a fl ow in which the I iTJh) = 3 M/27fR~; -y = (3.83)
shear rate is very nearly uniform. It is by far the most used normal stress mea ­
,,;urjng instrurn ent. The fl o'..\' is pnr:i(1Ily controllable [0 the saine d(: ~ le~ o f
I r = wo/O'o.

The expression for the stress given in eqn (3.19) is more convenient than that
approximation that the shear rate is uniform . In Fig. 3.5 we show o n the left the in eqn (3 .20) in the present case. The shear axes a, b, and c are unit vectors along
boundary condition with a 'sea' of fluid and o n th e right thc more common free the B, 0', and R directions, where R is the spherical radius :
boundary condition .
(J" = -pI + -YTJ(i"io + ioi,,) + N.ioio - N 2 iR iR' (3.84 )

ThruS! F To the lowest order of approximation in the small parameter 00 one may replace
Wo io by iz here, but a corresponding replacement of the spherical radial vector iR
by the cylindrical radial vector i, leads to serious errors in the normal thrust
calcula tion. By u sing eqn (3.84) in the momentum equation, we obtain

Vp = i,prw 2 - i,(NI / r ) - iR(2Nd R) (3.85) )

RO
where w = -yo. The two latter terms are gradients but the inertial term is not, so
'Sea'

of n uid
the equation has no solution unless the inertial term is neglected . By doing so and
I 'Free' also noting that rand R are the same to the order of approximation considered,
)
hO edge
we obtain

peR) = p(Ro) - (N. + 2N2)log (R / Ro )· (3.86)

t.
Fig. 3.5 Cone-pl a te geo metry . Normal setting is that extrapolated co ne-tip just to uc hes plate In the present problem, p is the thrust against the plate and p + N2 is the radial
(c=O). On the left is s ho wn a dr owned edge and 0 11 the ri g ht tht more n ormal free edge. pressure -arr ' With a free boundary at Ro, we suppose that the radial press ure
)

)
 106 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS
there is atmospheric pressure, which is our datum line of zero. Then the thrust on
the plate at the rim is
P(Ro) = -N2. (3 .87)
By using this in eqn (3.86), we find that the total thrust on the plate out to the
radius Ro is
fRo
F = 21T Jo pR dR = NI1TR~/2. (3.88)
The simplicity of this formula and the uniformity of the shear rate are two of
the reasons for the popularity of the cone and plate instrument.
The relation (3.88) is not cxact for several reasons. One of these is thai the outer
) radius (the meniscus) of the test fluid is not exactly spherical and thus the flow
near the outer boundary is not exactly viscometric. It appears that errors from
this source are probably less than 5 per cent (Kaye el 01. 1968). The error due to
neglect of centrifugal force can be corrected in an approximate way. This is best
'I
done by calibrating with a Newtonian liquid. A theoretical estimate can be
obtained by averaging the centrifugal force in eqn (3.85) across the gap. The
I
result (3.88) is then replaced hy
F = (1T R~/2) [NI - cp(RowO)2], (3.89)
) Since no shearing stresses are required on this surface, the flow will continue
with c = 1/6. This seems to be somewhat in excess of measured corrections .The
value c = 3/20 has been found from a more elaborate analysis (Savins and
Metzner 1970) and seems to agree with d a ta qui!e we!! whe!"! inertial effects are
smalL Larger inertial effects may cause appreciable transverse flow, which makes
I is negative, thc pressure p required to hold the surface flat is largest in the middle.
the analysis much more difficult. Fluid degradation can also cause errors.
Finally, the role of surface tension at the edge should be considered; often it can
) be shown to be a negligible co!"!tribution to the thrust.
The second normal stress difference can be found directly by measuring the rim
pressure, according to eqn (3.87). Another method that can be used jf NI is
already known is to measure the distribution of normal thrust on the plate;
according to eqn (3.86), the slope of a plot of thrust versus log R should be con­
) stant at the vaiue -NI - 2N2. Errors in (he estimation of P(R o ) do not affect this
slope. Also , if a set of pressure holes is used to measure the thrust distribution
(Kaye el at. 1968), the correct slope is obtained in spite of pressure-hole errors
)
because the error is the same for each hole; the error depends on the local shear
rate, which is uniform.
Miller and Christiansen (1972) have made absolute measurements of the thrust
distribution by using flush-mounted pressure gauges, for which there is no hole
error. Their evaluations of N2 from the rim pressure and the thrust slope are
consistent, and confirm that N 2 is negative for the fluid tested.This work has been
extended by Magda and Baek (1994).
3.5 PARTIALLY CONTROLLABLE FLOWS 107
3:5.5 Open channel methods Jor finding N2
A direct method of using tube flows to estimate N2 is to observe the flow under
gravity in an open channel and use the free surface as a pressure gauge. Here
we consider flows in channels of circular cross-section or deep channels with
parallel, straight walls, for which the unperturbed flow is exactly viscometric.
First, consider the viscometric flow in a tube ofcircular cross-section, radius R.
The thrust -(Tgg on a diametral plane is the pressure p, and from eqns (3.51) and
(3.57) we find that this reaction is
p = -Gz + N2 + 1 r
N2 dr/r + C. (3.90)
When the tube is tilted at an angle j3 to the horizontal and the flow is driven by
gravity rather than an axial pressure gradient G, the term Gz is absent but there is
an additional hydrostatic pressure term. In a co-ordinate system x, y, z with z
along the tube axis, the x-direction horizontal, and y positive upward, the
hydrostatic pressure is -pgy cos j3. Then
p = -pgy cos j3+ C+ N2 + r
)0
N2 dr/I'.
.
(3,9! )
Suppose now that the tube is cut in half and the top hair is removed , but
normal tractions given by eqn (3.9\) are applied over the diametral plane y = O.
uninierrupted in (he iower haif of the tube. If the second normal stress difference
and if it is positive, it is largest near the wal!. If wc now remove the applied
traction, we expect the surface to rise where p was largest, un til the ex t.ra weight of
fluid above the surface y = 0 supplies the missing force. Th us, if N2 is negative,
the surface will bulge upward in the middle. This agrees with ohservation
(Fig. 3.6) and this seems to give an unambiguous proof that the second normal
stress difference is negative for the particular fluids tha t have been tested by this
method.
The surface warping effect can be used for quantitative estimation of N 2 . By
settingp = 0 in eqn (3 .91) we find the extra height of fluid her) needed to give the
required value of p on the plane y = 0, and we thus find that the shape of the free
surface is given by
(pg cos j3)h = C + N2 + 1 r
N2 dr/I'. (3.92)
Since the shearing traction on this surface is not exactly zero if the flow is
exactly the same as the viscometric flow in a tube, the channel flow is not exactly
viscometric and the preceding result is correct only to first order in the ratio hjR.
The values of the second normal stress difference shown in Fig. 3.7 were obtained
108 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS 3.6 UNSTEADY SHEARING FLOWS 109

"I
II

~ II-

I l.l

1.0
/

I
ILl)

T (p"i

I Fig.3.7 The shear Slress dependence of -N 2 ; 0 PolyoK WSR = 301 in waler; x Separan AP-30 in

waler; .... Oppano) 3200 in celane; • NUS Non·linear Fluid No . I. Th e percenlage of polym er by

weight is shown on the curves.

from experiments on open channel flow. Corresponding ratios of -NdN I are

given in Table 3.9.
For the now between vertical parallel plane walls, the shape of the free surface
is given by the slighily simpler formuia

(pg cos (3)h = C + N2, (3.93)

with similar restrictions. A further set of interesting nearly viscometric flows

Ib)
Fig. 3.(, A Weisse nberg. ,ype dfeci in an inclined open·channel flow. (<I) Curved surface o f a (non­
Newloni"n) I per eenl solulion of polyelhylene o xide in waler . (b) Flat surfa ce of Newlonian fluid
(gl\·ccrol) . The free surface> of Ihe fluid refleci Ihe s lrai~hl edges of Ihe metal brid~e.
occuring in twisted tubes of circular cross-section has been investigated by Barnes
and ''-/alters (1969). In these fl ows, transversecircu!atiun is more the rule than the
exception, because both streamline tension and centrifugal force tend to produce
secondary flow , and for this reason such flows are more difficult to analyse. We
)
refer the reader to the original paper for details.
3.6 Unsteady shearing flows
When one considers the kinematic aspects of the viscometric flo ws discussed
above, there is no reason to restrict the motion to steady shearing rates. For )
example, it is perfectly easy to conceive an unsteady simple shearing motion in
)
)

110 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS 3.6 UNSTEADY SHEARING FLOWS III

which i is a function of time; the flow still continues to be described by the recovery tests where the shear stresses are imposed and the response is -YCt). Thus
relative sliding of slip surfaces. If we confine our attention to the case of a sample we can add to the above list
which has bee!'! a t !"est !0!!g enough before testir:g so that stresses due to aDY
) previous motions have decayed , then the same stress symmetry occurs in both
steady and unsteady shearing. As long as the slip surfaces do not change form,
I (I) Creep tests:

r = o 1<0

the above considerations give a method of approaching un steady shearing { r = rO I> 0

motion. If there is a switch from one set ofshearing axes (a , b, c) to another during
an experiment, then there is more complexity, even though the entire fiow is (g) Constrained elastic recovery tests:
viscometric.
Generally, in unsteady motions the inertia terms in the equations of motion r = rO 1< 0

will not vanish, but sometimes they are small enough to be ignored. The problem {
r=O I :> O.
of inertia is not special to non-Newtonian flows , and since inertia forces tend to
obscure effects due to non-linear material behavi our, it is often more interesting Sketches of typical responses for r(l) and I'l l (I) are shown in Fig. 3.8 for some
to consider situations where inerti",1 effects are minimal. Thus we shall ignore of the tests. Using these data one can study oth~r unsteady viscometric flows
inertia wherever this is realistic, and in particular in our present study of simple undergoing similar temporal histories.
shearing; in Section 6.8.3 we discuss some aspects of inertia effects .
For inertia-less unsteady shearing, the response functions r(/), N J (I) and N 2(t) 3.6.1 Pipkin 's classificalion diagram for shearing flows
define the situation completely for a given -Y(/). Of the infinite number of pos­ In connection with these flows, it is useful to discusss the flow diagnosis diagram
sibilities for -yC/) , the following are the main ones which have been tried experi­ introduced by Pipkin (1972) for shearing motions; it can also be arrli~ci to other
mentaiiy rnotions. Consider a material where the mean relaxation time is A; for exaniple
(a) Oscillato ry sheaf i:=: wi sin w I.
from Fig. !.12 wecan define). as J:tG dl/ JoG dt. Then the flow regimes may
(b) Sudden imposition of shearing,
(a) • /~\ / ' , ./N,(I)
' 1' = u t < U
. \

~ ~
I '\

{ -y = 1'0 I:> O.
\
_I
'r
\

·~bA
)
(c) Cessation of shearing (or stress relaxation)

f l' =-Yo 1<0

I> O.
y(l) r(l)
l 'Y = 'Yo
Fig. 3.8(3) Sinu so idal strain-rate (7). The shear stress response (r) is not sinusoidal but has the
(d) Step displacement of shear. If'Y is the shear strain then a shear strain is same frequen cy (w) as the Slrain-rate. The normal-slress (N ,) signal is always posi tive and
suddenly applied (or removed) at certain times; -Y(/) is formally a set of nu cluates at 2w.
impulses or delta functions.
(b) y, r, N1
(e) Combinations of a steady shearing with the above.
)
Clearly, in (e) steady shear axes can be oriented parallel to the unsteady flow axes, t = - - - - - - - - - _ r (large Yo)
or in some other direction. Most combined flovls use the same axo::s but Tanner
and Williams (1971) have superposed an oscillatory shear at right angles to a
) simple shear, thus produci.ng an unsteady skew motion similar to that discussed ___ N,

) in Section 3.2.2.
Each of these flows will be discussed later in Section 3.8; many results for r(/)
Fig. 3.8(b) Sudden impo sition of strain·rate. The shear stress and nonnai stress dilTerence curves
and NI (I) are available, but few for N2C/). In addition to the above flows where may overshoot as shown at larger shearing rates; at low enough shear rates no overshoot occurs
-Y(/) is imposed , it is also possible to perform creep and constrained elastic and the curves rise smoothly to their steady·state values.
J
112 YISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS 3.7 ELONGA T10NAL FLOWS 113

(cJ y, r, NI 00, ,
I
I
I I
I I
,
YO --=t-.. . , '<:
''''l,g General
.::-1
'j ...................

i;
,~
nows :~
. >­
'--!!I lu -.:;
............
'""" 1"5 '"
"
"0
:= '''' :2
---- ·c
e.I)

i l ;>
IE
10
I~
~
"
.0
.0

Fig. 3.8«(:)Cessatiun or s hearing. U Sll a iiy iV I vanishes slower lhan the s hear stress r. No under­ I,UI -Linear
- -- viscoelasticity
- -+ ~Classi caJ
shool has ever been observed . Both rand NI vani sh, typically , more rapidly for higher 70 values. --7 --
... elasti City
N2vier~ 0 WA 00 point
Stokes
puiol.

"'[ -~ :-...­
Interm ediate Yo
Fig. 3,9 Pipkin flow diagnosis di agram for a fluid with a characteristic time >.. Here w is a c har­
acterislic strain frequency, 7 is a characteristic strain rate, a nd A is a characteristic strain
magnitude. The sca les (0 - 00) a re highly non·linear. The product w>. is a Debora h number (De)
and >'7 is a Wei ssenberg number (WI).

~r ~-"" Small Yo

""'. "'-,\ strain (WA -> =) the material behaves in a rubberlike manner, as typified by
~~
,~
Large Yo 'bouncing putty'. In the centre of the diagram lie the large-amplitude unsteady
'--' shearing flows, 1t is here that further studies or reieva ni constituiive relaiions are
~
g'1
-I needed; the edge strips are fairly well-understood regions and the constilutivp.
~
I
relations that are relevant there are known.

3.7 Elongational flows

[ Suppose that a rod of material is being extended homogeneously along its x-axis,
so tha t each part of the rod is stressed uniformly, At each section we suppose that
log (
the rate of elongation 8ul8x( == E) is independent of x and is a function of time at
Fig, 3,8(d) Slep of shear; here 7 is an impulse Or dclta functi o n. The Curves (T/loJ arc most. Mass conservation and axial symmetry then demand that 8vl8y =
proporti onal to the linea r rela xa:ion fun ction G(l) (Fig. 1.15) for small "ro. Ai large r strains the
Slress has a simil a r, bUI not identi cal shape , and the scalc factor is not linea r in 'Yo·
8wloz = - tI 2, All shearing-stress components are zero and Clyy = Cl zz , by sym­
metry, For an incompressible liquid the stress response is then completely defined
by the dependence of Clu - Clyy on the rate of extension E and the time I elapsed
be classified by considering a typical ra te of change as being fast or slow rela tive
since the stetching began :
to A, and by the maximum shear strain amplitude A; in the case of steady flows we
take A to be the amount of shearing in time A, hence A = iA for this case . Suppose Cl xx - Cl'yy = t 7)dt, t), (3.94)
thaL a cha racteristic ra te W exists for the variation of the kinematics ofa particle in
time, We then plot A against the dimensionless product WA (Fig, 3.9). where 1]E is the stretching viscosity; generally it is a function of the rate of stretch­

This diagram thus plots as a bscissa a Deborah number WA, denoted henceforth ingt and time. The initial response ofa polymer melt is elastic for many materials )

by (De) ; the ordinate Ai is an example of Weissenberg number, denoted hence­ and might more appropriately be described in terms of the dependence of

forth as (Wi) . (Some writers use We for this dimen sionless quantity, but We is
already used for the ratio of the inertia to surface tension, the so-called Weber
number,) The regimes of the three classical bodies di scussed in Chapter 2 are then
seen to lie along the WA axis; for very slow changes of motion one is near the
steady viscometric flow regime just discussed , a nd for very fast applications of
the stress on the strain c, For this reason the stress generally increases as time
)
progresses during the initial stages of the motion (Fig, 3.10), If the rate of )
extension is large, this initial stage may end in fracture of the specimen. For
example, it is a simple matter to fracture some silicone liquids ('silly putty') in
one's own hands,

)
 114 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS 3.7 ELONGATIONAL FLOWS 115

When rupture does not occur, the stretching viscosity 7)£ may eventually
approach a limiting value, 7)di:, (Xl), which we will usually denote simply by
,,::
'T>c(')
.

200~ l ~6 -

~!
,"-' /.

) The limiting value is called the steady extensional viscosity, or Trouton vis­ 0..
~

cosity. Trouton (J 906) found that the extensional viscosity of mixtures of pitch ~
c
and tar is independent of i and about equal to 37)0, the value for an incompressible I 100 5
~
Newtonian fluid with shear viscosity 7)0. c
4
Concern with the properties of the Trouton viscosity began in the 1930s in
connection with the important problem of spinning synthetic fibres from molten
liquid . Useful compilations of material on elongationa! flows are the book by o il
Petrie (1979), and the article of Meissner (! 992). For polymer solutions the
Fig. 3.11 Elongational stress versus strain for Butyl 035 at 100 °C (higher elongation rates). Curve
work of Sridhar and co-workers (Orr and Sridhar 1996) should be consulted. 4: i = 2.48 x 1O- 2 s- 1 ; Curve 5: t = 4.51 x 1O- 2 s- l ; Curve 6: t = 0.135s- l . Note that no steady
Spirining experiments can rarely be used for the unambiguous determination stress state is apparent at the higher rates.
) of the steady state viscosity 7)E, because each fluid element experiences a highly
unsteady stretching and there is usually not enough time for transien t elastic
effects to die away. Ballman's (1965) work on polystyrene was the first in which
the strain rate was kept constant during the motion. A tensile test was carried out
on a bar of very viscous liquid, with the ends of the specimen moving apart at
an exponentially increasing rate so as to keep the velocity gradient au/ax con­
stant. Esscntiaiiy the same technique was used by Stevenson (1972), who -.oof
:r ,;
I

II
obtained the results shown in Figs 3.10-3.13. Usually the weight of the specimen C 1
f

"~'I
1

1''''
0..
is supported by floating it in a liquid of the same or slightly higher density, as
I
Trouton (1906) did.
With this technique only limited extensions can he ;lchjeved, since (he length
of the specimen increases in proportion to exp (i l), and the rate of extension
cannot he much la rger than about !-! 0 s - I. !'v1eissner (197!) :!itroduced ti sub­
) stantialiy improved method or testing. Each end of a strand of liquid is drawn
between a pair of gears that rotate at constant angular velocity. The two ends
arc pulled in opposite directions, so tha t the axial velocities are U and - U, say, at o - tl
I
Fig. 3.12 Elongationa l s tress versus strain for Natsyn 410 at 80°C. Curve I : i = 6.37 X 10- 4 s -I;
Curve 2: i = 1.57 x 10- 3 S-I. Note s-shape of response curves.

107

~J/
)
-6--6-6---4-~ '7E
) 0­
., 3'70

'70
--: lif -------
";:
"'" -----t
.~~

o il
lOS 10-4 10-3 10-2 10- 1
) Y or"/3 i (S-I)
Fig.3.10 Elongation stress versus strain for Butyl 035 at 100 °C (low elongation rates). Curve I :
) t = 2.85 X 10- 4 S-I; Curve 2: t = 1.48 x 10- 3 S-I; Curve 3: t = 2.82 x 10- 3 S-I. N o te that the Fig.3.13 Steady elongational (1)E) and shear (1)) viscosity data for Butyl 035 at 100 °C. The abscissa
elongational stress difference (Txx - (Tyy attains a steady state. is the square root of the second invariaol of the rate-or-strain tensor.

)
116 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS
the locations of the gears, x = L and x = - L. The axial velocity in the strand is
then u = Ux/ L, giving a constant extension rate E = U/ L. With this method , one
can draw samples out to about 1000 times their original length and achieve
extension rates of lOS-I. The data in Fig. 3.14 were obtained by Meissner (1971);
they portray an unsteady flow.
In order to measure the steady-state viscosity TJdE), the fluid must be subjected
to a constant rate of extension for so long that the stress reaches a constant value,
or a constant stress for so long that the raie of eXiension becomes constant. Cases
in which it is certain that a steady state was reached involve fluids of very high
viscosity and rates of extension not much grea ter than about 1.0 S-I. In this
limited range, the Trouton viscosity has usually been found to be either nearly
~oJlsialil or, ai ihe highest rates of extension, an increasing function of E.
Although these rates of extension are very low, the steady-shearing viscosities
1](i) of the same materials are usually significantly lower at a shear rate
i = O.IS-I than they are in the limit of zero shear rate. Consequently, the ratio of
the extensional viscosity to the shearing viscosity is an increasing function of the
strain rate even when the Trouton viscosity is still constant, as in the data of
Stevenson (1972) shown in Fig. 3.13.
3.7.i Unsteady extensions
It is fairly easy to obtain much higher ra tes of extension , but the experiments in
the solulion. Both extension and orientation grow iarger as the rate of extension
which this is done have always involved flows with a noo-constant rate of
extension (in space) unlike the spatially homogeneous unstcady flow shown in
W:;~n
-"
1 1.£1
' b ' -, . . . . ,
3.7.2 Biaxial and other related flows
Spinning experiments typically involve extension rates of the order of 0.1 to
10 2 s-I. Convcrgcnt die-cntry flows involve extension rates of the order of I
to 100 S-I. Jet-thrust experiments involve extension rates of the order of 10 to
3
j 0 S-I . In two jets coliiding head-on, or the reverse, the rate ofextension has been
10
6 ,
"H,
, method has been used by Maerker and Schowalter (1974) who found that the
1'~1~1
10.1/1
0.1 I
I
10
I
10'
I I
10J 10'
Time (s)
Fig.3.14 Growlh of unsleady ciongational viscosity 'Ide, [) due to elongation at a constant rate
(e) suddenly applied at time [=0. Dashed lines: data of Meissner (1971) for low-density branched
polyethylene (,Melt I' at 150°C: densit y at 20 °C 918 kg/ m J ; mell index "" 1.33 ; molecular weight
(Mw) = 4 .82 x 10 5 = 28. 1M n). FuJI curves are re sponse curves calculated fro m the L odge rubberlike
liquid [sec eqn (5. I 50)J with a relaxation functi o n chosen to fit the data at e = iO- J S-I . The values
of £(S-I ) arc shown on the curves .
3.7 ELONGA TIONAL FLOWS I !7
estimated as 50s- I for a melt (Mackley and Keller 1973) and 8.10 3 S- 1 for a
polymer solution (Frank et al. 1971). See the surveys by Gupta and Sridhar (1998)
and James and Walters (1993) for further discussion of experimental methods.
Except in the case of spinning, analyses of these flows make use of approxi­
mations and assumptions that are subject to doubt. Furthermore, it is usually
clear that the 'viscosity' in these flows is not the steady-state Trouton viscosity.
However, the general trend is toward higher values of viscosity as the rate of
extension increases, and the rise is often so drastic that no error of approxi ma­
tion could explain it. The results are often stated in terms of the ratio of the
extensional viscosity to the steady-shearing viscosity at a shear rate equal to
the rate of extension . Ratios of order 3 x 104 have been reported (Metzner and
Metzner i 970).
It is generally agreed that the observed increases in extensional viscosity are
caused by ~Iignment of the long-chain polymer molecules along the direction of
stretching. This may explain the data of Cogswell (1969) on polypropylene , from
which he deduced that the extensional viscosity decreases as the rate of extension
increases, because this polymer has large side groups that may inhibit orientation.
Since polymer molecules are long, flexible chains, the degree of extension and
orientation in a solution of such molecules depends on the rate of extension of
II
increases, and both effects il1crease the extensiO!l<li viscosity of the soiution . We
consider these matters in Chapter 5. 'I
I
Stretching motions of the form (3.94) with E negative can be produced by
stretching a sheet of material, so that -E/2 represents the stretching rate in the
plane of the sheet.
In inflation of a circular sheet with clam ped edges, the flow at the cen tre of the
sheet is an equal biaxial extension . Denson and Gallo (1971) have proposed a
method of achieving a nearly constant rate of extension at the centre. This
Trouton viscosity at first decreases as the rate of extension increases. Maerker
and Schowalter also found that, a t higher rates of extension, the viscosity passes
through a minimum and then increases sharply. Dobraszczyk (1997) has used this
method to explore dough rheology.
In any steady velocity field of the form Vi = E:iXj (no sum on i), with the sum of
the extension rates equal to zero for incompressible flow , the only relevant
material properties are the dependence of the two independent normal stress
differences on Ej and t . In the flows that we have discussed , E2 = EJ and thus
a yy = azz by symmetry. In strip biaxial tests, a sheet is stretched in the x-direction
while its width in the z - direction is held constant, so that E3 = 0 and
E2 = - E:I = -E say. The normal stress difference a xx - a yy • divided by E:, defines )
the viscosity for this test. The difference Uxx - a zz can also be measured.
 118 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATJONAL FLOWS 3. 8 SOME EXPERIMENTAL DATA 119

Strip biaxial tests have been reported by Peng and Landel (1974), who also
report tests on equal biaxial extension. They find that the viscosity decreases as
the rate of exte!1sion increases, v'lith very much the same fcrm of dcpcildcncc iii
both tests. Denson and Crady (1974) have used inflation of rectangular strips, in
which the strip becomes more or less cylindrical, and they report that the strain­
rate along the axial direction is less than 1 per cent of that along the circumfer­
ential direction. At the lowest rates of extension they find that the extensional
viscosi ty is of the order 41]0 , the value for an incompressible Newtonian iiquid ,
and they find that the viscosity d ecreases as the rate of extension increases; see
also Wa lters (1984) for a nother method of testing.
This set of homogen eous stretching flows has been explored experimentally by
Mei ssner (1992). Consider the rate of deformation tensor d which, in the absence
of shearin g, is diagonal. Thus we can write it as
3.8.1 Low density polyethylene
A working party (Meissner 1975) has prepared a document giving a useful survey
of properties of three similar commercial low density polyethylene samples,
designated A, B. and C. Although differing considerably from the processing
point of view they were quite similar rheologically, as judged by measurements
made in six independent laboratories . Besides the properties given below ,
inform a tion on other quantities of interest , such as melt flow index, thermal
stability and molecular parameters is also given in Meiss ner's report. It was
concluded that the samples A, B, and C were similar exce pt for slight differences
in molecular weight distribution, and some differences in extrudate swelling (see
Chapter 8) and thermal stability.
We will now consider the results.given by Mei ssner; the reader should refer to
the origina i report to obtain an idea of how difficult it is to obtain consistent

d ~ '.H(,) 0 -(JLJ
o
111
o
(3.95)
results from different laboratories.

Zero-shear v iscosity. The zero-shear viscosities 1]0 are tabulated in Table 3.1.
Below and at 150 °C ma terial C has a value of 1]0 about 10 per cent lower than
where £0 is a co nstant a nd H(l) is the unit step function. Equation (3.95) preserves A and B, which were essentially equ al. At 170 °C and 190 °C the three specimens
volume (tr d =0) and needs two defining parameters - eoand 111. The parameter cannot be com p8red becilll se of diffe rent the rma l sta bility properties. By piotting
m defines the flow type:
I log Tfu as a function of l /T( reciprocal ofabsoiute temperature in degrees Kelvin)
one o btai ns a straight line . Thus, the Arrhenius form holds, and

I
(i ) m = ~0 . 5 gives Simple uniaxial elongation;
)
(ii) 111 = 0 gives planar elongation; 1]0 = A exp (Eo/ RT) , (3 .96)
(iii) n1 = ! gives biaxi al eJongation (or negative elongation);
where A is a constant, Eo is an activation energy, and R is the gas constant

I
)
and other values give 'elliptical' flows. (iU 141.1/n1 ol<' K). Thus Eo is 57.0 ± 0.9 ld / n1olc, hcnc;;: Co / R is about 68 50 K.
) These flows are gcnerally characterized by i wo stress differences-defined so This agrees with the act iva tion energy given for low-densi ty polyethylene
that the first axis is along the direction of largest ex tension rate (£ 1) and se tting (LO PE) derived by other metho ds.
£0 == £1 > £2>£3. There appear to be differences in the responses depending on
the va lue of 111. Linear Slress relaxGl ion. Both (a) s tress rel axation a fter a sufficiently smali step of
shear stra in and (b) stress relaxa tion after cessation of a sufficiently low shea ring
3.8 Some experimental data rate were investigated by the IUPAC group. The first test determines G(t), a nd the
We have already given some resu lts for fluid s above and we have discussed second generates a related function. At 150 °C the three samples differed little
experimental methods briefly. More extensive discussions of experimental
methods are given by Waiters (197 5) , Petrie (1979), Gupta and Sridhar (1988),
and Meissner (1992). Table 3.1 Zero-shear viscosities and activation energies Eo
)
As to other experimental metho ds, we refer to the books by Janeschitz-Kriegl Temp.O(C) A B C
) (1983) and Fuller (19 95) for details of o ptical measurements.
I i2 260 263 240 x 103(Pa -s)
Here we shall give some results for low-density polyethylene melts, less viscous
) 130 105 118 97
solutions of polymers, and some other materials. It is strictly necessary to com­ 150 55 55 50
pare the behaviour of melts with concentrated polymer solution data as it is often 170 23.8 25 .5 24.3
argued that solutions behave similarly to melts, and that results for solutions 190 14 (Unstable) 15.5
can be applied qualitatively to melt behaviour. This wilJ be assumed in the rest of
Eo 57.8 56.5 56. I kJ /m ole
this book: it is an idea supported by microstructural evidence (Chapter 5).

)
120 V1SCOMETR1C AND ELONGAT!ONAL FLOWS 3.8 SOME EXPERIMENTAL DATA 121

(Fig. 3.15, Table 3.2). Comparison of results obtained by the two methods (a) and Table 3.3 Comparison of the linear viscoelastic shear
(b) is given in Table 3.3. It can be concluded that the samples behave in a similar, relaxation modulus G(t), measured directly in the relaxa­
but not identical manner. tion experiment (a) and calculated from relaxation after
steady shear flow (b)
Frequency-dependent linear viscoelastic material jun ctions. For the dynamic Time, S Type of lest A B C
mechanical measurements, three different types of apparatus were used. Table 3.4
0.1 (a) 20000 20400 19700
presents three different sets of data obtained at 150 ac by three operators using
(b) 20800 19700 18900
two different instruments. The data obtained by different operators (0: and 8) i.0 (a) 5400 5700 5300

I
with the same instrument are, in general, in excellent agreement. The agreement (b) 5050 4950 5250
between the data obtained with different instruments is less than perfect but is 10 (a) 860 960 780
still reasonable. It is quite obvious from the results reported in the table that no (b) 860 880 8!0
~ignificani differences exist between the three samples as far as linear viscoelastic 100 (a)
behaviour is concerned. At low frequencies (0:) finds systematically lower values (b) 52 65 47
1000 (a)
for G' and G" in the caseof sample A compared with samples Band C. Lower
(b) 0.94 1.5 0.83
values for sample A in the range of lower frequencies are also found by ({3) but
contrary to the findings of(o:), the difference between the values ofG' for samples (Values in Pal ·
Band C is found by ({3) to be of the same order of magnitude as the difference
between A and B. All sets of data agree with respect to the effect of increasing
frequency which tends to diminish the observed differences between the samples. "" I I - I-A
The differences between the data obtained with different instruments a lso seem
to be frequency-dependent: with increasing frequency , the diffe rence between
II~
~ '"l~
c" \ I ~
I I

'"

"-
<.:>
lOS ' - - i-

10' l ........"'" I

- ----r- ­

G]?l -GI
iO- l 10- 1 1
W (5-')
,I
10
I
10'
10) k '<>'....

---A Fig.3.16 Frequency·dependent storage (G ' ) and loss (0") Moduli at 150 ' C for LOPE samples
- · -·-B (AO,B6.CO). The hatched areas correspond to the range of data in Table 3.4.
102 , 'e" • I ~ -- - --c
0.1 10'~
Time (5)
G' values decreases. The difference between the G" values appears to change sign
Fig. 3.15 Shear relaxation modulus G(I) from stress relaxation after a step function s hear strain.
Temperature 150°C. Three samples A . B. and C o f !ow-der:sit y pol ye:hyle ne on:: sho \V jj,
for frequencies higher than! 0 S-l. Taki~g account of the lirnited accuracy of ihe
oscillatory measurements, the general behaviour of G' and G" as a function of
frequency (Fig. 3.16) is in good agreement with the results of the relaxation
Table 3,2 Shear relaxation moduli G(t); T= 150 a C
measurements.
Time Sample Generally speaking, there are practically (that is, within 10 per cent) no dif­
A B c ferences in the linear viscoelastic behaviour of the three samples. The differences
in G' and Gil may be ascribed to measurement problems.
1=0.15 2.0 2.04 1.97 X 10 4 Pa The temperature dependence of T]o (expressed by the activation constant
Is 5.4 5.7 5.3 x 103Pa
Eo) is the same for A, B, and C. If the molten samples can be treated as
lOs 8.6 9.6 7.8 x 10 2 Pa
thermo-rheologically simple materials it follows from the time-temperature

)
 122 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS 3.8 SOME EXPERIMENTAL DATA 123

) Table 3.4 Storage modulus G' and loss modulus Gil at 150°C in Pa of capillary viscometers using two types of corrections: (a) the Weissenberg
Sample Investigator correction (eqn 3.70) yields the true shear rate at the die wall for non-Newtonian
w [s-'I
liquids independent of the velocity distribution within the die, (b) the Bagley
(0:) ((3) (}) correction (3.62a) provides the true pressure gradient from which the true shear
Storage modulus G' stress at the die wall is caiculated.
O.O! A
1.01 x 10 2 1.05 X 102 I. I 2 X 10 2 The measurements at higher shear rates with the capillary viscometer were
B
1.46 X 10 2 1.40 X 10 2 I. I 6 x 10 2 performed at 150 and 190 °C. All the viscosity data at these two temperatures
) C 1.53 x i 02 1.09 x j0
2 8. 5 X 10! are given in Fig. 3.17. The data cover the remarkably wide range of shear rates
0.1 A
1.39 x 103 1.20 X 10 3
1.26 x 10 3 from 10- 4 to \0+3 S - I . At fir s t sight, the results for the three samples measured by
B
1.81 X 10) 1.40 X 10) 1.30 x 10) five differen t instruments coincide very well at 150 °C, bu t there are clear dif­
C 1.70 x 103 1.27 X 10 3 I. I 8 x 10 3 ferences at 190 °C, not for the different samples but forthe different participants;
A
8.IO x 10 3 7.0 X 103 7.0 x 10) that is, for different test methods . This fact again demonstrates the importance
B
8.70 X 10 3 7.3 X 103 7.3 X 103 of thermal stability if reliable data are to be obtained. For anyone participant,
C 8.60 x 103 7.35 X 103 7.0 x 10)
the three samples again show practically identical curves, for 190°C as well as
10 A 2.70 X 10· 2.6 x I0· 2.45 x 10· for 150 0C.
B
2.85 x 10 4 2.8 X 10· 2.49 x 10·
2.6 x I0· 2.60 x 10· For a discussion in more detail, the results at ISO °C were interpolated
C
2.80 x 10·
graphically and the viscosity data tabulated for fixed decades of shear rate
100 A
6.80 X 104 7.0x 104
104 (Table 3.5). At low shear rates, the coincidence of the data within ±IO per cent is
') B
7.20 X 104 7.1 X
C 7.00 X 104 7.1 X 104
I
Loss modulus G" I

)
0.01

0.1
A

C
A

4.76 x
5.50 X
5.70 X
2.65 x
10 2
102
10 2
10 3
4.2 x 10 2
4.5 X 10 2
4.55 X 10 2
2.24 X 10 3
4.7 x 102
4.5 X 102
4.25 x 10 2
2.25 X 10 3
II ':>

'"
0..

"::LJ
I3
2.90 X 10 3 2.41 X 10) 2. 38 :x 10 )
,.., 2.83 X iV' 2.38 x 10 3 2. 30 x i03
'-­

A 8.90 X 103 8.! 5 x 10 3 7.7 X 10 3

"I
!3 9.00 X 10) 8.40 x 10 3 8.20 x 10 3
C 8.80 x 10 3 8.50 X 10) 8.30 X 10 3
lOS,
10 A
1.98 X 104 2.iO x i04 1.95 X 10·
B
2.05 X 104 2.20 X 104 2.0 X 10·
C 2.07 X 10· 2.20 X 104 1.92 X 10·
104 r­L- _...1­
100 A
3.70 X 10· 4.80 X 10· ,

B
3.70 X 10· 4.65 X 104 ci:!

C 3.70 X 10· 4.70 X 10· ,;

lol l --l-I---+--~-~~~'
superposition prlllClpJe that the validity of the conclusion concerning the loll. I ",I . 1 , " . , ,, ,1 ,,,,,d ,II .",,11
identical linear viscoelastic behaviour for 150 °C can be extended to other tem­ 10-4 10-) 10- 2 10- 1 10 .

peratures in the molten state. (See Chapter 9.) Shear rate Y(S-I)

Fig. 3.17 ViscosilY funclions for samples A , B. C at 190 °C and 150 °C. The various symbols
The viscosity junction . The viscosity function Tier), commonly used to represent indicate the various instruments used: a Weissenberg rheogoniometer. a Kepes rotational rheo­
the non-Newtonian behaviour of polymer melts, was determined by using meter, and two capillary inslruments. MF indicates the onset of melt fracture or instabi.lity in the
rotational viscometers at low rates of shear and at higher shear rates by means capillaries.

)
124 vrSCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS 3.8 SOME EXPERIMENTAL DATA 125

Table 3.5 Shear viscosity 7Jh') at T= 150°C Steady-Slate normal stress differences. The definitions of the two nonnal stress
-y . 5- 1 From ABC differences N, and N2 have been given in eqn (3.17).
Using a cone-plate device the three IUPAC LOPE samples yielded the steady­
0.0001 IVa 5.5 5.5 5.0 l04 Pa-s state results shown in Table 3.6 at 130°C (there were thermal stability problems
0.001 Ia 4.2 5.2 104 Pa-s at 190 °C) .

I
!! 4.7 4.8 4.9 J04 Pa-s The comparison of data for samples A, B, and C, can be summarized as fol­
IVa 5.5 5.5 5.0 104 Pa-s
lows: the shear stresses are practically the same, the difference between A, B, and
0.01 Ja 4.2 5.2 4.95 10 4 Pa-s C being often much Jess than ten per cent. The results for 1'/1 are, on the average,
II 4.4 45 4.7 10 4 Pa-s I aiso equai for A and C. Sample B, however, seems to have a siightiy higher

O!
IVa
!a
4.4
3. !7
4.85
3.4
4.35
3.0
104 Pa-s
104 Pa-s
104 Pa-s
I normal stress difference which differs from that for A by about 0-20 per cent,
except at the highest shear rate, l' = 0.85 s-;, at which the normal stress differ­
II
IVa
3.1
2.90
3.2
2.90
3.2
2.82 104 Pa-s
·1 ence for n is lOWer than that fvf A. Experimental diffiCulties n-Just be kept in fftind,
JVb 2.85 30 3.0 104 Pa-s however , and the above data represent small, if any, differences in the behaviour
1.22 10 4 Pa-s of the th ree samples A, B, and C.
1.0 Ia 1.23 1.23
II 1.1 1.18 118 10 4 Pa-s The measurement of N2 is more difficult. Meissner (1992) describes the use of a
IVb \.18 1.21 1.20 10 4 Pa-s two-part cone-plate rheometer to deduce NI and N2 for polyethylene at 105 °C.
10 Ib 4.0 3.95 3.88 103 Pa-s An average of the results showed N z ::::: -0.24N, .
[J 2.9 3.2 3.1 10 3 Pa-s
IVb 3.6 3.65 3.41 103 Pa-s Time-dependence ofT and N, at conS1anl shear rale. These studies were performed
100 ib 10. 3 !O.3 9.6 iO ~ P:-!-s using an instrument modified to obtain the transient behaviour of polyethylene
!Vb 8.8 8.8 8.8 10 2 Pa-s melts correctly (Meissner 1972). The measurements were made at 150 °C. and
1000 Ib 2.2 2.2 2.11 10 2 Pa-s the constant ~hear rates l' = U.l - I - 10 S-i. The time-dependent beha viour dif­
IVb 2.0 1.93 1.92 102 Pa-s fers from one shear rate to another, as was shown by detailed studies previously .
presented for a sample A (Meissner 1972).
Obtained by gi3ph;cu! iritcrpc!uti ci'l ~ v :h~ fixed shc~;- :-~:les I
indica led. la uses a shear rate-lempera lUre shift mel hod in order 10
The small differences found in the rheogoniometer data for A, B, and C raise
del ermine Ihe viscosity function al 150 °C from data measured at the question of the reproducibility of the results. For this purpose, the repro­
130°C. la and IVa used a Weissenberg rheogoniometer. II used a ducibility was checked with sample A always Llsing a new specimen for each '\
Kepes cone/plate device, Ib and IVb used capillaries. ~ .

J
Table 3.6 Shear stress (T) and first normal stress differcnce(N 1) at 130 °C in
again cvident. At 0.1 S-I, a similar coincidence is cvident; the coincidence a tIs- I kPa. Results for three LOPE samples (A, B, C)
is even better. At higher shear rates, the two capillary instruments give good
agreement (difference about iO per cent). Only at 10S-1 is there a more pro­ -y A B C
nounced difference between the rotational data and the two sets of capillary d a ta . [S-I] , Nl , NI , NI
However , this may be due to the pronounced time-dependence of viscOLis rIow at
0.0043 0.353 0.356
this relatively high shear rate.
0.0085 0.70 7 0.83 0.7!4
Comparing the three samples, the J U per cenl difference at the iowest shea r
rates denotes the largest difference between the viscosity data measured. At 0.0135 !.I 1 1.21 ! .02
higher shear rates, the magnitude of this difference is reduced below 10 per cent to 0.0269 1.99 2.13 2.00 2.32 \.85 2.00
0.0425 2.72 3.78 2.92 4.30 2.73 3.93
such an extent that the viscosity functions of the three samples at 150 °C can be
0.085 4.52 9.66 4 .84 9.89 4.40 8.59
assumed to be identical. The identity of the viscous behaviour was one criterion
for the selection of the three samples for this IUPAC program. The results 0.i35 6.00 12.6 6.45 16.2 5.81 14.5
0.269 9.01 25.2 9.36 29.7 9.11 15.7
confirm t hat this criterion was fulfilled. Some processing differences were found
0.425 11.6 37.1 11.3 38.0 10.9 34.7
with these melts and it becomes clear that neither the linear viscoelastic nor the 0.85 15.6 55.3 15.2 52.7
purely viscous behaviour of the melts accounts for these differences.
 126 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS 3.8 SOME EXPERIMENTAL DATA 127
)

measurement performed under equal experimental conditions. These reprodu­

cibility tests resulted in a large scatter-band for the transient functions. For NI the
band-width increases with decreasing shear rate and amounts to 23 per cent at
i = 0.1 5- 1, probably because of the iow relative sensitivity of the normal stress­
measuring sys tem at this low shear rate. The 10 per cent bandwidth for shear
stress r is surpri singly high. e
:;; 6
~
The time-dependence ofr and NI is shown for I S-I shear rate, for sample A, in '0;

Fig. 3.18. The general shape of the curves and the magnitude of the bandwidths ~"
for repeated measurements are comparable for the three samples.
The maxima for rand NI are approximately located a t a constant shear strain
I = it independent of shear rate i·
The main result of this work is that at all times the shear stress r is practically
c Strain-tt
equal for A and B. r is about 10 per cent iower for C, whereas differences in NI can
) be measu red around the maxima of these time-.dependent functions, provided the Fig. 3. 19 Stress-strain relation aIEl ror homoge neous elongated test specimens at ISO·C and
shear rate is low enough. various constant s train rates £(5- 1) (AO, B6, CO).

Relaxalion 0/slress a/ler cessalion o//Iow al cons Ian I shear rale. A t the cessa tion
offlow with constant shear rate, the relaxation of stress (that is, ofr and N I ) was
determined. The scatter for repeated tests is rather high, especially for long times.
Therefore, definite conclusions concerning the different behaviour for the three
samples A, B, a nd C in this type of n~ lax at.i on test cannot be presented.
I n spite of this difficulty, the following conclusions can be dra wn from the data
obtained. (a) With increasing magnitude of the preceding shear rate -y, the relaxing
) signals for r 3nd N} decay more rapidly. (b) Normal stress differences rcJux more
slowly than shear stresses , as follows from theoretical reasoni ng (Lodge 1964). (c)
Because of the SCGtter Cif the dut a already :rl1entioned, conciu:sions io be urawn CIS
) .oR = In(LA / LR)
) ,-----------,-----------r-----------,-----------.IW
:-J. .:::--:.... "
'"
0­
~
to well-established differences in the relaxation behaviour of A, B, and Care
ra ther Ii mi ted.
ElongGlional behaviour. For homogeneous deformations, large total strains! up
to lOB = In J\ = 4 were achieved [/\ denotes (iength at time t)/( initial length)]. At
any chosen point on the stress-strain diagram, the specimen was cut into short
pieces which shrank from the original length LA, between the scissors performing
the cutting operation, to the length LR, after complete recovery. From the
equation
(3.97)
the recovera ble portion .oR of the total tensile strain E, obtained at the end of
the ex tensional operation, can be calculated (see also Meissner i 971). At low
tensile strain rates, samples A and C were difficult to extend to the maximum
140 total strain .0 = 3, whereas sample B completed this total tensile strain without
~
c.. rupture. Tests with i = 0.001 5- 1 gave rise to thermal stability problems . In

:Z Fig. 3.19 stress-strain relations for the three samples are given for the strain rates
~-400/ £j,' <:: 120 i = 0.01-0.1 - 1 S-I. The temperature of the measurement was 150 °C; it should
be added that, in general, the reproducibility of the results is good (see Meissner
197!), except for sample A at 0.0 I and sample B at i s-!. In Fig. 3. i 9 the upper

~~__~~~-~~~-~__~--~~~~~--~-L--~~~----~--~, ..
,I
10
'" I
10'
,10
I~
and lower limiting curves show the-range in which stress/strain responses were
located in these two cases.
Time (s) From Fig. 3.19 it follows that, for i = 0 .01 and 0.1 S-I, the stress/strain rela­
tions show pronounced differences between the three samples. However, these
) "S\S.~~ A B c
differences start to develop at total strains of .0 > 2, and they are large for E > 3.
Fig.3.18 Time-dependence of shear stress «) and normal stress dirference (N , ) at constant shear
rate "r = I.Os-1 for LOPE at ISO°C. The hatched band s indicate the range for eight specimens of
sam pie A . ; The logarithmic strain measure EH here is the Hencky (1929) strain.
1

I
128 YISCOMETRiC AND ELONGATlONAL FLOWS
In this region of highest total strain, sample A shows the highest tensile stresses a,
whereas Band C show a relative early flattening of the strain-hardening range
of the stress-strain diagram (at It = 0.1 S-I), or a later onset of this strainhar­
dening region (at It = 0.1 S-I). Comparing Band C, it should be noted that
at i = 0.01 5- 1, the curve for B lies between the curves for A and C, whereas, at
It = 0.0 IS-I, Band C have identical stress-strain curves. At i = 1 S-I, however,
no difference can be detected between the samples. The curves for A and C fall
within the error band for sample B. It should be added that, at this tensile rate, not
all tests could be performed up to E = 4 because of rupture of the specimens: for
example, for sample C, three runs gave practically the same stress-strain curve,
with a sudden rupture at E ~ 2.6. Thus, a higher total strain than thi s limit did not
seem to be possible with that sample.
It is notable that the differences in eiongationai behaviour of the samples occur
at E > 2 and that they become mino.r with increasing strain rate i. The recover­
able tensile strain ER for sample A is listed in Table 3.7. Laun and Mtinstedt
(1978) and Wagner et al. (1979) have extended material A to larger strains. In
the latter paper no steady stress state was reached.
Stress-strain relations a(1O) measure at constant tensile strain-rate It at 150 °C
show differences between A, B, and C, but only at large total strains (10 > 2)
and at relatively low strain rates: at i = 0.0! S-I, sampie A has a value 01 stress
o which is rnueh higher (at these !arge tot a l strains) than the v~dne s .for Rand C.
which are nearly equal. At It = 0.1 S- I, the difference between A and B or C
is smaller, and at It = IS-I, the difference is practically zero. In spite of these
Table 3.7 Elastic recovery ER after cessation of
tensile tests at total (logarithmic) tensile strain E
iO[S- I] 10 lOR
OOOi 0.17
2 0.22
3 0.29
0.01 I 0.38
2 0.70
3 1.0
4 1.24
0.1 I 0.64
2 1.2
3 1.66
4 1.88
1 0.83
2 1.62
3 2.12
The tensile leSlS were performed at consta nt tensile strain
rale EO and a temperalure of 150°C. Data for sample A.
3.8 SOME EXPERIMENTAL DATA 129
differences in the stress-strain relations, the recoverable tensile strain values 10R
do not differ markedly between the three samples, even at low strain-rates.
This set of data is most valua ble; the da ta were obtained under practically every )
test condition available at present (except measurement of the temperature
dependence of the non-linear viscoelastic properties which were mainly deter­
mined at 150°C only). The results of the melt rheoiogy measurements are
accurate and reproducible (for one material and the same measurement) within
an order of magnitude of 10 per cent. This is typical considering the very different
types of measurements performed.
For this research programme, the three samples A, B, and C were selected in
such a way that no differences appear in the usual characterization procedure for
,
LDPE products (how(!ver, jjghi scattering tests indicate that samp!e 1-1 has 3 sma!!
portion ofmo!ecules with a vety high molecular weight). Similarly, melt rheology
yields indistinguishable beha vi our for the three samples if:
(a) the deformation is in the linear viscoelastic range, or
(b) the viscosity function (now curve) is measured .
However, there are differences in the processing behaviour of the three samples
which are not reflected by the above-mentioned characterization, and there are
also differences to be found in meit rheology:
(c) In shear flow, these differences are connected with !TIdt eiasticity in the non­
linear viscoelastic range. It is remarkable that the (relative) differences are the
higher the lower is the shear ra te; for example, at 0.1 S-I shear rate, the difference
in NI between samples A and C is about 40 per cent.
(d) In elongational now, differences between A, B, and C occur at large total
strains only, and (as in shear now) are more pronounced at low strain rates .
The conclusion which follows immediately from (a) to (d) is that the behaviour )
in linear viscoelastic flow does not unambiguously reflect the behaviour in non­
linear viscoelastic flow . )
3.8.2 A polymer solution
As a second example, we consider a solution which consisted of 2.5 per cent by
weight polyisobutylene (Mw ~ 1.2 x 10 6 ) dissolved in a solvent of 5i.3 per ceni
polybutene (Mw ~ 950) and 48.7 per cent decalin. Results were given by Ooi and
Sridhar (1994) for this so-called S I test liquid, and Byars et al. (1997) did
extensive data fitting . Other groups were given the fluid, but the samples were not
identical (over 20 per cent differences in zero shear viscosity were recorded at
20°C, probably due to sample evaporation) and so we will refer to the excellent
data of Ooi and Sridhar who conducted shear, oscillatory, and constant strain­
rate elongational tests (Fig. 3.20). It is difficult to measure the steady-state
elongationaJ behaviour here [Fig. 3.20(c)].Tanner and Walters (1998) show
)
 130 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS 3.8 SOME EXPERIMENTAL DATA 131

(a) (b) (p , 149) the immense range ofresuIts for Tl£ when various approximate techniques
and theories are used.
These data were fitted to severa I models by Byars el al. (1997) and we shall refer
) to the data again later. The linear viscoelastic properties as fitted by Byars el al.
(1997) are given in Table 3.8. One can see that the response is not very different in

10~
h
" character frolD the poiymer meit described in the previous section. No results for
~
shear start-up were given but a similar S I sample which did not shear-thin (M!,
c~ see Hudson and Ferguson 1990) showed much more stress overshoot in start-up
c
.". /~~ry of shear than Meissner's IUPAC polyethylene discussed above. Remarkably,
with the SI and M I solutions, the graph of NI versus, is quadratic, NI 00 ,2, and
) "" is practically independent of temperature (Fig. 3.21), This surprising behaviour
was emphasized earlier by Vinogradov and Malkin (1980). (See also Chapter 9 of
)
this book .) The second normal stress difference is discussed below.
) '\1 10- ' 3.8.3 Olher fluid proper/ies
The results discussed above are seen to be typical of molten polymers and con­
, , centrated solutions (there are fewer measurements, except shear viscosity, G' and
0.1 1 I 10- 2
10- 2 10- J 10 10' 10 3 10- 2 10'" 10 10 2 10 3 Gil, for dilute solutions). The book by Bird el ai, (1977) contains results for
"'~., {:;-I)
several polyacrylamide soiutions. f"erry (i 970) shows many resuits for poly­
W i. w (s-')
(e) J05 ,~(d)
isobutyiene solutions, especially for the smail-strain dynamic properties and
f 10'[t '" shear viscosities. Middieman (1))68) also shows some data for polyisobutylene
) .0 e eoc 0 solu tions. Tanner (1973) correia ted da ta for polyisobu tyJenes. Elonga tiona I
10· otl~~V 10' "g'\:>O 00 behaviour is discussed by Stevenson (1972), Petrie (1979), and Meissner (1992),
• I <> ~ a and double-step relaxation experiments were reported by Zapas (1974). Osaki
0 I 0 0
0 0
.... <><> c. 0 v
<> o el ai, (1981) and Wagner and Ehrecke (1998). Laun () 986) developed a rule to
"'v
t -t.. 0 "c 0 0
,~

ri Cl 0
;, o -,j
"'"- e <> .6. 0 ? OCl 0
• nJ
.... <> compute I'll from G ' and Gil; he suggests
103 ~
'v b C; VV

""",J',,"IV 00 0 0
".:jj0 :0,,"00 0

.~
""
f:'
~o .y" 00 0
';;;'
c t
0
.....,00Oo0 0 0 0 NI (w) = 2G'(w)[1 + (G' /G")2]07.
~ 10 2
~ ()
_.~ 00
0
I-
t:::.
[ ".
.,. ()Cto 0
A"lo'lb o 0
.:;:
-;;; o~oOO I~ , "."l\~Bo The reader is referred to the sources for details.
102 ~ ~,"!;go Other systems behave somewhat differently and these will be mentioned from
.g" I-
,,0 dO-I)
o'(S- ') >
time to time. We have in mind dough (see Fig. 1.9) where no steady shear viscosity
'"eo 10
o 1.7 f~ o 1. 7
iii
"
0
" 2.2
o 2. 8 " " 2.2
o 2.8
<0 3.0 " 3.0 Table 3.8 Linear viscoelastic parameters for S i
10
<> 4.5 <> ~.5
: ~g •.. .0
.5 polyisobutyJene solution at 21°C
Mode No. AI (s) Til (Pa - s) gl (= 7)1/AI) (Pa)
0 .1 - L_ _ _ _- L_ _ _ _
L '_ _ _ _ ~ ____ ~ ____ ~

I ~,~~~~~~~~~~-~~~~

o 2 4 5 o 2 4 6 8 I 6.48 4.22 0.651

Time(s) Strain (= Ell 2 0.705 5.06 7.18

Fig. 3.20 Data [0" polyisobutylene solulion Slat 21°C. (a) Steady (ry) and dynamic (ry') shear 3 0.116 3.24 27.9
viscosities. (b) First normal slress difference (N,) and storage modulus (C'). (e) Uniaxial 4 0.0078 1.01 129 .5
extensional stress growth versus time at various stretch rates. (d) As for (c) except abscissa is strain,
Solvent 0.15
i;1 (Ooi and Sridhar 1994).
(See eqn (2. 1U5) for notation].

)
\
;
132 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGAT!ONAL FLOWS 3.9 WALL SLiP 133

10"r- --------=~- '"

Fluid
Table 3.9 N2 ! N J for various fluids
Concentration -Nz/ NI
by weight
Source
•...
N,(Pa) .0'
I Q/o
. Polyox WSR 30t/water 0.075 ± O.O J Keenlok et al. (i 980)
10'
....
'
~

0.7% 0.065 ± O.Oi

., .pi
...' Separan AP-30/water 0.8% 0.1±0.01 Keentok et al. (1980)
4·" 0 0.5% 0.085 ±O.01 5
.A:
~/~
I 0.2% 0.065 ±O.Ol
o 20' C I Oppanoi-B 200 poiyiso­ 1.1 % 0.11 ±0.01 Keentok et af. (1980)
P'~*"
10 2 I>
• 30°C
I I bt.!ty!ene in dek alin

f
0
.
- ~. , • 40°C
~ 50°C I I NBS Nonlineu fluid No.! 7.1% () ')..,.LA (\A
V • .J J.... V.V...,. Kecntok ei u;. (i 980)

~
.:. "
Silicone JOOO cSt (i- ·. IOOS-I)
0±0.2 Keentok (1997)
r . ..­ Silicone 12,500 cSt (i- = 60 S- I)
0.5 ±O. I Keentok (1997)
10 .....' 10
2
Silicone 30,000 cSt (i- = 60 s- I )
0.5±0.1 Keentok (1997)
10'
Shear stress (Pa) Po!yisoprenes
various 0.17-0.30 Lee et al. (1992)
Liquid Ml (i- ~ 20s- l )
0.244% 0.07 Binding et 01. (1990)
Fig. 3.21 Firsl normal slress dirrerenee (N,) verSUS shear Siress (r) ror polyi sobulylene riuid SI <1 1
dirrerenl lemperalures. Dashed line is a quadratic fil 10 the dala (Binding el 01. 1994).
Polyisobutylene(i = 2 S-l )
0.03% ~0.01 Magda et of. (1991)

Polystyrene solutions
var ious 0.28 Magda a nd Baek (1994)

Sheii Barbatia grease

05 Binding et of. (1976)

(")' '" ~ OS- I)

exists, suspensions (Chapter 5) , sort tissues rrom animals (Fung 1993), and liquid Suspensions of spheres 1-0.5 Ohl and Gleissle (1992)

crystals (Kiss and Porter 1978). Generally, s hear-thinning is in evidence; in some La un (1994)

D""l., ,.,, .t.. •. I,.,,_

c;::} ~e5 (dough , for ex~!mp!e), the linear viscoelastic feginle occ upies UIIIY an J V'Y ..... lII Y IL-JJI..
~
0 .24 Meissner (1992)

exceedingly narrow range or strain (of order O.! per cent or less) in contrast to Polystyrene 0.1 Wales (1976)

some polymeri c fluids, where a 10 per cent str<lin may stiii appear linear.
3.9 Waii siip
S econd norma! slI-ess differences
It is nearly always assumed in Newtonian fluid mechanics tha t fluid particles )
We have not discussed the second normal stress dirference, N 2 , in any detail. This stick to a solid surface, thereby driving (or retarding) the flow. However, early
quantity is more difficult to measure than N I, and results are scarce. Keentok workers in the subject did question the point, and Bingham (1922) in his book
(1997) has reviewed much or the data available ror various liquid systems. said (pp. 29-35):
Table 3.9 gives a selection orthe d a ta. In most cases an increase orshcar rate
decreased the value or /Nd NI !, but it is often sufficient, in absence of good data, These results seem to make it quite certain that, whether the liquid wets the soiid or not,
to assume a constant value. Occasionally (Keentok 1997) a positive va lue or there is no measurable difference between the velocity of the solid and the liquid in contact
with it.
Nd iVI can be found; generally, however , NdNI is nega tive, as shown. Often it is
small in magnitude. By 1929, rheoiogists were activeiy considering slip, especially for rubbery
For melts, the optical result of Wales (1976) showed a range or N2/ NI around materials. Mooney (1931), who knew that rubbers did not adhere fully to solid
- O. I for polystyrene . The fluid of Boger (1978) shows a very small N2 value or walls, extended Weissenberg's capillary analysis to include slip , as follows.
the order of I per cent or less of N I . (It also shows a remarkably constant shear Suppose we return to eqn (3.67) and integrate by parts, finding, if slip does
viscosity over a wide range of shear rates, and has been used in experiments to not vanish at the wall
separate shear-thinning from elastic effects .)
dw
l
R
In summary, we shall often a ss ume tha t Nd NI is nega tive and fairly small for Q = 7fw(R)R2 - 7f ?- dr, (3.67c)
polymer melts and solutions; this is not necessarily the case for other systems. o dr
 134 VI SCO METRIC AND E LON GAT JO NAL FLOWS 3.9 WALL SLIP 13 5

100
or, with q = Q/7rR 3 , we find
T•.
4Qbr R3(s- ') J J,
R .L• , - 3 Jf , 3A,1 ~ ) .-1_

"~

/>
"1
-
-
\, , (
V
71) I
,6 'JI .. \1,' '1/ \ " ) u (.. ,
(3 .67d )
.0

where w(R) is the slip velocity. Clearly, slip increa ses the discharge, other things
being equal.
Early ideas made w(R) a lin ea r function of T w (Navier's wall condition), but
)
while this ma y be a useful model for those cases where a distinct film of solvent
appears next to the wall , due perhaps to a lubrica nt, it appears that in man y cases
there is a n onset stress at whi ch slip suddenly begins, a nd the relati o n between T w
and w(R) is not linear. 10- 1
Following M ooney (1931) we assu me that th e slip speed !V( R) =/3Tw, where /3,
the slip coefrici ent, may also be a function of Tw. Then (3 .67d ) becomes

,: :~

q = /3Tw /R + T;;;31 " ,3 ¢ dr. (3 .67e)

Mooney (1931) sugges ted plotting q aga inst Tw for variou s capillary radii-if
they coincide, then no slip is occuring, but if the y do no t, one can plo t q against
1/ R for constant Tw , find [Bq / B( I / R )]'=conSl and he nce find /3Tw as a function of
Tw. This is clearly a difficult procedure, bu t the ana lys is has been used
(Hatzikiriakos and Dealy 1992)
That s lip does occur suddenl y is s hown in the capillary result s of Vinogradov
e l al. (1 972) shown in Fig. 3.22. Th ese res ults suggest that slip begins at a wall
shear stress of about 0.2 MPa , with a conseq uentjumr in discharge rate. While it
is commonplace to see slip in pla stic flow of meta ls and in the fl o w of powders,
the slip o f fluids is less casy to beIjeve jn spiLe of the in iel't::, iing eariy wo rk by
Mooney (1931 ).
However, Migl er e l al. (1993) mea sured directl y the local speed of a sheared
polymer melt within 10- 4 mm from the solid surface . They reported th a t in the
abse nce of stron g pol yme r a d sorpti o n, poiydim eth ylsiioxa nes slip at a ll shear
stresses, no matt er how sma ll. For strong chain adso rption there seems to be a
critical shear stress at which a tran si tion from a weak to a strong slip ta kes place.
} These seem to be the first direct, as opposed to inferred , measu rements of slip .
One ca n di stingui sh seve ra l possibilities co ncerning slip:
(i) In solutions , it is clear that the presence of a solid wa ll ma y alter the con­
centration of solute near th e wall, thereby inducing a low-viscosity layer and
apparent slip . In this case, the solvent does not slip at the wa ll. Thi s possibility
is discussed in detail in the recent survey of Barnes (1995); see also Buscall
) el al. (1993) for a n exa mple in vo lving colloids .
(ii) In a molten polymer, the wall will a lter the configuration space ava ilable to
molecules near the wall, eve n if slip does not occur, thereby altering the
ma teri al beh aviour nex t to the wa ll.
'\
(iii) Slip may occur, separately from o r in additi o n to (ii) a bove
!
10) 10· 10 5
Tw (Pa)
Fig. 3.22 Plols of volume ra lC o f flow ve rs us pressure (waH shea r strcss) for polyiso prc nes
ex truded fr o m a capi llary of rad iu s 0. 48 m m and Icn glh 24.8 mOl . Each cu rve corres pond s 10 a
diffe re nt polymer. N Ole Ihe jump in Q at Mound Tw = O.1 MPa. IAft e r Vinn g r~ dov e! aI. !972 .)
Effect (i) is rela tively well understood and need not be di scussed further.
Effect (ii) must certainly occur, bu t so far only simula tions can delect it and the
altered laye r seems generally not to penetra te far into the bulk material.
In conn ection with effect (iii), Pea rson and Petrie( 1968) made a basic con­
tribution to the SUbject , a lth o ugh th e work was not widely noticed, and the
subject langui shed until Ramamurlh y (1986) showcd, unequi voca lly, th a t rea l
slip can occur in ex trusion .
Pearson and Petrie (1968) con side r the length scales involved near the wall,
nomina ting L as the sca le of the apparatus, (for example, a diame ter), e as the
scale of the roughness on the surface of the apparatus, and ep as the sca ie of the
microstructural entities making up the fluid . It is the relative scales of these
lengths, they said, th a t determines, to a large extent, the boundary conditions. In
the va ri o us cases:
I. L » e» ep is the typica l condition for small-molec ule fluid s (water, light
oi ls). In this case the small sca le of the asperities mea ns th a t any fl ow over them
is at ve ry low Reynolds number, and viscous forces domin a te nea r the
bo undary. Here, ihe a rgument of Richard son (1971) shows th a t actu al
!36 V!SCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS 3.9 WALL SLIP J37

10~U~====-----==r---------.----------~
adhesion to the waIl is not necessary in order to see, on the gross scale (L), an
apparent no-slip condition, even if slip occurs on the I!p scale . ° T = 145 °C
o T = 160°C

2. L» I!p » I!. This condition is typical ofcoarse powders in smooth containers, '" T=180°C

where slip at the waIl is often seen. o T = 200°C

l
3. L» I! "'" I!p. This is often the case for large molecule fluids near smooth waIls,
and the question of slip may weIl depend on chemical and/ or mechanical -?
~
adhesion, in contrast to the cases above. ~

In summary, with the benefit of both theoretical and experimental interest , we

iJ.
can now conclude that at least three factors are of importance: 1
(i) The ?earson-relrit !jt;aiillg dl'gurutjJi rneans that no effective slip Cali occur ~ / ~ J
when molecular size is smaller than the wall roughness scale. This really
explains all the classical evidence on liquids (and non-rarefied gases) and
0.11
0.08
0 0.1
_0 R~sin 56B/3830
0.t5
I
0.2
shows that a no-slip condition is appropriate in these cases; chemical Tw (MPa)
adhesion is not needed to avoid slip; see also recent work by Sarkar and
Fig. 3.23 Slip velocily as ~ fundion of wail shear stress on a log- log plol to show power-law for

Prosperetli (1996). slip velocity (Courtesy Dr S. Halzikiriakos, University of British Columbia).

(ii) For large molecules (relative to the wall roughness scale), the temperature
and adherence (chemical) properties may be of great significance in setting
the critical shear stress at which slipping occ urs mode!!ed using a trunca!ed power-!a'.v expression, possibly n!so VJith a pressure

(iii) j..Jonnal pressure rnay assist !n redlicing slip. fa ctor. Person and Dcnn (! 997) used the form

W e have discussed the wall slip situation as if s lip uniformly appears every­ = a r::: exp (- fJp)
J
IllS (Tw > Te)

where. In fRct, since the willi shea r stresses (Ire non-uniform at inlet and exit, it is iVs; =0 1- ,.- _ \ (3.98)

likely that slip will begin at these points before the constant stress region begins to
slip (Phan··Thien !988; Tanner! 994). Thus the idea of partial slip arises. Further ,
since there is now e'!idence (Denn 1992; Hatzikiri akos and Dealy 1991) that the
normal force on the wall is a factor in slip, the ma Iter is clearly not very simple. An
example which takes account of these factors is given below .
Some idea of the magnitudes of slip speed is shown in Fig. 3.23. The onset of
slip is often in the region of Tw = 0.1 -0.2 MPa , and beyond that a power-law fit
has often been used (Hatzikiriakos and Dealy 1991). Slip speeds of 10-20 mm/s
were quoted by these workers for Tw = 0.3 MPa using high-density polyethylene
(HDPE). Figure 3.23 shows data obtained with a sliding plate viscometer
(Hatzikiriakos and Dea ly 1991) showing an onset of slip at about 0.1 MPa in
HDPE . These workers also showed that siip was affected by surface trea tment
with chemicals (mainly fiuoropoiymers), confirming Ramamurihy 's (1986)
result. Further, Hatzikiriakos (1993) states that the slip speed is a function of
temperature, pressure and various molecular parameters. In addition, one also
has the wall condition (additives, roughness) and the shear stress. According to
\ LW ...:::::: te)­
Here Te is thc onset (or critical ) strcss, a, m, and fJ are constants, and p is the
pressure. Estimates of t3 vary qu:te \videly, (rom! 0- 1 -- 10- 2 Cr-~1Pa) -I for the same
Linear Low Density Polyethylene (LLDPE).
Figure 323 shows some data for high density polyethylene (HDPE) obtained
)
by Hatzikiriakos and Dealy (i99i) ; they show a critical shear stress of about
0.1 MPa and the temperature effect is evident. In this case, using a sliding plate
viscometer, pressure effects were essentially zero. Hatzikiriakos (1993) fitted data
for LLDPE with a = 7 (MPa) - 4 m/s and m = 4. One sees that an abrupt drop to
zero slip is required at Tw so Hatzikiriakos (1993) used a modified Eyring rate
theory (see Glasstone er af. 1941) to avoid thi s step change. He proposed a slip
speed of the form
Ws = f( T) sinh [~e: -I) J. (3.99)

this paper, slip velocity increases with temperature, molecular weight, and shear Thus, the onset stress is the point of rapid slip increase here; no slip occurs if
st ress. Slip decreases with increased polydispersity and pressure. Many of these Tw < re.
factors can be understood in the light of the Pearson-Petrie arguments given The exact values of the function f and the constant b depend on polymer
above, relating the relative sizes of roughnesses and molecules. Slip speed is often properties, notably molecular weight. In this formula the critical stress is related
 I~
JJ8 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS
/ ·.·. ·f lt~ ' 139

t,~o/1f
"­
Table 3.10 Critical wall shear stresses for mono­ ~
disperse polyethylenes [from Hatzikiriakos (1993))
{
"
~

5­
k
Polymer Type Mw Tc(MPa) r: .f- ['
~.

56B HDPE 178,000 0.090 " t 'c

't.t. ~p=-rw
'r {;-I ' ~ c>.
60% 56B
20% 56B
2910
HDPE
HDPE
HDPE
129,000
80,000
56,000
0.120
0.1 50
0.180
<. ,'-i
I,..
. ....' ~c ..
t--.J."
'1;

t- f l . .•. . .) ~·
/ :,.- ;, ~ :
.

fI1­
.
[": t
{ >' G,
~z
GRSNj7047 LLDPE 114,000 0.100 r ;;- 'c.,
f
f ' ~
L.: ' ':'"
i>' t '.
1 (:'"
't ,<' ~
. ; ". ; f
L :' "' . '. r.{ t.
F
-----L t, C:
to the work of <ldhesion (Wa), which is a function of surface properties, and b - ~ f. ~ Stick

is propo rtional t o Wa. Thc scarch for mechanisms of slip 'continues; see also "­
Slip
"­ ,
Wanget al. (1996).
'\ Some values of the critical shear stress TC arc given in Table 3.10: they are all
of order O.! MPa.
----·h,acto'iti,o,rr-r\Ylh-e--ab~teaay-st ate sDplhere appea rs to 15e a tlme­
dependence of slip, so tha t a given stress applied for a very long time will cause slip
<I t a lower critical stress than a sharp pulse will. Also, it is well known that extra Stick Slip

) roughness can inhibit slip . For polyvinyl chlori de (PVC) thi s effect has been Fig. 3.24 Uhland's slip analysis.
studied by Kn<lppe and Krumhock (1986) .
Work continues in this area; however, it is clear that one cannot ignore slip
when high shear stresses (~O.I MPa or greatcr) exi st in fluid s or soft solids; for
)
other system s (rubber, granular material s) slip is also important. and
Finally, one need~ to consider the effect of ' failure' within the fluid or at the
fluid-solid irHerf[!ces 3r:d some (~;scu ssk, iJ is pro"v'ided iiJ Section 9.2.1. 2'1
) ' w= J-LPL exp ~ (L - z), (3.102)
J Example: Uhland's analysis of :;/ip
\ In this example the wall shear stress is not constant along the tube, and it is easy
In this analysis (Uhland 1976) it is assumcd that the shear stress on the wall is
) to see that ifno slip occurs for a large enough pressure, then this model often gives
related to the normal stress as it is in the Amontons-Coulomb friction law:
partial slip. Figure 3.24 gives a sketch of some results. Michaeli (1992) discusses
Tw = PJ-L, computations of velocity profiles with this analysis. However, this analysis is
clearly not of universal applicability, since at z = L, it is necessary to have non­
where {L is a friction coefficient and p is the local pressure , equal to the normal zero pressure in order to maintain a shear stress at exit. Since this is not always the
) stress at the walL If the local pressure gradient in the (circular) tube is + dp/dz, case it is clear that this simple model is not adequate to describe slip. A serious
then ('w is a positive magnitude, +dp/dz is negative) problem thus arises in numerical analysis, since the question of slip (or no-slip)
relates to boundary conditions on the flow problem. We shall return to these

'w - -_~I'dPI
2 dz = {W , (3.! 00) questions in Chapter 8.

3.10 Summary
and one ca n in tegra te to find the pressure. ] f the en try pressure is Po (z = 0), and
the exit pressure is assumed to be pdz = L) , then There is now a broad agreement on the type of response common to polymer
melts and concentrated solutions, even though it is sometimes difficult to find
2J-L accurate results for a given substance in the literature . One sees clearly the pro­
P = PLexp-(L
R - z) . (3.10 I)
blems of obtaining accurate data, and the accuracy which can be expected, from

)
)
142 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS PROBLEMS 143

Ramamurthy, A. Y. (1986). 1. Rheol., 30, 337. t. Fluid

Richardson, S. (1971). 1. Fluid Mech ., 59, 707.
Russell, R. J. (1946). Ph.D. Thesis, University of London.
Sarkar, K. and Prosperetli. A. (1996). J. Fluid Mech ., 316, 223.
Savins, J. G. and Metzner, A . B. (1970) . Rheol. Acra, 9, 365. L I "., I I V B
Stevenson, J. F. (J972). Am. In.H. Chem. Engrs. J., 18, 540.
Tanner, R . 1. (1973). Trans . Soc. Rheo!., 17, 365.
Tanner, R. I. (1994). Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 33, 2434.
Tanner, R. I. and Waiters , K. (1998). Rheology: an hisrorical perspec/ive, Elsevier,
w,F
Amsterdam.
Tanner, R. I. and Williams, G. (1970). Trans . Soc. Rheol., 14, 19. Fig. 3.25 Problem 5.
Tanner, R. 1. and Williams, G . (1971). Rheol. A Cia, 10,528.
Trouton~ F. T. (906). Proc. R. Soc., A 7i, 426.
Uhland, E. (1976). Rheol. Acra, 15, 30. (a) a po~wel~:aw fluid ieqn (L i 1)]
Yinogradov, G. Y., Malkin , A. Ya., Yanovskii, Yu. , G. , Borisenkova, E. K., Yarlykov, (b) a Bingham body [eqn (I.9)J.
B. Y , and Berezhnaya, G. Y. (1972). 1. Polymer Sci., A-2, iO, I06i.
Wagner, M. H. and Ehrecke, P. (1998). 1. Non-Newronian Fluid Mech., 76, 183. 6. In a cone-plate flow assume the velocity field changes in a linear fashion across the
Wagner, M . H. , Raible, I. , and Meissner J. (1979) . Rheo/. Acra, 18, 427. gap. Compute an approximate correction for nuid inertia by averaging the inertia forces
Wales, J. L. S. (\976). The applica/ion of flow birefringence /0 rheological srudies of across the gap. Show that this procedure gives the value c = ~ in eqn. (3.89).
polymer mel/s. Delft University Press.
Walters, K. (\975). Rheome/ry. Chapman & Hall, London. 7. Find the response of a linear Maxwell f1uid (eqn 2.81 and 2.105) to the sudden start
Waiters, K . (1984). Proc. IX In II. Congr. Rheology, Mexico, 1, 3!. and stop of shearing, and also the response to a double step of shear (Fig. 4.10). Neglect
Wang, S.-Q., Drda, P. H. and Inn , Y.-W. (1996). Rheol., 40,8 75 . inertia.
Yin, W . L. and Pipkin, A. C. (1970). Ard1s. rarion. Mech. Anal., 37, Ill.
8. Compute the average instantaneous incrtia forces in the elongational flow of a

I
Z apas , L. j. (i974). in Deformalion and fracrure oj high polymers (ed. H . Kausch),
p. 38 1. Pl enum Press. Ne\V York .
cylinder of rad!lls R and length L !.JIl(.lergoing a steady extensionai flow of rate i; by finding
the mean pressure due to inertia on the ends x = ±L/2

9. A purely viscous non-Newtonian fluid is inelastic, but can under some circumstance~
Problems show 'elastic' behaviour. Suppose a sample of a 'power-law' fluid is contained between

I. Consider the now between two large parallel planes, z = ±h. Suppose the upper plane
moves at a speed U il) the x- direction ; a nd the lower moves at a speed U in the opposite
direction. A l'r~ssure gradient G(=. -8pj8y) exists III the y direction. Suppose the space
beiween the planes is filled with a 'power-law' nuid so that in simple shearing
I two plates distance h apart, moving relative to one another at a speed {hio + ,;:wsinw/},
1] = k I 1- 1- 2/3
Formulate an expression for the nuidity <p . Using this and knowledge of the shear stresses
r.n , 'y" compute the velocity field in terms of the shear stress r .u (:= ,) and G. Also find the
rate of now pcr unit width (Q) in the y-direction .
2. Reconsider the problem whcn the viscosity function is the same but one uses the fuii
viscometric equation (3.22) with w. = a. 1.y 1- 4/ 3 , W2 = a2 1.y 1- 413 . Find the stress
ano pressure iieids. Assume a, and U2 are constants.
3. Show that the flow v = c(O/Bo)k (in r, 0, z coordinates) is a completely controllable
now between two inclined planes . Find the stress field and the stresses on the planes.
4. Consider a CoueHe now. Show that in a Reiner-Rivlin fluid (w. = 0 in eqn (3.24» a
Weissenberg rod-climbing effect may occur if W2 > O. Include inertia in the problem.
so that we have superposed simple and sinusoidal shearing. Ignoring fluid inertia, compute
the she~r stress on the plates. Wr~!e the respor.:se i~ ~ pc\vcr series in the srnaH pi:trameier
~: r = TO + CT. + ,;:2'2 + ... Using the first order terms in stress and strain only find
the values of G' and Gil for the fluid. Use the second-order terms in £2 to find the new
'steady-state' viscosity.
10. Work out the velocity, pressure and stress fields in an annulus through which a
second-order nuid (1], WI and W2 constant) is flowing. Assume the inner tube is half the )
radius of the ollter tube.
II. Suppose that the boundary condition al the wall of a circular tube is the Navier
condition. ')
w(R) = (3,w,
where (3 is a constant, w(R) is the slip spced at the wall and rw is the wall shear stress. If
the fluid is Newtonian, with a true, but unknown, viscosity 1)0, show that the material
appears to have a viscosity of 'TIo/( I + (31]0/ R). How could you find 1)0 and (3?

5. Consider the Pochettino viscometer (Fig. 3.25) which consists ofa solid cylinder A of
radius R, sliding axially inside a concentric fixed cylinder B of radius Ro. Find the relation
between the speed w of A and the force F on it for the following viscosity laws.
)
) 4
CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES AND
It is easily shown that eqn (4. 1) is objective (see Section 2.5) . An alternative
EXPERIMENTAL DATA
approa ch which does n o t assume that Ii; can be developed in a series form is
INTH£ previous two chapters we examined the behaviour of materials in various
simple {lows-at small strains, viscometric {lows and dongational nows, both
steady and transient. In some cases (for example, steady viscometric flows) we
were able to derive some results in special classes of {lows (for example, visco­
metric (lows) without the need for an explicit general constitutive equation
connecting stress and deformation. Note that eqn (3.20) is not a constitutive
equation; it is a restatement of the known stress fieid. In many cases, however,
one is forced to assume a constitutive equation and the question of how one
arrives at such a descriptor for general {lows needs to be considered.
Two types of approach have been widely used: one based on continuum
n-~ech3nics, and one based on iTliCfostruclUraJ iuea s. We wiii consider the fonner
in this chapter and the latter in the next.
When a constitutive relation is proposed , it is appropriate to find o ut what it
predicts in various simple {low classes, and in particular to note behaviour which
it cannot describe . So far we have discussed the Boltzmann linear viscoelastic
constitutive relation (eqn 2.8 1) which is completely sllccessful for small strains,
)
and now we consider other, non-linear equations.
..
~
4.1 Reiner- Rjvlin and purely viscous Iluids
A natural generalization of the Navier--Stokes nuid (eqn 2.69) is to permit the
stresses to depend in a non-linear way on the rate of deforma tion ; sys tematic
observations o f viscosity changes with shear rate go back at least to Schwedoff
(1890) . Considera bie work continued over the next forty years until Hohenemser
and Prager (1932) showed how to write th e viscosity as a function of the
) invariants of the ra te of deformation tensor. Finally, Reiner (1945) and Rivlin
(1948) considered the general concept of stress in an incompressible body as a
function o f the rate of deformation tensor. They showed that if the extra s tress
tensor ai) + po,A= Ti) is a n isotropic function of the rate-of-deformation tensor
(d,) only, then it follows that
aij = -pOij + 2'T}dU + 4'I12d;k dk), (4.1 )
where'T} and W2 are functions of the second a nd third inva riants of dij, see eqns
(2.10-2 . 11) for the definition of these invariants. (The first invariant of du is
zero for incompressible materials.) The form (4 . J) ca n be deduced readily jf it
)
...
4 . 1 REINER-RIVLlN AND PURELY VISCOUS FLUIDS 145
is supposed that
au = - po,) + /;)(dij}, (4.2)
whereJi) can be expanded in a series of powers of dij. Successive applications of
(2.13c) and (2.13d) remove all higher powers of du, leaving the result (4. I).
given by Leigh (i 968), who aiso gives a more general treatment showing that
neither the velocity nor the vorticity can be included as independent variables in
a constitutive equation that is objective .
In equation (4.1) the quantities 'T} and 1]12 are functions of the invariants of d u.
The first invariant fd= d;; is zero for the incompressible fluids being considered.
The third invariant (det d u) is zero in plane {lows. Ifwe consider a simple (plane)
shearing {low where v = iyi, say, then the only non-zero components of du are
dxy = dy x = ~ i. The second invariant nd is just -1,2/ 4. Hence, it is convenient to
consider, for all nows, that the equivalent (positive) shear rate is defined as
i = 2} - lld = J2dud;;. (4.3)
F o r ex ample, in an elonga tional flow , where d xx = i , dyy = d zz = - i I 2, and
the other compGnent~ eire ze ro , the second io variC:!nt TId is -3i 2 /4, and so the
equivalent shear rate is i = -/3i.. (In this flow the third invariant is non-zero and
is equal to i.3/4.) Thus one can replace the dependence on nd by a dependence
on i, and vice versa .
Returnin g to the Reincr-Rivlin fluid modei (4.1), computation of the
respunse (4. i) in simpie shearing (v = iyi) shows that
(a) the shear stress component can be modelled exactly because 'T} is an arbitrary
function of i.
(b) N 2 , (= Oyy - azJ can be modelled exactly as 1]1 2 is an arbitrary function ofi;
(c) NI = O. This is contrary to experimental evidence (Fig. 3.3).
Because of the failure to model the dominant normal stress difference, it is
not possible to use this equation in any {low where this factor is important. It is
also not a realistic description of the transient response of polymer fluids since
when motion ceases tu immediately vanis hes which is contrary to observation .
In fact, the only flow which is described accurately by this equation is a steady
eiongational flow . It is nevertheless oftell used when the flow is dominated by a
variable viscosity. The function 1]12 is then usually set equal to zero and the
viscosity taken as a function of the second invariant of du only. One is then back
to a simple non-Newtonian {luid , often called a generalized Newtonian fluid,
in which the viscosity varies with the shear rate. The only {lows of polymer nuids
which are strictly suitable for modellin g in this way are those which are very
close to steady viscometric; for fluids where elastic effects are minimal it is more
 146 CONTiNUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4.2 MATERIALS WITH /\ Y1ELD STRESS i47

generally useful. It would be futile to attempt to catalogue all solutions to flow (a) loJ
problems which use this limited and atypical model of fluid behaviour. Most
often the viscosity function is described by a 'power-law' behaviour; for a
selection of the literature see Truesdell and Noll (1965), p. 479, and the book by
Bird et al. (1977), Chapter 5. Many solutions can be generated for the 'power-law'
case where

Oij = - POii. + 2kIII d l(n-I) / 2,J .. (4.4) '"

Q..
C. i02 )
-lj
!
and k and n are constants. In this case there is no characteristic time in the con­ )
stitutive n~ode! and it is possible to look for sinlilarity solutions of the equations.
The creeping flow into a cone where streamlin~s are srrilight is !lJ1 example of a I I

J __ .
similarity solution. However, it must be reiterated that the inelastic fluid model
often omits important phenomena, and hence it is not reasonable to devote great
efforts to the analytical solution of this system of equations. Numerical solution
is readily available if required using several commercially available codes, and 10 10' loJ
eqn (4.4) is frequently used in practice. Some examples of solutions are given in r.. (s-')
Chapter 8. Fig.4.I(a) Shear stress-shear strain-rate Curve for a propellant dough. 0 Experimental points;
The techniques used in Chapter I for deriving the many purely viscous models + Herschel- B\llkley fit.
can be extended to three-dimension;!\ flows; !In interesting attempt to analyse
shear and elongational behaviour using a Reiner-Riviin modei has been given by
D e bbaut and Crochet (! 988). Except fo r occasionai problems jo securing
I
numerical convergence in extreme shear-thinning cases, the solution of purely
viscous fluid flows is now essentially routine. I (b) f

.,.
~
4.2 Materials with a yield stress
Many materials appear to show a yield stress . In them no detectable flow arises
until the local stresses exceed a critical vaiue. Some authors have denied that a
I il

~
'"
Bingham
l· true yield stress exists , but here we take the view that such a model is often of
..CI
en
_ -
_ ____ - :r -
1).
(b)
H-B
(a)
great utility. We have already mentioned several such models in Section 1.5.1 in
a one-dimensional context.
Ty
.1 ~
R ~____________ R-P
Although the Bingham body and its power-law extension, the Herschei­ (c)
Ty
Bulkley body, (Fig. 4.1) have been used since the 1920s t.o model some non­
Newtonian behaviour, it is only recently that effective computational methods I .
have become availa ble to solve ihe resuiting flow problems. Figure 4. i (a) shows

K~

the fit to a propellant dough; Fig. 4. j (0) shows the relation between the rigid­
plastic , Bingham, and Herschel- Bl!lk!ey models on a linear plot of shear rate. The
steep TJo curve is part of the bi-viscosity model, discussed below.
The advent of constant-stress rheometers has made it possible to scrutinize the
behaviour of materials at very low shear rates, and this has led some writers o "Ie 2 4 6 8 10 i'
(Barnes and Walters 1985; Barnes 1992), to doubt, in large measure, that true a Fig. 4.1(b) i , '" are on a linear scale (aJ Herschel- Bulkley (H--B) model.,. = 5 + 0.5io s , full line.

yield stress exists in many soft materials. The point made by Barnes and Walters (b) Bingham model r = 5 + 0.2i, dashed line. (c) Rigid plaslic (R-P) model, yield stress .,.; - _ _ _

is that while a yield stress Cry) may be extrapolated to i = 0 from a finite shear . The bi-viscosity models (with 1)0 = 5) are also sketched; at it there is a switch from stiff, Newtonian

rate (Figs 4.2(a-c)] measurements closer to i = 0 may show just a variable behaviour to Bingham or H-B curveS.

148 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4.2 MATERIALS WITH A YIELD STRESS 149

viscosity behaviour, and no yield stress will be seen [Fig. 4.2(d»). Barnes (1992) (e)
did later modify this view to admit that a true yield stress (with possible elastic
beha viour up to the yield point) may exist in certain concentrated suspensions. e::.'"
) Thus a variety of models is possible, as shown in Fig. 4.1, and in those models with '"'"
a true yield stress (Ty) one often assumes an elastic, viscoelastic, or rigid behaviour ~
forT< T y .
Provided one is not concerned with exceedingly low shear rates, the bi-viscosi ty
"'"
.c
(/)

modeis a nd the Bingham and Herschel- Bulkley models will give very similar
results in simple nows, for example, Poiseuille now (Fig. 4.3). A similar dilemma
occurs in metal now: we often think of elastic and plastic behaviour, but often a
) small amount of creep occurs, which is usually ignored except at higher tem­
peratures . Creep also occurs in soft materials (Fig. 4.4) often indicating visco­ I ()_4
IV 10­ 2
elastic behaviour before yield. In the bi-viscosity models, some (vis'cous) creep
Shear rale (5 - 1)

(a)

f 'OO[
/

(d) " Newtonian

r // behaviour

~
• JO /
/
/
;;;
~
I
I
e; I /
/
/

~.cr-
) ~ 100 r ~ /

I
"'"
..c:
(/)

)
- __ _ T" = 9.5Pa
o I 40 80 120 160 0.1 ~I~/L- __________L -_ __ _______- L____________~

Shear ra;e (s . ,) 10- 4 10- 3 10- '

Shear rale (5 - ' )

14 Fig. 4. 2( c-<I)
(b)
Fig. 4.2 Barnes and Walters's res ult, (1985) showing lhe problems of defining ty for a PVA latex
sample . As th e shear rale is progressively reduced, Ihe yield stress reduces, and finally vanishes for
~ 10 Ihis sa mple.
~

~....
~
occurs at all stress levels. Provided the zero-shear viscosity (T}o in Fig. 4. !(b»
..c: 6 is high enough, so that the creep rates at stresses near Ty are negligible, one might
Vl
r ---- T) = 5 0 Pa
well decide to consider certain regions in the flow as effectively rigid. This means
that rates of deformation (or rates of shear) less than Ty/T}O are assumed to be
'rigid' regions. Some care is evidently needed in using this concept for the bi­
) 2l viscosity model where maximum stresses are not far from T y , and we shall discuss
o
- - - ' -­
4 6 this later. Usually, T}o is set to about 104 times other characteristic viscosities in
) the system.
Shear rale (5- 1)
In addition to the models given above, a cruder model still is the rigid-plastic
Fig. 4.2(a-b) model of material behaviour, Fig. 4.1 (b). In this model the shear stress does not
)
 150 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4.2 MATERIALS WITH A YIELD STRESS 15!

,'T' 8
observatio~:r:~Od
Pya

~I
. 7")'=12

ry=r3l
Short T,

'"
"­ .§
.
I I
. I
~
.~

~
10 2
~ I J
:> ti I I I I
I ~-----l-----F 3
--:::::+I
.~
1''''0
! ~ I 1'",0 I I V
~r i:C-l---T'
I' ,-­

t~O :~oo ~:
5 3 3
10- 10- 0.1 10
10
Shear rale l' (S-I)
I :
0.5% Carbopol 934 )
.;, 105
e:.
>. Time
~
0 10 4

"',
~ Fig. 4.4 From Cheng (1986) s howing lhe apparent time-dependen ce of"f r H!!d sampl~ (:!"('('p. The
;;
io
,1
I
I viscoe !~stic rcsponsc before yidding is evjdent. J

10'
10- 7 10- 5 10-'
I assumes that yield occurs via a von Mises type of yield criterion. We suppose

the yield stress in s!mple shear is Y y , ns above. The extra (or devi3toric) stress r

I
10 in the cases considered is defined by
Shear rale l' (s-')
I F:t;. 1.3 B3r~ es 2.~d \Vu~!C;·s·s
(1985) n:su!ts s.howing ihe 5U"jct Hon-existence of yk;ld siless [oJ PYA
T = pI + u, (4 .5)

\• lalex and Carbopal samples . The dOlled lines show biviscosily Herschel-Bulkley filS; rio and power­
law slopes, or - 0.78 "nd -0.87 respecli vely , arc eviden!.
where u is the total stress tensor, p is the pressure and I is the unit tensor. In the
case of incompressible inelastic flow, the pressure p is given by
)
i
I f

vary with shear rate, and the stress r;

is chosen to give a best fit over rates of p= -'3Wxx+<7yy+uzz). (4.6)
shear of interest. The model is most useful when small ra tes of shear are of
interest, so that r: and , y are not far apart. There is a vast literature on rigid­ The criterion of yield is then some function of J 2 and h, the second and third
plastic flow (for exam pie, HiD 1950; Chakrabarty 1987) and sometimes one can invariants of T respectiveiy. There is a considerable literature on metal yield,
use these ideas in a rheological contexl. In addition, the elastic-plastic model, an but rheologists have effectively always used the von Mises criterion
)
improvement on the rigid-plastic case, has an elastic component for small strains,
with stresses not exceeding 'y- Another, purely viscous, approach is that of h = ,2 = _I y2 (4.7)
Pa panastasiou (1987), where a very smooth viscous stress-strain ra te function is Y 3
assumed. We refer the reader to the literature for details and further discussion; as the criterion of yield, in the absence of any other information. h can be
in this case unyielded regions are often not well defined. written in various forms; in Cartesian components we get
So far we have only considered one-dimensional rheology. The generalization
to three dimensions (we will only consider the isotropic incompressible case, 1 I 2
h=2'ij'ij='3 Y ' (4.8)
implying a Poisson's ratio of 0.5 in any elastic region) is immediate, provided one
)
)
152 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4.2 MATERiALS WITH A YIELD STRESS 153

In eqn (4.7), Y is the yield stress in simple tension, Ty is the yield stress in shear,
as before. No sufficiently accurate tests seem to be available to comment on
the applicability of eqn (4.8) to most soft materials.
Besides the yield criterion, a flow rule is needed. For plasticity the ory,
)
neglecting elastic strains, the rule is
dij = >-TI)" ( 4.9)
where), is a rate parameter, to be found as part of the solution; it is not a material
pro perty. For the Bingham body, we have (Chakrabarty 1987)
) yield begins there, mo v i!1g !!1wards. (A similar argument for a punch penetrating
d IJ = 0 i.}- -:"
\ 2 .....
rl)
. yl
a block is given by Chakrabarty (1987) in the elastic-plastic case, where yielding
(4. 10)
T I)" = 2 L(T"i + 1)p } dij 2
( TY > h)
where i = J2dl)"dij, the equivalent shear rate we have defined in eqn (4.3). Hence
near the yield point where the term 21)pdij is small, the Bingham and rigid-plastic
materials behave similarly [Fig. 4.I(b)]. The extension to Herschel- Bulkley
behaviour follows. It is to be understood that in all cases a value of T)' (or T~) is
to be chosen w lhai an appropriate range of shear is covered. The various
bi-viscosity fluid s also have similar constitutive laws: in this case one can write
the eq uivalenl of eqn (4. 10) as
Tij = 21)(h)dij (h > T;), (4.1 I )
) Wilson (1993a) considered the squeeze-film flow , genera!!y agreed with Lips­
where the effective viscosity is a function of h: for small strain r;ttes T} = 170. 1!1
discussion of the bi-viscosity model, one refers to unyieldetl regions as being
1 these regions where h < T;;
the rates of defonnatio!1 in these regions will be
small, of order T),/rJO, as absolute rigidity is not expected here. In the Bingham
body and similar cases, truly rigid unyielded regions can exist. We now consider
these unyielded regions.
4.2. J Rigid regions in jlolVs with yield Slress
Lipscomb and Denn (1984) said that ' Bingham fluids cannot contain yield sur­
faces (thai is, rigid areas) in complex confined geometries like those used in
molding and lubrication. Rather, yielding and flow must occur everywhere,
) although shear-free plug regions may sometimes be approximated'. While they
had the rectification of certain common errors in mind in the paper, nota bly the
erroneous depiction of unyielded zones found from classical lubrication type
theory in squeeze-film flow (Chapter 6), it is believed that the a bove statement
is too sweeping (O'Donovan and Tanner 1984). The authors recognized the
necessity for continuity in the Bingham velocity field, which gives some con­
straints on kinematics. The plastic Bingham viscosity (17p) serves to diffuse the
sharp slip surface of rigid-plastic theory without altering greatly the general
nature of the flow, so one may expect some general guidance from plasticity
theory in the Bingham case. Lipscomb and Denn pointed out, in different
language, that rigid regions may occur in :lows where the stress field is known
(statically determined problems); for example, in Poiseuille flow. Their analysis
of flow commencement in a Bingham squeeze-film flow is, however, incorrect.
There is generally no detenninate stress state in a rigid body, and one ca nnot
assume a uniform stress state is imposed before yield takes place. To avoid this
problem, either an elastic (or linear viscoelastic or viscous) initial response can be
assumed. In these cases it singularity occurs at the outer rim of the platens and
begins at the punch corners.) Lipscomb and Denn also discuss the relation
between a true Bingham body and the bi-viscosity model. Up to the yield point, as
mentioned above, an incompressible elastic soiid undergoing strain and a linear
viscous fluid of the same shape undergoing strain-rate, may have the same stress
patterns with small deformations. Hence the stress field before yield can be
established; in a strictly rigid body it is generally not known.
W e now consider some other work. Sherwood el ai. (i 99 J) studied Bingham­
type materiais for which the yield stress varies through the sample. They used a
oi-viscosity modei in their analysis.
Atapattu el al. (1990) compared their experimental results with the compu­
ta tions of Beris el al. (1985) and others, with reasona ble agreemen t on the ex ten t
of the yielded cavity zone.
comb and Denn's conclusions, and presented further analysis. He emphasized
that non-shear stress components could not be negiected in the squeeze-film
problem, as is traditional in lubrication type analyses. He developed the analysis
for the bi-viscosity model in terms of 6(gap/radius ratio = /7 /a) and E = 1)p!170, with
the following concl usions:
When h1)o/a1)p is small, a usual lubrication-type theory holds. However, the
strict Bingham limit (7]0 -> 00) shows that lubrication theory fails, and no simple
theory exists.
Wilson (1993b) found unyielded regions in the flow of a Bingham body in a
closing wedge flow. He claims that' ... all the flows for which yield surfaces are
known to exist beyond doubt are in a sense kinematically trivial; that is, they have
straight or circular streamlines or a superpositio!1, etc;' but one needs only to
consider the flow over a deep slot to find a counter example to this statement. It
was concluded that yield surfaces can exist in the closing wedge problem in the
. Bingham limit but only when the.yield stress 'y is suitably large.
Szabo and Hassa ger (1992) looked at the eccentric tube flow discussed by
Walton and Bittleston (1991) and analysed the plug flow regions using both a bi­
viscosity and a true Bingham model. The agreement in the extent of the unyielded
regions using both models was excellent.
154 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4.2 MATERIALS WITH A YIELD STRESS 155

conclusions. In summary, for both Bingham and bi-viscosity models, one sees
Outer wall that there are many small regions, often near stagnation points, where no yield
takes place, in addition to the known cases of cores in simpler flows like the
Poiseuille flow.

4.2.2 The rigid-plastic limit

10 order to help understand these flows we cite here a few rigid-plastic examples )
True plug and compare them with other analyses and experiments. An important example
(Hill 1950) is extrusion in plane strain (Fig. 4.6) . In plastic-rigid solutions, where
one assumes maximum friction at the walls, there are 'dead' or rigid zones in the
corners N of the die. Similar 'dead zones' are found under the centre of a punch
Fiow 1t:~jUJl problem (Chakrabarty 1987).
This 'nose' is similar to that found by Beris et al. (985) near the poles of a
sphere in their true Bingham solution. In the extrusion flow there is slip at the
wall, then a complex yielded flow near the exit , then a plug flow downstream.
Pseudo-plug Beverly and Tanner (1989) found a similar behaviour at the exit from a tube in a
viscoelastic case. Magnin and Piau (1992) have reported a static zone remaining
Fig.4.5 Axial flow between eccentric cylinders showing true plug or unyielded regions and regions
of small shear rate (pseudo-plugs).
in the corner of the contraction in axisymmetric experimen ts .
For the rigid-plastic case corresponding to a plane squeeze-film problem
Beverly ClIlJ Tan!ler (i 992) abo anaiysed the Waiton-BitlieslOn ilow, (Fig. 4.5) we can use the Prandti solution a s given by Hill (1950) and Chakrabarty (1987) ,
with results comparable to those mentioned above; it is also clear that unyie!ded Fig. 4 .7. There are unyielded zones near the st~gnation po ints at the centreHne
cores wiil tend to vanish when the inner cylinder is rotated. Atkinson and EI-Ali which continually lose material to the adjacent yielding zones. Near the outer
(1992) considered several corner flows in a Bingham body and found unyielded edge there is also an unyielded zone, but in the axisymmetric case this edge
regions. behaviour will not take place . O'Donovan and Tanner (1984) showed a result, for
Beris el af. (1985) used a true Bingham model in studying Ihe flow around a
sphere. They showed small unyielded regions around the poles of the sphere , in
the stagnation areas.
Axisymmetric plasticity problems are not hyperboiic (Hi!i 1950) and the
velocity and stress fields are continuous in these cases. If we focus on the axis of
symmetry, then the shear stress is zero, aoo = a" so a rr - a zz = ±·l3ry there.
Similar considerations can be applied to the true Bingham body; the problem is
not hyperbohc, and the veiocity and stress fields are continuous. The lack of
definition of stress in a strictly rigid region continues, and we will now assume an
elastic response before yielding. If we look at the field near an axis of symmetry ,
and dose to a soiid boundary, we find a stagnation point. Because of the no-siip
condition at the waH, the displacement u = 0 and au/ar = 0 on the wall surface,
and hence, using the incompressibility condition, Gwjoz is also zero at the wall
surface. Hence the stagnation point is a point of zero deviatoric stress, and the
material is clearly unyielded there. As one moves away from this point, say along
the axis of symmetry, the stresses must change in a continuous manner, governed
in any unyielded regions by the elastic response, until the yield criterion is
exceeded. Hence one expects unyielded regions near stagna tion points, and these
will be larger or smaller depending on the general stress field in the body . The
o F

computations of Beris el af. (1985) with a true Bingham body support these Fig. 4.6 Plane extrusion of a rigid·plastic material. The shaded area is a rigid (dead metal) zone.
 156 CONT INUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4 . 3 OLDROYD'S DEVELOPMENTS 157

:~
I In the case orviscoelastic-plastic now, much work remains to be done, both on

"
r---- ~·0::_____ J I
I
the constitutive model and with computation. Early work by Beverly and Tanner
(1989) shows that a dominant yield stress gives results not too different from
those discussed above ror inelastic fluids. Finaliy , we affirm the utility of the
'" bi-viscosity model: if the yield areas are smail then the model returns a stress field
~ 2
I ora viscous nature (often the same as a linear elastic stress field) ; once appreciable
size yield areas appear, then the f10w fieid will be the same as the true Bingham
model to within dirferences of order Tip/Tio , which can be made very small
[O( 10- 3 ,10- 4 )] . Clearly, some carerul judgement may be needed in interpreting
results, but this is normal in numerical work. One may also, in view of the work
of Barnes and Walters (1985), y'ueSlion whether the true Bingham model is in
any case more <!ppropriate ror many real materials than a bi-viscosity modeL

) N 4.3 Oldroyd's developments

A fOim of the linear viscoeiastic relation can be developed from a mechanical
~_T
model which may be imagined as a Maxwell model [Fig. 1.16(c)] with a second
viscous element in parallel. We find
w
fh / a\
)
Fig. 4 .7 Sljpline field and pressure rlistribmiof! of p!3r:e CG;T.p,c;;sioi) of a rigid~piasljc matcriai A I AI
__
+ T = Tio ("1 + A2 a-' / )A I , It! I?)
\ .' - J
~

between perfectly rough platens. In (his c(tse the shaded zones :1r~ rigid; !he OL!te!" zone /\C/\ is aL~o
rigid in this plnnc ca sco
) where AI is just 2d (see Chapter 2, eqn 2.35a).
) Oldroyd (1950) realized that this (linear) model did not obey the material
objectivity principle he laid down in this landmark paper, and suggested that for
an axisymmetric geometry, or the squeeze film ; this result was compuled using the
large 5trajll~ in flows the rates of change or the stress T and the deformation rate
bi-viscosity mode!. The ,,;,yielded zOlles [here (that is , h < T;)
do not meet at the
d needed to be objective and hence non-linear. (See Section 2.5 for a short dis­
gap cen tre, in contrast to the rigid-plastic plane case (Fig. 4.7). This may be
1
l a ttributed to the broadening and diffusive effect of the post-yield viscous element
cussion or the principle of material objectivity .) As an example or the use or

. in the model and to the axisymmetric geometry. For rurther discussion of squeeze
the principle he formulated the rollowing generalization of (4.12) where ir

i; films see Chapter 6.

Thus we are, in conclusion, able to get some guidance as to Bingham-type
(Jij + pOij = Tij,
." behaviour from the rigid-plastic case; one expects unyielded zones in regions of then Tij obeys the following equations
low stress, especialIy in reentrant corners like N (Fig. 4.6) and near stagnation
points. However, the a bility to develop slip zones in the plane strain rigid-plastic D aVm avm} f.lo (I)
analysis means that care must be taken in these analogies when considering Tij + At { DI Tij + ax; Tm) + ax) Tmi +2 TkkAi)
a xisymmetric cases and Bingham materials, in which only continuous velocity
fields are allowed. ~ 2f.lJ (t) +
TimA",)
(I))
TjmA m; + 21 al ( TkmAkm
( I) )
Oij

) So far we have regarded the material as a compiicated generalized Newtonian (I) (I)) ]
nuid. I t is possible to pursue this line or argument much further so tha t the 'yield ' = TJo [ Ai)(I) + A2Ai)(2) -
(I) (I)
f.l2 Aik A kj
I
+ "2a2(A kmAkm Oij . (4.13)
') material can.have many or the constitutive laws previously discussed; one simply
) adds the stress 2Ty dij/"r to the polymeric stresses Ti; derived previously. In this Here
way one obtains a viscoelastic-plastic material description. An alternative
) approach to this subject has been given by White and Tanaka (1981); see also D
-=-+Vk -
a a
Bird el al. (1982) for a useful survey. Dr at aXk ,

)
158 CONT1NUUM-DERIVED THEORIE S 4 . 3 OLDROYD'S DEVELOPMENTS t59

is the material derivative. In direct notation eqn (4 . 13) becomes Hence one finds

r + AI {~; + LTr + rL} + ~ tr (rA I)

Dr'
I5t+L T' r+rL/ = R [Dr
Dt+LTT+TL] RT (4.19)

J.LI I so that the bracket ted quanti ty is objective. In a similar way one can show that A2
-"2 (rAI + Air) + 2"a) tr (rAI)I is objective, and in fact the An for al\ n are objective (Huilgol and Phan-Thien
[997).
= 7]0 [A I + A2A2 - J.L2A i + 1a2 tr (A ~)I J. (4 .13a) There are eight constants in this version of the equation which must be found .
A, is the relaxation time, and A2 is the retardation timc; these and Tlo ca n be found
Here A2 is the second Rivlin- Ericksen tensor (2.39a). One can test this equation approximately from small-strain experiments. It is not difficult to compute the
for objectivity by first noting that aii terms except those muitipiied by AI and A2 tesponse in siiTtple steady shearing. Oldroyd (1958) sho \.ved th~t the v!sccmetr!c
are clearly objective. The tensor L is not objective, because we- have, from (2 .63) functions 7], \[!" and \[! 2 are given by

X' = e(r) + R(l ) X ; x; = Ci + Rik-'Ck (2.63) I + k2 i2 ] (4.20)

7] = Tlo [ I + kl i 2
Differentiating (2.63) to find the velocity one finds
where k, and k 2 are constants; explicitly
x; = V; = c; + Rik .>:k + R ikXk (4.14)
k! = AI(J11 - Ul } + J-i0(J-i1 - A, - 30J/2 ) + ii., ( AI + il l - PI ) (4.21 )
Now L ;j ;; chUax; = (a7J;!nx.,,)(fhmla.') , so \Ising i hc resu i!s axdi-lx; = Ri: ,
one finds , using the chain rule ; k2 = AI (J.L2 - a2) + J.Lo (J.L2 - A2 - 3ad 2) + J.LI (A2 + 0 2 - f.1.2) (4.22)

L;j = Rik L klll Rjl>J + .k'kRjk or L' = RLR T + RR1". (4. J 5)

\[! I = 27]0 AI r!!..
ho _A,A2] (4.23)
which confirms that the velocity gradient tensor L is no t o bj ective . In the D / Dl
c pertitoj-, 'Ukf)/UXk is u SClJ!u. , und hence th~s tern, is obj cc ~i·v' c . The t Ciffi 8 ;: ' / 8: is
not objective. One ha s \[!2 = -(2AI - J.L1)7] + (2A2 - J.L2)7]0. (4.24)
[h' _ a
T _. T or T . T
& - o ,(RrR ) - RrR + Ro,R + RrR. (4 . 16) In simple shearing of rea) fluids, the shear stress curve usually seems to rise
monotonically with shear rate. If the model is to reflect this behaviour, we must
Taking the operator (o r'lot) + L'T r ' + r'L' and puttin g in terms of the un­ restrict the values of k, and k 2 , and hence 7]ooITlo, so that
primed frame , one finds it becomes -
k2:> ~kl' or 7)00 > 9I 170.
RrRT + RiRT + RrRT + RLTrRT + RRTRTRT + RrLRT + RTRTRRT
This is too restrictive to describe real m a terials over a wide ra nge of shear
(4. J 7) rates (cf. Fig. 1.2 where the viscosity changes a thousand fold over five decades of
Now the orthogonai tensor R obeys RR T = I, and by difTerentiation , we have shear rate) . The elongational response is also often not typical of real fluids
(see Problem 4.3 at the end of this chapter).
Thus despite the complexity of this equation, it is only illustrative; it is not an
RRT + RRT = o. (4.18) accurate description of real material behaviour. The most popular form of this
equation (termed here the upper convected Maxwell (or UCM) model) can be
Using this result we find that the first and third terms in (4 . 17) can be rewritten as obtained by setting J.Lo = A2 = J.L2 = a, = a2 = 0, and also J.L, = 2A,; we shall return
-RRTRrRT and -RrRTRRT, and they cancel out the fifth and seventh terms. to it below. Another popular variant of this model is the so-called Oldroyd-B
)
160 CONTINU U M-DERIV ED THEOR! ES 4.5 RIVLlN - ERICKSEN EXPANSIONS 161
)
model, see Section 4.3.2. Other subsets of 4.13 have been used, but are mostly in where 'I obeys eqn (4.25) (the UCM equation) and '2
is a viscous component,
worse accord with experimental behaviour than the UCM and Oldroyd-B equal to 21) s d. This is a special case of (4. 13) where fl.t = 2AI, fl.2 = 2A2,
) models. See Petrie (1979) and Tanner and Walters (1998) for further details. jiO = al = a2 = O. A2 is the relaxation time, the total viscosity in this case is

No special analytical methods of solution have been developed for this set of
equations. However, numerous perturbation solutions have been obtained.
These are sometimes useful in showing the direction in which viscoelasticity
affects flow.
)
1)0 + 1)s, and >-2 = A! 1)s / (1)s + 1)0)·
Hence when 17s = 0, we recover the UCM model above, and when 1)0 = 0 the
behaviour is Newtonian.
The disadvantages of the UCM mode! persist, but the Oldroyd-B model has

been used to represent some (real) Boger (1977) fluids and is often used as a simple
4.3.1 The (upper ) convected Maxwell model model in computations, occasionally with multiple relaxation times .
In the (upper) convected Maxwell (UCM) case the equation (4.13) simplifies to
4.4 Simpie and non~<;;imv!e flt!!ds
the form
This book is mainly concerned with what Truesdeii and Noll (1965) have termed
Lh 'simple' fluids. The history of this concept in relation to the pioneering work of
/\ 1 tJ.t +, = 21)od, (4.25)
Oldroyd (1950) is discussed by Tanner and Walters (J 998). This idea of a simple
,md the (upper) convected derivative tJ. / 6.1 is defined as fluid can be stated in various terms. One tangible consequence of having a
'simple' fluid is that in a viscometric flow the local velocity gradient governs the
viscosity . Higher spatial derivatives of velocity (such as o"y/or in a Poiseuille
tJ.Tij = chi) + Vk aT i) _ L j kTki - L,kTkj, (4.26)
flow) are not relevant in such a /low. In terms of the microstructure, Que c::n
6.1 - Of OXk
define a simple fluid as one in which the microstructure is slllaii <.:ompared with
where L ij 15 the velocity gradient tensor. Fo!"!n s of 6 /6: in Cartesian and
cylindrical coordinates are given in the Appendix.
I
the distance over which the stress state changes , and it aiso assumes a restriction
to local interaction between particles of the fluid . The restriction to local action is
This equation has proved to be very popular for testing computational schemes important and permits us to replace the complete description of the history of
(Chapter 8) and in many other theoretical studies but it is not very realistic for the all the particle motions by the history of the single descriptor C. Reference to
)
description of the now of many polymers. For example, one sees that I< 1 = 1< 2 = 0 (2.31-32) shows that this is the quantity governing the change of distance
in (4.20) so that the shear vi scosity is constant at the valu e " }O and does nOl depend between particles which a re liear the point r at time t'and near x at time t. From
on shea r rate. Also i!! 1 = 21)0 /\1 and W2 = 0 , so the second normal stress difference these considerations we find the definition of a simple (incompressible) nuid , set
is zero. The steady elongational behaviour can be computed by setting
~
out below.
v = i(xi - ~j - ~ k) (see Chapter 3), in which case (4.25) reduces to two equations A ' simple' fluid sets the extra stress (J' + pI as afunctional of the history of the
for the non-zero stress components Txx, Tyy (= T zz ) strain tensor C defined in eqn (2.32); that is, u + pI depends on the entire past
history of C, or, formally
Txx = 21)oi /( I - 2Ai); Tyy = - 1)oi / ( 1+ iA). (4.26)
,'=1
The significant rheological quantity here in the incompressible case is the elon­ u+pI= g; [C(I')] . (4.29)
) /'= - 0')0

gational viscosity 1)£ = (T;u - Tyy)/i , which is found to be

As it stands, (4 .29) can only be used to deduce certain symmetries of u given the
1}£ = 31)0 / (! + 0.)( I - V, i ). (4.27) symmetry of C; in fact, not much can be deduced that cannot be found in simpler
ways. It may be shown that (4.29) is an isotropic fluid (Leigh 1968). Expansions of
This gives unrealistic predictions for i values of I 12A and - I IA and values falling
(4.29) have proved somewhat usefui, and are discussed next.
outside these limits.

4.5 Rivlin-Ericksen expansions

4.3.2 The Oldroyd-B model
I n this case one uses the result For a sufficiently smooth motion, one can replace C(t') in (4.29) by the Rivlin­
Ericksen expansion (2.40). In the viscometric flows it so happens that the series
r = 'I + '2, (4.28) terminates exactly; all terms A (3) and higher vanish. In general flows this will not

)
 t62 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES
usually occur. We recognize that if the m a terial has a time of memory or time
constant A, then each term of (2.40) can be rearranged in the dimensionless form
r
(An jn!)A (n) {( I - I ')j A and in flows where all higher terms than the first n can
be neglected (or vanish), the history functional of Cover 1'(4.29) may be replaced
by a function of the first n coefficients in the expansion so that
(T+pI = ~r(AAI,A2A2" .. ,AnA n ). ( 4.30)
The function r is made dimensionless by the factor 10/ A. If it is expanded in
powers of A, a series of order-fluid descriptions results
(I + p! = !) (zero·· cr-de, or Eu~ef flo\.v). ( 4.30a)
Here we recognize that reO) = 0, to agree with the hydrostatic assumption.
(4.30b)
(T + pI = 1JoAI (first-order or Newtonian flow) .
Here the first-order expansion is made to begin with AA I, so that 1Jo has its usual
meaning. The next order fluid , the second-order fluid, will contain terms in AAJ,
A2AT and A 2A2. We shall write it as
(T + pI = 170 A j + (Ill I (0) + W2(O))A~ - ! Wi (O)A2, (4.30c)
where the WJ and W2 have the meaning assigned to them in eqn (3.18); they are the
first and second normal stress coefficients, and are determinable from visco­
metric measuremen ts . The thi rd-order fluid is of the form
= 1Jo(l + A2¢J tr A~ ) AI + {Wi (0) -+ W2(O)}AT
...
t ! (J + pI
-1 WI(O)A2 + ¢2 A3( A2 A I + AlA 2) + ¢3 A3 A 3
(4.30d)
\ Here the viscosity begins to change with shear rate , in contrast to the lower-order
fluids. The rapid proliferation of coefficients is also noticeable.
These results were first obtained by Rivlin a nd Ericksen (see Pipkin 1972) who
started from the assumption that the stress a t a given instant is determined by the
gradients of the velocity, acceleration and higher time derivatives at the same
instant, and used invariance (or objectivity, see Section 2 .5) arguments to show
that the dependence on these gradients must be through the combinations An·
Under the assumption that the fluid is isotropic, they showed that the function r
must be an isotropic function of its arguments. Instead of expanding as we did
a bove, for dependence on A I and A2 alone they proved that the function r could
be expressed in the form
2 2
f = L Ll/>mn (A7'A~ + A;A'n, (4.31 )
o 0
4 . 5 RIVLlN-ERICKSEN EXPANSIONS 163
in which the scalar coefficients ¢mn are functions of the traces of various products
of AI and A 2. The form (4.31) is a consequence of the assumption of isotropy, and
it was obtained under that assumption alone, with no other prior assumptions
about the na ture of the function r, nor about the shear rate magnitude. This
procedure is useful because in the viscometric flows it is easy to show that all
the Rivlin- Ericksen tensors except AI and A2 are zero and the expression (4.31)
for the stress is then exactly equivalent to eqn (4.7.9) in so far as the dependence of
the stress on the defomlation history is concerned. Exact solutions of these
problems (neglecting centrifugal force in the case of torsional flow), accounting
for the normal stress differences explicitly were obtained. These appear to be
the first exact, genera) solutions of vjscom~tric £10\l.' prcb!em s. Th~ fo:-m {4 .31) is
not the most convenient one, however.
At about the time of this work it was becoming usual to think of the stress in a
material element as a functional of its strain history . Green and Ri vlin (1957)
developed this notion for finite deformations and non-linear response, and
obtained canonical forms incorporating the consequences of isotropy. It wa s
later shown that for simple fluids the stress can be expressed as an isotropic
functional of the strain history ql') [see eqn (2.32)] and that within the context of
assumptions then currently ~c(:epted, 2. fluid '.vGu ld necessari~y be is otropic
(Truesdell and NoH 1965).
EriCKsen , in a paper ue1ivered in j 958 seems to have been the first to discuss
viscometric flows explicitly in terms of the strain history. He also observed that in
the known examples of flows for which An = 0 for n:> 3, the tensors A I and A2
could a lways be put into a certain form. Criminale, Ericksen, and Filbey (1958)
observed that if AI and A2 have this form, then all of the products in eqn (4.31)
can be expressed in terms of I, A I, A2, and A ~ alone. The expression for the
siress then reduces to the convenient form
(J = -pI + TJAI - ~ wl A2 + (WI + \I12)A~, ( 4.32)
where 1J, WI and \11 2 are functions of
2y = trA ~ = trA 2. (4.33)
We observe that in viscomc tric flows, foiiowing Section 3.3,
i( ab+ba) =AI ' ybb=~A2' and i2aa=A~ - ~A2 ' (4.3 4)
and all higher Rivlin-Ericksen tensors vanish as stated above. Consequently, the
expression for the stresses that we have given in eqn (3.20) is equivalent to that
given by Crimi.nale, Ericksen, and Filbey (1958).
The work of Criminale, Ericksen, and Filbey has had effects more important )
than the particular result obtained. Their constitutive equation was presented as
a relation applying to a special class of motions, and not asa model defining some
fictitious class of materials. In order to understand the physical applicability of
)

164 CO NTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4 . 6 GREEN-R1VLlN EXPANSIONS 165

the m a thematical models that are used to describe viscoelastic fluids , it is
essential to be a ware that none of these models may be applicable to all s tates of
motion of any particular fluid . Many differe nt form s of constitutive equati o ns
can be valid descriptions of the beha viour of o ne fluid , depending on the cir­
cumstances, and one fo rm of constitutive equation may describe the behaviour
of man y different fluids in one particula r kind of Illotion .
Higher Rivlin-Ericksen fluid expansions a rise in non- viscometric motions.
However , the number of fluid parameters ri ses rapidly and it has not even been
possible to find all six pa rameters experimentally [eqn (4.30d») for a third-order
fluid. Thus although there has been a number of perturbation ca lculatio ns with
higher-order fluids they are of limited applicability. Even if it were possible to
) lInd th e parameters needed , the ran ge of applicability of these order fluid s is
too narrow to be very interesting as we sha ll see beiow, and it d oes not seem u seful
to pursue this path . Here we will concentrate on second-order representations
[eqn (4 .32 ») fo r which only three functi o ns need be found experimentally.
) 4.5.1 Behaviour 0/ Rivlin-Ericksen fluids in unsleady shearing m Olions
T o see that the seco nd-order fluid [eqn (4.30c») is not suitable for discussing
unstea dy motions consider a nllie! e!iqllrb",d S0 that v [! !(y, I), 0,0]. \Ve see th~:t
. I
, co ntinuity is sa ti sfied. FrO iTJ th e co nstituti ve equaiion (4.30c) we find
(;
_ au I (J2 u
o...,y - T} ay - 2 \[11 ayal '
) J
The equation of motion for shearing motions (with (J/f)x = a/az = 0) is
) au a 2u a"u
1 I p 7iI = T} ay2 - ~\[I 1 ay2al .
Solving ,
0:",( / ) = O:m ( O)exp{'f/f/ (~\Il 1 - ph 2/m 27[2)}. ( 4 .39)
If the exponent is positive, we have a very unrealistic result as the material
is clea rly unst a ble in the sense that any initial disturbance o f the form
Emam sin (7[my) / h will a mplify itself. In (4 .39)'f/, WI and ph2 / m 27[2 are al! (usually)
positive . Therefore the exponent is positive if ~ > (ph 2/m2 7[2 w1)_ For fixed P, h, \III
we can alwa ys find m so that we have an instabili ty, so tha t some profiles amplify;
if ph2/ \II ,-+
O. then a ll profi les a mplify; if \II 1= 0, O'~avier-Stokes case) then all
disturba nces die away. Thi s shows the unsuitab ility of the seco!!d-order-!1:.:id for
unstead y flow description. If we consider only uns teady shearing distu rbances,
u= y-H / ), then the expression for 0xy becomes OXy=rrY-~W I ( d1'/ dl).
Neglecting inertia, and keeping a xy constant, we can solve for l' to find
a
-y =....!!. + Aexp(2'f/f / WI )' (4.40)
'f/
where A is a constant o f integrat ion . C learl y, eqn (4.40) is un s ta ble. Th is analysis
("an be ex tend ed tc G~hcr models of the:: urut!f iype, and by elementary slahi lit y
criteria we find they are all unstable . Thus al l unsteady flows are to o ' fast' for the
second-order constitutive model, an d also for highe r-order nuid s o f thi s type
(Joseph 1981).
(4 .3 5)
4.5.2 Sleady elongalional flo IV r esponse lor v iscom elric cons filUlive mode ls
A steady e lo nga tion a l now , where v - i{ix - ~jy - ~ k z} is a flow which is very
different fr o m the viscometric flo ws (Section 3.2). Ifwe app ly the flow fi eld to the
(4 .36) viscometric fluid model (4.32) we find, neglecting fluid inertia,

I
Suppose we have a channel (width h) in which th e walls are sta ti onary . Le t Oxx - Oyy = 3i'f/ l l + i{\[I2 + ~\Ild/TJ1· (4 .41 )
~
u = 2:::=1 O:m(I)¢m(Y). Substituting each component in (4.36) , we find
For small values off: {\[I2 + ~ WI } /TJ, the result (4.41 ) is in agreement with obser­
vation . The group ( $ 2 + ~ \[II ) I T} is p osi tive, as far as present measurements show,
) " dOm
P"d/cPm = T}Om<f;",(Y -
" ) 1 d o",,, ( )
2\[1 1 "d/cPm Y (4 .3 7) and hence it is likely th a t at so me nega tive i (4.41) will predict a st ress difference
a nd strain ra te of opposite sign , which is completely unacceptable . When T), \II I
which is not directly solvable.
and \[1 2 are constants this is inevitable, a nd care must be taken in a ttempting to
By letting
apply the viscometric mod el to highl y non-viscometric flows. The plane
stretching flow , where v = i{ ix - jy} , gives the result Oxx - Oyy = 4iT} for the
. m7[Y

cPm = am S!O - h­ second-order model an d the problem of stress reversa l does no t arise.

we can represent any initial velocity profile by a Fourier expansion in y. Setting

4.6 Green-Rivlin expansions

this in (4 .37) we find , fo r the mth harmonic

We have mentioned the failure of the second-order fluid model in unsteady flows
2
I m 27[2 ] dO m m 7[2 (4. 38) (Section 4.5.1) . Green and Rivlin ( 1957) suggested an alternative expansion
[ P- 2\[1 1 ---;:;'2 dI = - ---;:;'2 'f/O", .
schem e to the slow-now ex pansions discussed in Section 4 .5. When specialized to
)
 166 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4.7 ELASTIC BEHAV10UR FOR RAPID DEFORMATIONS 167

inco mpressible fluids (Pipkin 1964) the expansion becomes CTxy and Nt are pOSlltve, as they should be . However, it is usual to find
INd NIl « I (Section 3.8.3), so the above result is not a good representation of
u =-pl+ l~J-L'(I-I')G(I')dl' real fluid response. Addition of the double integral corrects th is problem. Clearly
the unsteady shear response is at least reasona ble but for steady elongational

+ l~ l~ J-L22(1 -
flows another problem arises. In this case we find C to be a diagonal tensor (see
II, 1 - 12)G(11 )G(12) dl l dl 2 + ... (4.42) Section 2.3)

where the strain tensor G is defined as C - I. The structure of (4.42) may be C = diag[exp -2£(1 - I') , exp i( 1- I' ), expi(1 - I')] . (4.46)
understood by referring to the discussion in Chapter I [Section I.S .2(e)] where the
Computing the stress difference of interest , we find

single integral form represents the effect of strain increments added at various
times I ' in the past ; the effect of an increment at o ne time has no innuence o n the roo

effect of another increment at a later time. The possibility of such an effect is CTxx - CTyy = Jo J-L1(s)[exp(-2is) - exp(is)Jds. (4.47)
recogni zed in the double integral form which estimates the contribution to the
stress from two contributions to the strain added a t different times . Hi gher order In the typica l case when we take J-LI(S) to be the derivative ofa Maxwe ll form like
integral terms may be interpreted in a similar way. From the experimental point (2 . 105), we find
of view, the memory function J-LI(I) is not difficult to find, since it is the derivative
of the linear relaxa tion function G(I). However, the kernel J-L22 and higher kernels
J-LI(S) = - t:neXP ( - S/An). (2.106)
are not so easy to find and experimental results are rare. To begin with we shall n=! n
concentrate on the single integra! form . In simple shearing, when~ Ih ~ ve locity
field is of the fo rm v(x , I) = iyi, where x = (x , y, z) and i is ihe constant shea r rate I
it is dear that the integral (4.47) only converge:; for
\·v e can compute th e strain tensor C and hence G. \}v'e have. in the present ca se ,
from Section 2.3.6, eqn (2.41); - ~ < A,i < l , (4.48)

I
1"2 = y, 1" ) = z. (4.43 ) where )'i is the longest relaxation time in (2 .! 06). In practice, one can exceed these
limits, and hence this model is not a good description of fas l elongational flows.
and The multiple integral term s do nothing to allevia te this problem.
j..
+ iY (I ' -
.\ '"I = X I). (4.44) 4.7 Elastic behaviour Cor rapid deformations
, Using the definition of the deformation gradient F (2.28), we find the value of When a viscoelastic fluid is strained very rapidl y, the initial response may be
i~ Cas elastic in character, see Section 3.6.1 . In this case the functional of the history of )

n
C (eqn (4.29)] becomes a function g of the strain suddenly applied , or
1'(1 ' - I)
C == FTF = r 1'(1 ' - I) I +i 2 (1' _ 1) 2 (2.43 ) <T + p' I = g(C), (4.49)
L o o where pi is the pressure .
Note that in t·his formulation the strain is computed from the stressed or
We can now compu te the viscometric functions using the first integral of (4.42). deformed configuration as reference, rather than from the unstressed state as is
The results are, with S = I - I': usual in elasticity. For the present application, the formulation (4.49) is con­
venient. We can expand g using the result for strains corresponding to eqn (2 . 15)
Ihy = -1' 1 00

SJ-L'(S) ds = 7]01' } . to rewrite (4.49) in the form

+ p'l = gol + g,C +g2C2,

= ~ -1',2 1
(4.50)
00
(4.45) <T
N, U xx - u yy s2 J-LI(S) ds
where go, g, and g2 are functions of the strain invari a nts Ieand lIe; HIe isjust unit y
N2 - U yy - CT zz - -AI for the incompressible materials considered here . From the corres pondin g
) 4 . 8 THE KBKZ MODEL
CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 169
168

-, Cayley-Hamilton result (2.13b), after premultiplying by C-

I
, we obtain 4.8 The Kaye-Bernstein-KearsJey-Zapas model
Kaye (1962) and Bernstein, Kearsley, and Zapas (1963) independently proposed
C2 = IcC - B el + C- I , (4.51 )
a constitutive model which appears to have been inspired by the theory of rub­
berlike elasticity. When specialized for the incompressible case this constitutive
so that (4.50) can be replaced by
model is
) I (4 .52)
o-+pl = (gl +g2 I, )C+g2 C - ,
(' (aU aU)
) o-= - PI+j ~-c-I - -C~dll (4.54 )
where the iso tropic stress terms have been incorporated in the pressure. Finaiiy, -00 lOIc l aI, J
we note that in incompressible materials the second invariant ofC(IlJ is equal in
magnitude to the first invariant of C- I (1 e-I), a nd (4.52) can be put in the con­ Here c- I :s the invcrse of the strain tensor C and Ie-I and I, are the traces (first
venient form invariants) of these ten~ors . The poter:tirr! U is a function of various quantities.

) I (4.53) U = U(I" Ie- I, I - I'). (4.55)

0-= -pl+h!(I"I,-,)C+h _I(Ic , I e ,)C- .
) The brac'ketted form in (4.54) is the response for an incompressible elastic solid to
The functions hi and 11_1 are connected to a potential in elasticity; we have
slrain (Section 4.7) , provided the time-dependence in U is suppressed. Thus (4.54)
hl =- aW/OI c and h_ l=aW/aIcl where W = W(I " I,-I) is the strain-energy
function. It is, of course, not expected that this constitutive relation will be bears the same relation to finite defom1ation elasticity as linear viscoelasticity
theory bears to classical elasticity.
generally useful in now problems , but it does correspond to the very fast defor­
This form of constitutive model gives fairly good r~su!!s for all of the now,,;
mations on the right-hand boundary of the Pipkin diagram, Fig. 3.9. Care must
discussed in Chapter 3 . Since sudder: shear strain appiications are a severe test
be l;;k<::!1 wilh ihe use of these ideas.
of the equation ann provide a convenient way of finding out something about the
U-function, we shall consider these in detail. We will initially be co ncerned with
Example: shear de/ormulion of Q A100ney ma[erial
the shear stress response. I t can be shown that if the magnitude of the step of shear
One of the simplest model s of ideal rubberlike behaviour is the Mooney material
strain is [ , and the strain is applied at time zero, then the shear components of C
~ (Ogden 1984) where hi and 17_1 in eqn (4.53) are constants . We consider a
deformation where the amount of shear is "Y. Then comparison with eqn (2-43)
and C- I are -[ and [ respectively, and Ie-I = I, = 3 + [2 , when [' < 0; for
t> I' > 0 the shea r strains are zero_ Hence
shows that the C tensor h", cOll1ron ents el l - CD = I , C 22 - I + -/, e l 2 = C 21 =
-"Y, and the rest are zero. The tensor C - has C I / = I + -,2, C 12' = [, with the
I
r aU aU]
rest zero or one. The homogeneous stress state sa tisfies equilibrium; mass is
conserved.
T=
1 0
-00
, - - +-dl '
laI,-, 8J e '
(4.56 )

One find s 0'12 = T = G[, 0'11 - 0'22 ~ NI = G[2 , where thc shear modulus where we have denoted O'xy by T. Considering the square bracket, it is only a
G = h_1 - hi, and N 2 = hn 2 Because hi = -oW/of" N2 is negative. Thus typical function of [2 and 1 - [ ', and if we denote 1- I' by s, and call the integrand in
normal stresses, N I positive, N2 negative, and a constant shear modulus are found (4.56) [K+ for short, then
for the Mooney model.

)
If a polymer solution containing a small-molecule solvent is considered, then
the solvent will generally respond in a viscous manner to any signal separately
T(--y, I) = 100

[r([2,s) ds , ( 4 .57)
from the elaslic component due to the dissolved polymer.
Equation (4.53) does not contain this viscous component, which wiii dominate where K+ is a function ofsa nd [2 Differentiation with respec t to I gives the resuit
the initial response. There are many results ror simple deformations in non-linear
elasticity recorded in the literature; see Truesdell and Noll (1965) and Ogden -[r(Y,I) = ib,I). (4.58)
(1984).
For rubbers there is evidence (Roland 1989) that the picture of ideal rubber Thus K+ can be determined from a series of stress relaxation experiments at
) different strains; at small enough strains K+ is - dG/dl, where G is the linear
behaviour indicated in (4.53) is not accurate for high-speed deformations, and
quite slow deformation is needed to get to the ideal form . With polymer melts relaxation function . Einaga el al. (1971) have done tests of this kind (Fig. 4.8)
also, as we will see below, (4 .53) is too 'elastic' to describe materials in many cases. and lind that for polystyrene K+ can be factorized into a time-dependent and a
)
 170 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4.8 THE KBKZ MODEL 171

I~
T{I,y)
yG(1)
i
I~rj----'----'----'-----'
IIYI- yo-O.4I
-;;,
llY
I
~
c
.;:: 102 LOI ~
~ 1<Y [
f 1O~I J
I
<.:>
'0
"
c:;
E lOt
\
II I ~
<.:>
(/)
4> \
I \ )

" , j I' \I
..t
0.5

.ot Iv
"
10' IIY 10' I(S) IV
,,1
10 2 IIY I~ I(S )
(a) (b)
0.1 ~
Fig.4.8 The stress relaxation modulus [G(l:lo)J for 20 per cenl polyslyrene (narrow disiriblilion ~
Mw = 1.8 x 106 ) in Aroclor. In (a) Ihe value of 1 0 , Ihe slep strain magnilude, increases as o ne moves 0.1 !O
down from the top cur ve ("YI)= 0.41 ann I 8 7) to th~ hc!!crr. c:.!;\'e {IoU - 25.4). The inif:r IIJeulak I r S[ev siZe!
values are;o = 3.34, 5.22, 6.68 , 10.0, \3.4, and 18.7 r~> pecjiveiy. in (0) Ihe dala a re s uperposed by
ver tica l shifting to show t he similari ty of G(!:jo) ? ! large times irrcspcciivc of the 11H.lgll itu<.ie of . ./0 . Fig.4.9 Non-linear pan of KBKZ kernel from si ngle slep Slrain data. II + l/6.4J cqn (4 .82).
NOlc Iha l ')"0= 25.4 is now Ihe highcsi curvc al the lert . - - - Experimenlal resulls for polyisobutylene so lution . Note linear port ion for -y less th a n
about 0.5.

l'
strain-dependent part. Hence we find, approximately

r(I, I' ) = ')j(hl)G(I). ( 4.59) I

,-r-l I ~I_ _ _ _~-----

.,
l
I

~
In this case G is the linear relaxation fun ction andfis the non-linear factor. The
value of fb) is given for a polyisobutyiene soiution in Fig. 4.9.
Now consider a two-step strain as in Fig. 4.10. "12 may be smaller or large r than
I
o
YI:

L__:_
i

'I
j
Y2

I
"II but in either case the position r of the particles in the shear direction, relative to
the current parti cle position x , is given by 1'2 = y , 1') = z, as before. and Fig . 4. IO Double-step stra in.
,
1"1 = x - }' iY , /' < () . . .
v ~II > I > 0
'\.
I
"
)
then the response in the present case, for 0 < I <
;: ~~, J>o} }
' 1 = x, I:. wi!! be denoted by Thl, t), For
fl = X - ("(2 - "II )Y. ( 4.60) times greater than 110 we have
rl == X - ;2Y, I' < 0 I > II
r1 = x, I' > II T(I) = [ "" "I2K"bLs) ds + 1~" ("(2 - ~/1)A.rt- [ (r2 ­ /'1)2. sJ ds . (4.61 )

Hence, the strains can be computed as "11,0, "12 - "II, "12,0 in the five zones listed From (4 .5 7) we see that (4.61) can be put in the form
in (4.60). For 0 < I < II, the response is the same as for a single step; if we denote
the shear stress response at time I to a step Is imposed at time Is by 'cbs, I - Is), r(i } = r("(2. I) + T("(2 - "110 I­ II) - rl'Y2 ­ /'), I). (4.62)

)
)

i72 CONTiNUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4.8 THE KBKZ MODEL 173

Note that this reduces to the linear viscoelastic result "fI G(/) + ('12 - I I )G(I - I I) using an equation of the form
for small strains. A series of experiments on single steps can be used to find the
r( I, I) function, and then one can test (4.62). Z apas (1974) and Einaga et of. (1971) 0"(1) = -pi + 1~ p..(1 - I')H(/') dl' (4.65 )
have carried out such test sequences for two cases; in the first case a small step
(,) = 0.532) was followed by a larger step (,2 = 1.77), after a delay of 2.8 s. The
where p..(/) = -dG(/')/dl and G(/') is the linear relaxation function [eqn (1.24)).
) experimental agreement in this case was good. However, in the second case,
The form of the strain tensor H is taken a s being of the form (4 .64) . When hi = 0
where II = 1.77 and 12 = 0.85 (II = 1.62 s), the agreemen t is apparently poor, the
and 17_ 1 = I we get Lodge's (1964) rubber-like model. In the class of extensional
sign being incorrect for scnl~ of the tirne. 1"~ever[heles$, thi s theory is certainly a
flows being considered, two normal stress differences can be measured
) much more acc ura te predictor of materia l behaviour th a n equations discussed
previously. The problem of specifying th e kernel U in flows more general tha n
shear flow s is also addressed below.
The !1eed for considering a 'potcniiai' {j fuiiuws from the observation that for
0"1(1)=0"11-0-33= r p..(I-I')h~(C;;I - C,-.;I)dl'
J-oo ... N '

)
any set of sudden s trains which returns the sample to its o riginal shape, we must 0"2(/) = 0"22 - (733 = 1~ p..(I- 1' )hi(C22 1 - C 3J 1)d/'. (4.66)
) avoid the production of work. This is guaranteed by th e introduction of U, since
the model is then rubberlike in rapid deformations (Section 4.7).
Wagner el al. (J 998) discu ss the choice of the h~ and hi function s to fit available
There have also been similar proposals to the KBKZ theory from Tanner and
data for high-densi ty-polyethylene (HDPE). (The paper does not deal with
Simmons (1967) who discussed a ' network-rupture' theory. It is, however, bes t
simple shearing.) If we focus on the simpler case of start-up of uniaxial elonga­
viewed from the microstructural viewpoint (Chapter 5).
tion, so 0"2 = h2 = 0, then
Another approach to the K BKZ mod e l is to go back to the functional of C
(4 .29) which, as far as is known, is a sufficiently gencra i descrip tion of the iso­
tropic matcrials being considered, and no te that thc GTcC:il-R ivJi n expansion
I )
()"!~t =J r ( J.1. , ! - I ' )i.1 *( ' 2
j \exp E -
~I
eXp\ -
_ \\...l,1
C))\.JJ , (4.66a)

f,
-00
(4.42) si ngle integral results arc: not very sa ti sfacto ry du e to the form of s train
chosen. Instead of co nsidering a functional o f C <lI1d th e n expanding in integra l where £ = i:O (1 - I') . The 'damping' function hf is a function of € only, si nce
form, one can co nsider a ny other strain measure, which is a functi o n of C
\ Ie- I = exp 2€ + 2 exp( -E)
) [say H(C)) and then generate an integral expansion . IfH(C) is an isotropic form ,
then by using similar results to (4.49)-(4 .5]) we can find the result , ignoring
and
, . double and higher integral terms
i ~ Ie = exp("':'2€) + 2exp£.
\, o-+pl = 1~ J1(1 - /1)H(II)dl ' , (4.63 )

~! where
The data for LDPE (Wagner 1979) were fitted by setting hf (a function of €) so
that

H = hl(I e, Ie- I)C + h _ I(I" I c l)C -

1 (4.64) h~(€) = [0.0025exp 2£ + 0.9975 eXpO,3Er l , ( 4.67)

is the new strain measure, chosen to be optimal in respect of a certain set of tests.
This form of eq uation was first proposcd by White and T oki ta (i 967) , without the
time-strain separation implied in (4.63). When hi and h _ 1 are chosen so thatlhere
is an elastic potential we find th a t eqn (4.63) is a special case of the KBKZ model,
eqn (4.54), with separa ted time and strain parts in the kernels; this behaviour is
suggested by the results of Einaga el al. (1971), (Fig. 4 .8).
4.8.1 Elongalional/lows and KBKZ-Iype models
Wagner el 01. (1998) have filted the results of uni ax ial (m = -0.5) biaxial (m = I)
and planar extension a l (m = 0) steady flow s [see eqn (3.95) for the defini lion of mJ
and eight time-co nstants of the form [eqn (2 . 105)] were used to represent p..(;).
While the fitting for these (transient) elongational flows was successful at s train
rates of 0.1 S- I, there were problems in the recoil of these models, as described
below.
4.8.2 Recoil a/ler elongalion
In a recoil experiment, the stress is released at a certain time, usually by cutting the
tensile specimen with a knife . If the material is subjected to a strain history from a
time I = 0 up to a time 10, at which time the tensile stress (7 is set equal to zero, then
the recoverable strain can be computed.
174 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4.9 WAGNER'S !RREVERSIBLE MODEL 175

Strain Sudden removal of stress again brings one to point C, with a strain recoil of

I7(B)/(G J + G2). However, this leaves one spring-dashpot combination in ten­

~I A B sion and the other in compression, so that a continued creep occurs from C to D )

while both parts of the model reduce their stresses to zero. To see this, if one forms

the equation for the total stress 0 in terms of the s train-rate i, one finds, since for

I> 0 0 = a = (j = 0, as an equation for c:

r7]JA2~+
L \ dl
1)\ +7]2(A!~+
dl
11li
) _
=0. (4.71 )
I I
I I (The r.h.s. of (4. 7 I) is in generai equal to (AJ (dl dl) + I) (A2( d / dt) + I )0, but here
I I I a and its deriv~t!ves are zero.) The genera! 50lution of (4.71) is (l > 0)

€ If-=t
'f -_.J---'--
---- ­ - -- C.
D
c(l) = A + Bexp(-IIA3), (4.72)

where A3 = (AI7]2 + A27]1)1 (7]1 + 7]2). By considering the sta te of the system just
after I =0, and evaluating i(O+) and c(0+) one finds
o - 10 o Time 1

A= co - c l-B
Fig. 4.11 Elongalional rccoil hislory.
'1 - --'
allu
As all iliusiralion, we wiii use the history investigated by Zdllar and Tanner I
(! 992). Fig. 4.11. H ere a tensile ~p ccimcn is extended rapidly to a st rain co al I B - cOG 1G2(.>'1 - '?-2) {e-to/)" _ e-to/),,}.

I
1= -10. held at a constant strain until 1=0, and then cut, releasing the stress. (4.73)
- (G , + G 2)(7]1 + 7]2)
T ypically. one sees an immediate elastic contraction, followed by a slower return
to a final strain Er after a long time . wherer)1 = G , AI,7]2 = G 2h · The vaiue of Cl is given by [eqn. (4.70)J as

I o(B) I (G I + G2). B is positive, so the final decay curve is as sketched in Fig. 4.11.
I f we were dealing with a linea r model , then the form of the curve depend s only
on G(I). For a Ma xwell model with a single relaxation time [Fig. I. I 6(c)J the stress Zdilar and Tanner (i992) worked with PVC samples, and approximating their
history can be found readily . Let the model for lhe t~l)sile stress cr be descri bed by material by two reiaxation times (10 s, i s) and iettmg G , = G2 = 0.2 MPa, to (hold
)

do
A-+O
dl
= 27]o E,' (4.68) I time) = 5 s, one find s, for a unit input strain co, B = 0.245, A = 0.448. Hence the
recoil is ultimately about 45 per cent ortne initial strain. Other non-linear models
pose complex computing problems for solution and are discussed by Zdilar and
Tanner (1992). In the non-linear regime, it was found that the (K)BKZ model,

where 7]0 is the constant viscosity, equal to GOA, and A is the relaxation time .
Application of a sudden strain co at 1 = - /0 wili cause a stress Goco in the system, otherwise the best model, was too elastic, and predicted too much recoil for both

which then decays so that th e stress is equal to Gocoex p(-Io/A) when t=O. A . L DPE and PVc. The same conclusion had been reached much earlier, following

sudden release of stress means th a t ihe specimen must suddenly retrac t by an a uniform s train rate extension, by Wagner (! 979), see Figure 4.12, and in fact all

amount EO exp( -II)/A) , reaching point C in Fig. 4. !!, and thereafter stays a t the of the equ~tions discussed in Sections 4.3, a nd 4.6--4.8 are simply too elastic to

sa me length, so that predict recoil accurately.

cf = Eo( l-e xp(-lOI A)) . (4.69) 4.9 Wagner's irreversible model

For two rela xa tion times AI and A2 in parallel we ha ve the stress at point A as
(G , + G 2 )co where G , an d G 2 are the rigidities associated with AI and A2 respec­
tivel y. At point B the total stress becomes
o(B) = co(G ,e- 'o />', + G2e - to/),,). (4.70)
To combat this defect, Wagner (1979) introduced his irreversible model. If one
writes (4.66a) with the 'damping function' hr
as a function of the invariants of C
and C- I , then the values of these invariants vary during the motion. If the strain
invariants are increasing, then hi decreases in both the elastic KBKZ model and
in the irreversible equation. However, if the strain measures ultimately decrease,
 176 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4.9 WAGNER'S IRREVERSIBLE MODEL 177

H is regarded as a functional of,Ct, t'); when H = I we have the Lodge model, and
/
/.e,=EH when H is a function of y we have a model that has been used extensively with
) reasonable success many times. To overcome the deficiencies in the double-step
4 +-1- - -- - ­ - - - /­ - response Wagner's irreversible model is used. Here, we recall,
~

"
.~ /.
//1 (a) When ,2 ,2.
is increasing in time we let H(,2) = hey), an ordinary (decreasing)
function of This reflects the increasing loss of network junctions with
3 / Lodge
" strain.
~/
:D
~
":>0
2: K,KZ
~ (b) When, is constant , then we still have H=I1.

~
t)
/' _
I
_
~.
w,gner
(c) When ,2decreasing, we do not suppose H is still the function h({2).

,~y./----' /
!
R:::ther, it is supposed thai junctions iost on a previous increasing period for,
remain lost, and hence H = min{hC,2)} over the relevant period.
We can now look at the double-step strain for this model. Equation (4.60) gives
) the displacements and the strains a're listed below it. The shear stress results for the
I
o 2 4 6 KBKZ model (N = h always) are, for the double-step strain shown in Fig. 4.10,
Tolal slrain E" =EI
r = '2h(S2)G(t) + (r2 - 'l)h(({2 - ' 1)2)[G(I- tl) - G(l)). (4.76)
Fig. 4.12 Recoverable slrain E, as a funclion o f lolal Hencky strain c" for constant strain rat e
tests wilh elonga tion rate i: = 0.1: 4 Experimental (Meissner 1971). M a lerial: LOPE at 150 ' c. The
ca!cuiated response or the Lodge, KBKZ and \Vagncr m o del~ is show!!. The !~:t~ C j ~;giCCS
Here G(/) .is the linear re!axa tion function , in the KBKZ model vve set S2 == ii,
.-'
close ly wi~h c xpcri:"i1Ci,L
and in ihe Wagner-modified model S2 = it.
To see what difference is made by
this modification use has been made of the results of Zapas (1974) on a poly­
isobutylene solution. The relaxation function G of the Zapas material was
then h; increases in the elastic model, while the irreversible model simply main­ approximated by the function
) ~ tains h~ at its minimum value in the time interval of interest Applied to recoil. one
r
) sees (Fig. 4. 12) a dramatic difference in the recovery with the two models . This G(I) = 708e- lo
, + 600e-' + 63.0e- 1j IO + 0.3e- 1j 1OO , (4.77)
model thus seems to be suitable for polymer flows, and research continues to be
) done to broaden its applicability (Wagner P I (If. t 998). which is adequate to demonstrate the point at issue. Similarly, h was approxi­
) ,, 4.9. J Double-step shear strains
mated as

) 1; h = I - 0.085,.2 (hi < 2). (4.78)

\~ The K BKZ theory is exact in respect of the single-step response and Wagner's
;
(1978) approach improves the double-step response. Using these results the complete response curve was computed. Figure 4.13(a)
We shall consider the response of a (White Tokita) fluid of the form shows that the global response of the two models differs little. The response
starting at about 1= 3.0 s has been published by Zapas (J 974). An eniarged view
of this experimentally determined region is compared to the present model in
(T
.
-t- PJ' = i-co J.i
(' (
t -
.) (
1° HI e- " Ie)C- I (t') dl', (4 .74)
Fig. 4.13(b). We see that the experimental curve is much closer to the Wagner
than to the KBKZ result, and that the Wagner device pushes the response curve
which is a special case of (4 .54) if one abandons the potential U and simply sets lower for t greater than 1.62 s.
)
aU/ale ' = J.iH,aU/al e = 0 in that equation. Ifwe now consider a shear flow It does not, however, help to explain the discrepancies with two large
) where the amount of shear, is known, then l e-, and Ie are simply functions of increasing steps noted by Osaki et al. (1981). However, even these very large
,2(1 , I'). Then (4.74) becomes, for the shear stress O'xy(= r) steps are represented quite well by the KBKZ equation, and tbe results are of
) acceptable accuracy for many purposes. Wagner (1979) has also shown as
) r = /~ J.i(1 - 1');H(r2) dl
i
(4.75) we saw in the previous section, that the KBKZ type of equation, as modified
using the irreversibility idea, can predict accurately the results of various
)
}
)
178 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4.9 WAGNER'S IRREVERSIBLE MODEL l79

1200

Lconov

600
,,!~ ,n !=r,,_'"
I !
20
o 0
I o x-j-...C(.

t~ ~'9.,
1.625
•
'" I
~ 400r .~
~
-:;;­ 3 o· 6 10 20
~ 200
~
... I I (s)
"'"
.r:
V>
+
100 I (S )
-20 1­
I

r' Ii f
- 200 1
I
! Icxpc rime nl
! I

-"~
I
I I I
I

i II 1
I 0

-loooL
~
~
_~l /
Fig. 4 . ;J( ~) Duuult:-:;icp :;iJ(;!l:H resp onse (,I = i ./7, 12 =0.8 5. deiay I.ols) lor polYlso butylene:
• W ag ner modifica li o n of KBK Z; 0 KBKZ rel a tion; + Leon ov relati o n .
•
Fig. 4.IJ(b) DOllb lc-slc p s hear respo nse for polyisobul ylene. Same data and symbols as in
Fig . 4 . J3(a). Experimen ta l dala (x) from Zapas (1974).

constant-elongation-rate, constant tensile stress, and constant tensile force

experiments. Much d e ta il for other tests has a lso bee n publi shed by Wagner
not be forgotten, however, tha t this model is not extremely accu rate for multiple­
(1977) . Therefore, it is concluded that a constitutive model of the form step strains (Osaki el af. 1981).
Equ a tion (4.77) has now been tested over most of the full range of ' e-I , Ie space.
( I, ,1 , ' ) C- I (1\ ) Currie (1982) shows that in order to cover the entire inva riant space (Ie, Ie- I) one
.1 ti-iI\I - " ' C I , l C l) I
a (/) = -pI ; >dl ' (4 .79) needs to perform elonga tio nal tests for both positive and negative elongational
- cc + Ji-2 ( l - I ', I e-I, Ic)C(/') J rates; shear and (positive) elongation alone are insufficient. There are few data
for negative ra tes (bia xial testing); see Larso n and Monroe ( 1987).
will ordinarily be a fairly accurate description of pol ymer melt and cORcentrated A useful tabulation by Laun (1978) and Wagner (1979) of the relaxa tion
solution beh aviour; o ften P 2 (which governs the small second normal stress dif­ function Ji-(l) [eqn (4.74)] for a low-density polyethylene sim ilar to the IUPAC
ference in simple shearing) may be omitted . PI and Ji-2 sho uld be derivable from a sample 'A' described in Section 3.8 is shown in T a ble 2. 1. Figure 4 . 14 shows
potential (Larson and Monroe 1987). Further simplifications obtained by the function G(i) graphically. The kernel functio n H( /) in (4.75) for shear
splitting the kernel into time- and strain-dependent parts a re possible . It should flow s has been de tenn ined to be, ror the particular LDPE under discussion ,
 180 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4 . 10 OTHER CONTINUUM MODELS 181

10'>
,'-­ ~-

~
10' 10- 1
egn (4.8 2)
/ "~
10"
H
'" ~

I IO-l ~
" 40 (4.67)

'" 10) ~ "­

'>t­
~ I~~ JO-Ji 10 ih, 1;Y 1~4

10
I fig . 4.15 K ernel runctions or s train invariant ror LPDE Melt f (similar to Sampte A or Section
3.8. I). The in vmiant I used is cd c-- + (I - a)/c· This is equal to -/ in shearing flow s. Solid line is
eqn 4.67 wilh o~0.032 . D ashed line is eqn (4 .82) with a' = 14 .83 plotted ror shearing flows.

one has
10- '
11 (-y ) = 0'/ (0" + -i)· (4.82)
.~ I

r
10-1 LI--:-_ _~_ _~_ _~_ _--'
iG-· ~ iU-': iO-·1 ill 1 10 IU Iv' 10' While further work on approximate kernels continues, we may point out that
res) eqn (4.81) is more consistent with linear viscoelastic theory than is (4.80) in that it
t rig.4. 14 Relaxati o n modulu s ror poly cth ylene . Data of'Ta hl c 2. 1 werC used . gives a departure from linearity proportional to.,.2, instead of 1.,.1 . In Fig. 4.15 we
{ compare the two kernels where (4.80) is for shearing only. Equation (4 .82) also
provides i:l good fit to experimental data for a polyisobuty1ene solution . See
Larson and Monroe (1987) and Currie (1982) for furth e r discussi o n o n kernel
(Wagner and Meissner 1980) forms.
H(-y2) = 0.57 exp (-0.311.,.1) + 0.43 exp (-0. 106hl) · ( 4.80) The form (4.81) has been used frequently in computations, (see Chapter 8)
and can provide an excellent fit to LDPEdata in shearing and uniaxial extension
.. ,
I t is difficult to write the general H-function ofeqn (4 .74) . Wagner and Meissner (Luo and Tanner 1988) .
1 "

~
" (1980) have used an invariant I eq ual 10 al e -, + (I - a)lI e - , in their discussion of
shear and elongational nows. When ex - 0.032, the J-I (or damping-) functi o ns for
bOlh shear and elongation coincide; both invariants are equal in shear. The kern e l
is shown in Fig. 4. IS.
An eariier paper (Wagner 1979) used the damping function of eqn (4 .67) .
) Some results are shown in Fig. 4.16. Comparison is made both with experi­
mental data and the Leonov model, which is discllssed in Section 5.6.9 . The shear
data are fitted well, but it is clear that to fit the data for both weak and strong
flows is not easy. An alternative kernel form has been explored by Papanastasiou
) presented above. We shall discuss those with a microstructural motivation in the
et at. (1983). They write
H = a' / (o/ - 3 + ,6'l e- , + (1 - .B')le),
where d and /3' are constants. It appears possible to fit the Wagner (1979) data
) for LDPE quite well with this kernel if d = 14.38, ,6' = 0.018 . For shearing nows
4.10 Other continuum models
Following the nearly-viscometric Rivlin-Ericksen theory (Section 4 .5) attempb
have been made to construct neariy-elongational approximate theories. Huiigoi
(1979) has presented results for this case. Since Ihere are no slip planes the theory
is not so elegant as in the viscometric case and no really convenient constitutive
model emerges. The number of functionals to be found experimentally is five,
which is difficult. Several other ideas have appeared, mostly building on work
next chapter; some older continuum models have been reviewed by Walters
(4.81) (1975), Bird el at. (1977), Tanner (1968), and Larson (1988). None of these is as
uniformly successful as the KBKZ or the Wagner equations or as useful in special
cases as the neariy-viscometric equation or as simple a s some of the Oldroyd
 4.11 APPROXIMATE CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS 183

'0
models and hence they will not be discussed. The idea of a co-rotational model,
~ vi'" referred to a locally rotating set of axes, has occurred to a number of writers and
" C
oc <;;
'" has been given a full exposition by Bird et al. (1977). One case is obta ined by
'';:; c::
'"
>( 0U setting Ml = >", M2 = >'2 in (4.13). There are difficulties with the response of these
_

<U
0::
'" '
E
_
0)

models especially in suddenly applied shearing (and shear) and we refer the
:nOQ reader to the book of Bird et al. (1977) for details . Some other, older models can
o _
"..c
be found in the book by Truesdell and Noll (1965); again , they do not seem to be
~ .~
as good an a pproximation as the KBKZ model and they will not be discussed.
'C " ---:N

~~
..c ~

"
~ '" 4.11 Some applications of approximate constitutive equations to
e f~
­
experimental measurements
N '" 0
,~ ~ ~
0:; "0"'" In flows that are close to shearing motions it is possible to use some of the
'';:; -0
~ approximate constitutive relations given above in successfull10w modelling.
'"
0lJ U
~
" => We now give some examples selected from those results which are useful in
.2 0
> '" ~
"' -;;; interpreting experiments . Readers interested in further discussions of con­ '"
o
t: "~ 0c
o stitutive equations may go directly to Chapter 5.
<1> Vi .~
-l c­
- =>
For steady Eulerian flows that are not exactly viscometric, the viscometric
I LLl~ constitutive equation , eqn (4.32), in the form given by Criminale, Ericksen, and
o 0.. fj
~ Filbey (1958) can be used as :::In ~pproxirnation. l\S 2 further simplifying
- ;::~
approximation when using ihe viscometric equation , it is sometimes useful to
,
i
\ I
i r
l-
~ ~
~ 0

consider one Of bOlh o[ lhe normai stress cocfficients WI and \jJ2 to be a constant

\ t ~j ~1,
I ~ ::
'/I C':l...c:
~
· cv
-::>­
- V:~
mUltiple of the viscosity function 1/. This is a qualitatively reasonable approx­
.>= ;:J" imation if the three functions have the same general shape. Reasonable quanti­
" ' ':
(\) c
E~ talive accuracy is obtained by choosing the constant of proportionality to make
~"
~~~ I ~
';;:: ::J
<U U
0. ­ the approximation exact at the highest shear rate relevant to the problem at hand .

~ /,;;~ .~ ~~
u~ Of course, the result of any approxima te computa tion must be discarded if the
I \ -=~ predicted fiow is not like a viscometric now, since the approxima tion scheme is
~
1
0;
Cl.
><:
u.l 1 I
t ~l
I~.,
r~
~
. ~ CO
~~
(3 I­
]t2
then not even self-consistent.
A still cruder approximation scheme that seems to give qualitatively correct
\~
E""8 results in flows that are nearly viscometric is to replace all of the viscometric

~1~
N ~
'\ . ~ u functions by appropriate constants. The best choice of the constants depends on

t
CO ~

~ 3 the problem being considered. With constant coefficients, the viscometric

01 "('!Joe:
c:: ­~
equation is formally the same as the second-order approximation for slow visco­
!Igl J~I I
>~
o '"
~ ff
elastic flow , eqn (4. 30c). Many mathematical pro blems ha ve been solved within
the second-o rder theory, and although it is difficult to attain shear rates so iow
wi </3\ [I'~ ....l
~
0-v
~
0 that the second-order approximation has relevance, it appears that these solu­
.. ' 11,1111 1[1111 t I I ' l l / I i II IIIIII1 c c tions may nevertheless be qualitatively correct if the flow is mainly a steady
s -0
S s '<T
S '0 .~ ~
o 5
laminar shearing motion. We now consider some solution methods based on the
(s-ed) 3l.t < l.t "'''
o.c
c '" second-order approximation.
0­
UN

- "'"
-0:0

-.if­
4.11.1 Some useJul results Jar second-order flows
In some problems in the second-order approximation, or equivalently the vis­
oil
i.i: cometric theory with constant coefficients, the velocity field remains ihat of a
 184 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4.11 APPROXIMATE CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS i85

Newtonian flow, and the non-linearities in the constitutive equation affect only The stress, found by using this result in eqn (4.32), is then
the distribution of normal stress. Furthermore, in such cases it is possible to
obtain simple expressions for the pressure analogous to Bernoulli's theorem for q = - I(17Q - T}T DQ / DI) + T}A- T}T(B - A2 - I tr A2 /4)
inviscid flows. + TlT'(A 2 - Q*I). (4.87)
The first non-trivial theorem of this kind is that the velocity field of any plane,
Newtonian creeping flow still satisfies the equations of the second-order For plane flow, V· (A2) = V(i'2) and thus,
approximation. The pressure formula for such flows was derived by Giesekus
(1963) and Tanner and Pipkin (1969), inuependentiy , and extensions to other Q" = 1'2 = ~ tr A2 (4.88)
kinds of flows have been discussed by Pipkin (1972) and Kearsley (1970) See also
Huilgol and Phan-Thien (J997). For parallel flows, if G is the magnitude of the axial pressure gradient and v is the
speed, then it is easy to show that
The main result is a kinematic identity, independent of any constitutive
equat:o". Wc cOiisider the velocily iieid v of an incompressible iluid motion. Let
V· (A2) = -(G/TJ)Vv + 1'V1', (4.89)
A = A I , and B = A2 be the first two Rivlin-Ericksen tensors for this flow . The
main hypothesis is that V . A is irrotational and thus
BAij oQ Q' = -(G / T})v + Y / 2.
(4.83 ) (4.90)
) ox) OX,
For potential flow, with v= vcjJ, we find that Q=O and that V. (A2) = V(2),
) (For example in creeping Newtonian flow the equiltions of motion have thi s whence
.~

.r..
, ;'
form. with Q =p! 7]Q). Thf:n V· (B - _~2) i s ~ds c ;rrc t~!!i c r:8!~ ~;1d i~:; p0 iCii~i(i.: C("111
be exhibited explicitlY: Q* == 1,2 . (4.91 )

)
.L "
V · (B - A 2) = V(DQ / Dt + 1'2 / 2).
Here the shear rate l' is defined by 21'2 o-c tr A2 The proof of the result (4 .84)
amounts to writing o ut both members of' eqn (4 .84) a t length, and then u sing (he
(4 .84 ) In the potential flow case, inertia in the flow can be included by using the total
pressure P + ~ pv 2 , instead of p, in the calculations.

Results of the same kind can often be obtained when the viscosity function is

not treated as a constant but the velocity field sa tisfies an cqua tion of the form

hypothesi s (4.83) and the definitions of AI and A2 [eqn (2.39»).

~ The rrec~d!ng resu!tcan be used in the fo:!oVv'ing Vv'ay. Let us sllJJJJuse thai in a v - (TjA) = VQ. (4. 92)
~

.
~ ,
I

I
given problem, the equations of Newtonian now can be put into the form (4.83).
If, instead of the Navier--Stokes equations , we use the constant-coefficient
(second-order) approximation to the viscometric equation, then in general the
In such cases one or both of the normal stress coefficients are treated as constant
multiples of T}, and a pressure formula is obtained provided that the viscosity
~.
velocity fi eld will be different from the Newtonian velocity v. However , we can function is constant along streamlines. We shall make such approximations
test the assumption that it remains the same. Under this assumption, th e where necessary in individual cases rather than developing general results that
momentum equation becomes (for creeping flow) use such approximations even where they are not needed. We give some examples
in the following sections.
Vp = V[-ryQ - T}T(DQ / Dt + ·i/2)J + T}T*V. (A 2 ). (4.85)
4.11.2 Pressure-hole errors
)
1
We have defined T}T = WI and T}T* =!
\jJ I + W2, for future convenience; A well-established experimental procedure for determining the fluid thrust on a
recall \[II and W2 are the normal stress coefficients [eqn (3. J 8)J . The condition of solid waH consists of drilling a smali hoie in the wall and attaching a pressure­
integra biJity is that V ,(A 2) is irrotational. If this is not true, then the Newtonian measuring device to the base of the hole (Fig. 4.17) The hole disturbs the primary
) velocity field is not satisfactory. If it is true, and the potential of V . (A 2) is Q* , flow, thus yielding in principle an error in measuring the undi sturbed pressure.
then the Newtonian velocity field v is still the correct velocity field, but the For Newtonian flow , dimensional analysis shows that the difference between the
pressure is changed from its Newtonian value to the value gauge pressure pg and the undisturbed thrust Pu must have the form
)
P = T}Q - T}T(DQ/Dt + 1'2/2) +fJT*Q'· (4.86) Pe = Pg - Pu = Tw/(Re, d/ D), (4 .93)

\
 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4.11 APPROX!MATE CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS 187
186

Pu The self-consistency of the data obtained from various viscometers by early

I ~_~ rSecond-ordcr workers would lead one to doubt that pressure-hole errors are important.
~-r 1 II shear )
!l---~II However, it now appears that this consistency is due to the consistency of
Ii I V iscous shear the pressure-hole error itself. Simple direct measurements (Tanner and Pipkin
_ _ _ _ _~ Streamline 1969) have confirmed the existence of such errors and have shown that for suf­
p,,1 I j 1----1 ficiently small holes, the error is independent of hole size. Thus, diminishing the
A 7 7 ? 7r 7 7~1-1~7~7""""'7~7""""7~\"""'~ hole size until inertial effects are unimportant does not affect the error due to
I I Surface
viscoelastici ty.
D I I
II ' •
I __. _ ~ Hole diameter d The cause of the error can be understood in terms of the extra tension in the
direction of shearing which occurs in shearing motions of viscoe!astic fluids. The
-1.-t,H..!~-ij

Fig. 4.17
o I [ IP I
g

Gaugereadiogp g

Pressure-hole mea suremenl definilion .

where Tw is the wall shear stress, d is the hole diameter, D is the hole depth, and
(Re) is the Reynolds number based on the wal! shear stress and thc hole cli"mel.er:
(4.94)
(Re) - ,tr(Cp I f) = prwtf jT?
In the limit of zero Reynolds number the flow is reversible and thus there is a
symmetrical streamline pattern if the hole is symmetrical. The Navier-Stokes
Iii ~
equa tions then imply that the pressure is constant along the hole centreline , and it
follows that the gauge pressure is the same as the pressure outside the hole. This
mean s that the pressure error in a Newtonian flow is an inertial effect. and thaI
the error can be made negligible by reducing the hole diameter until the Reynolds
number based on it is sufficiently small.
These facts are well known a nd it is usual to lake care that the diameters of
pressure holes are small enough to avoid inertial errors. In connection with vis­
coelastic fluids, where pressure measurements are needed in order to determine
the normal stress functions , various authors assumed that when changes of hole
size did not significantly affect their pressure measurements, then the hole sizes
must be small enough [0 give a true pressure reading. In so far as inertial errors are
concerned, it is beiieved that this is a correct inference.
However, the assumption that gauge pressure is equal to undisturbed wall
thrust was doubted, and it was suggested by Broadbent et al. (1968) that for
viscoelastic fluids there is a systematic error not connected with inertia. By
assuming that the error is a function of the undisturbed wall shear stress, it has
been possible to unify a number of puzzling experimental results, including some
anomalous normal stress data . The size of the error is not small in comparison
with the shearing stress, and P e as defined in eqn (4.93) is nega tive, opposite in sign
to the inertial error.
streamlines dip slightly toward the hole as they pass it (Fig. 4 . 17) The direction of
shearing is approximately along the direction of flow in such a motion, so that the
effect of the first normal stress difference is approximately to produce an extra
tension in the streamlines. If we consider a control volume in the shape of a
cylinder with one end deep in the hole and the other far out in the undisturbed
flow, the pressures on these two ends are respectively Pg and Pu . The shearing
stresses on the sides of the cylinder cancel out, and thus in Newtonian flow the
equilibrium of the control volume would require that pg = Pu . However, for a
viscoelastic fluid the streamline tensions exert an outward forclC on the control
volume and partly ba lance the thrust on the outside end, Pu ' The value of Pg
required for equ~libriun1 is then not as large as Pu -This argument suggests that the
gauge error should be negative, and that its value should be determined by the
first norma! stress difference. Since the flows for various hole sizes are geome­
trically similar (in the creeping flow approximation) , we can aiso understand why
the error is independent of size.
An approximate theoretical analysis giving an estimate orthe hole error can be
based Or! the results in Section 4.: 1.1. V,Je consider ilow across a deep, narrow slot
transverse to.the flow rather than a circular cylindrical hole, in order to be able to
use the results for plane flows . We suppose that the Reynolds number based on
slot width is small enough that the creeping flow approximation is valid. Then the
Newtonian velocity field satisfies eqn (4.83) with Q = pO/7) where pO is the pressure
corresponding to Newtonian flow. For viscoelastic response , if we approximate
the viscosity and normal stress coefficients by constants, the stress is given by
eqn (4.87) with Q = pO /7), Q' = i 2,7)T = ~\)J! and 7)T' =! '*';
+ W2
(j = -I(p° - TDpo /Dt) -j- 7)A - 7]T(B - A 2
- ll/2)
+ 1/T*(A2 - li)· (4.95)
To find the pressure error we consider simple shearing flow along a wall in the
plane y = 0, for which the undisturbed flow is v = 1yi. The disturbance due to the
'slot mouth is a local effect, so that the Newtonian flow is approximately v = iyi
still, if y is large in comparison to the slot width . The undisturbed thrust Pu is the
value of - a yy far from the slot mouth, which is, from (4.95),
Pu = pO + ~ 7)Ti 2 . (4.96)

)
)
 188 CONTINUUM-OERI VEO TH EOR IES 4 . 11 APPROXIMATE CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS 189

Deep inside the slot, the velocity tends to zero and the stress tends to an isotropic
pressure Pg = pO. Since the Newtonian pressure pO is constant along the slot
centreline, we obtain, since N! = lJi!i2 = 2ryTi2 ,
Pc =pg -pu = -!ryTi2 = -NI/4.
Thus , the gauge reads low by one-quarter of the first normal stress difference in
the undisturbed flow, and the error is independent of slot width when the slot is
narrow enough to neglect inertia! error.
When the flow is not globally a simpie shearing motion, the formula for the
pressure error is the same but the shear rate is that for the undist urbed motion at
the site of the slot mouth. This has heen verified in der<lii for Poiseui!!e flow and
flow in an open channel (Tanner and Pipkin 1969).
The theoretical result (4.97) was obtained by treating the viscosity and normal
s tress coefficients as constants . To compare with experiments we no longer trea t
N I as a constant. In other words, for a given flow we take the constant value of N r
to be the value of N r at the undisturbed shear rate that is ultimately relevant.
Under this interpretation, the result (4.97) is in good agreement with direct
measurements of the error (Fig. 4. 18) .
To obtain these direct measurements, fluid was allowed to flow steadily down
an inclined channel under its own weight. In such a flow the stress at the bed of the
channel is directly determined by the weight of fluid above it, and thus the
undisturbed thrust Pu is known from the outset. Gauges were attached to a slot
(4 .97)
and to holes in the bottom of the channel to obtain values of Pg. In Fig. (4.18) the
measured pressure error is compared with values of N r /4 estimated from the total
thrust in cone and plate experiments. See egn (3 .88).
The experiments by Tarmer and Pipkin (1969) found flO significant difference
between the errors for holes and for a siot across the direction of flow. However,
Kearsley (1970) pointed out a result that made it clear that there must be a dif­
ference that can be significant. If the differenc.e in norma! tr..ru:;t:; Gn the two waiis
ofa Couette viscometer, given by eqn (3.79), is corrected for the pressure errors at
both walls by using the formula (4.97), then the difference in gauge readings is
zero (apart from the effect of centrifugal force). This is not observed with pressure
holes. Kearslcy accordingly carried out Couette experiments with slots parallel to
the axis rather than holes, and found that at low shear rates the difference in
gauge pressures between two slots is indeed much smaller than the difference
between two holes . Kearsley also showed that for now parallel to a slot rather
than across it, the pressure error j " one-half the $eco:-:d nG,rr,al St."ess Jifference
(see Section 4.11 .3). This wouid suggest that for slots in the circumferential
directi on in a Coueite viscomelt::r , the measured difference in gauge pressures
should be almost equal to the full value given by eqn (3.79), not corrected for hole
error, because the correction based on the second normal stress difference is
relatively small. Experiments since made have verified this hypothesis.
Higashitani and Pritchard (1972) have estimated the pressure error for holes,
and have found that it is intermediate between those for the two kinds of slots.
This meaus ihat in the Couette geometry with pressure holes, the observed dif­
ference in gauge pressures is neither zero as for slots parallel to the axis nor is it the
nearly-full uncorrected value found for slots in the circumferential direction, but
rather it is an intermediate value not as large as the uncorrected value (3.79).
In our notation, the pressure error formulas given by Higashitani and
Pritchard (1972) are, for now across a slot:
I f'T
f lc = - -2)0 N . (rh/T)
I' ~'" (4.98)

~"~

\
\
for flow along a slot,

\0\-N
_,/4 Pc = r N2 (dr / r), (4.99)
)

-J

Fig. 4.18 Pressure-erro r results . The Solulion is a wate r-soluble po lyacrylamide a t 2S° C. The
c ircles are experimental dala , and fit the rule p, ~ - 0 .2 N, closely. The full line is the si mple Pe = -
)0
and for now past a hole,

3If'
Jo (N, - N2)(dr / r), (4.100)
theoretical resull p,~ - O.2 S N, .

\
 190 CONTINUU M-DERIVED TH EORI ES 4 . 11 APPROX!MATE CONSTITUTIVE EQUAT10NS 191

where the viscometric functions are treated as functions of the shearing stress T in
the integration . In the constant-<:oeflicient approximation, the first two of these
results agree respectively with the results found by Tanner and Pipkin (1969) a·nd
by Kearsley (1970) and the resul t for holes is
pe = - i(N, - N2). (4.10 I)
The method used by Bigashitani and Pritchard to derive these results is a little
iess convincing in the case of holes than in the simpler cases involving slots , hut
there is little doubt that the error for holes should have (approxim(ttely) the
general form
pe = CI NI + C2N2 , (4. 102)
and the values -CI = C2= 1/6 are reasonably concordant with what one might
expect from the results on slots. If we se t N2 equal to - 0.15 NI (see Table 3.9) in
eqn (4.101), we obtain Pe = -0.19 N" which is close to the value -0.2 NI found
experimentally for both slots and holes. The slight difference suggests th a t -CI
might be a little larger than 1/6; no inference about C2 can be made since the error
approximation [eqn (4 .30c)] and in the third-order approximation. Transverse
flow first appears in the fourth-order slow motion approximation .
Although there are a few experimental papers describing secondary flows in
non-circular tubes it is not an easy matter to detect these flows. Symmetry con­
siderations show that the transverse flow is broken into cells bounded by the
symmetry axes of the cross-section (Fig. 4.19) and conceivably the actual cells
could be smaller than those required by symmetry.
Thus there is only a comparatively small part of the cross-section in which the
tran sverse flow could be appreciable . Observations show that although stream­
lines are indeed spirals, one turn of the spiral requires an axial distance of many
(~l 0 ) diameters along the length of the tube . Thus unless one has very long tubes
2
!lnd correctly positioned measuring equipment, one is quite likely to miss the
phenomenon.
]f we assume that the transve rse circulation is negligible, then the flow is vis­
cometric and the viscometric constitu tive equa tion is applicable. The discussion
of Poiseuille flow in Section 3.5.2 is then relevant, and in particular the axial
velocity satisfies eqn (3.52), with w = 0 at the tube walls if there is no slip. From
eqns (3.51) and (3.53) we find that the pressure P is given by
)
_ r _ . .. , ., .;:;;, ~

is re!3t:ve!y ;ilscnsitive; to the Vit JUC of C2. Proposais have been made to use the P - -VL ;- 12\'YI + r\x,YI, (4.103)
hale-pressure difference a s a means ofmeasuring tVl without di sturbin g (hc flow
greatly . Accurate calibration of such a device ill high shear rates needs care,
I where h is the integral of
the second normal stress coefficient defined in
)
eqn (3.28) . The P must satisfy
particularly as the flow is then often observed to be un symmetric with respect (0

.
the hole axis. Further discussion is given by Lodge and de Vargas (1983)
F or the plane flow (slot) case, Sugeng el al. (1988) did a numerical computa tion
of the flow field and the stresses, finding the hole error was -0.24 N 1 for the UCM
model. Using a modified Phan-Thien-Tanner model the experimental results or
Pike and Baird (1984) for polystyrene were \vell described by the computations.
The flow over the slot was not symmetrical as assumed in the approximate
1
second-order analysis given above, proba bly due to the con vcc tive stress terms in
the UCM and PTT models.
I
v p.,." V . (W2 V;;;)Vw. (4.104)
This equation generally has no solution because the right-hand member is not
irrotational.
However, if we write \Il 2 = - T 2'17 + remainder and pick the constant coefficient
T2 so as to optimize the first term as an approximation to W2, then on neglecting
the remainder we have w2 = - T 2'17; rectiiinear flow is possible ifsuch a relation is
valid . Indeed , with this approximation, when we take eqn (3.53) into account we

4.11.3 Flow in non-circular lubes and channels

In Section 3.5.2 we found that steady parallel flows are not partially controllable
unless the slip surfaces are paraliei planes or coaxial circular cyjjnders, and thus Wall s
they are not in general dynamically admissible at all in real lluids. Thus, the flow
C::>f~

~
in (t tube of non-circular cross-section will generally not be a parallel flow.
More particularly, rectilinear flow is only possible if the second normal stress
coefficient (W2) is zero (the Weissenberg hypothesis) or if it is a constant
mUltiple of the viscosity function, but generally not otherwise. Green and Rivlin
(I956) examined the flow in a tube of elliptical cross-section, using a special t.
constitutive equation, and found a weak secondary circula tion in each quadrant.
(aJ Elliptical lube (b) Quarter of. sq uare tube
Langlois and Rivlin (1963) found that the flow in a tube is rectilinear not only
in the Newtonian (first-order) approximation but also in the second-order Fig. 4.19 Secondary flows in elliptical and square lubes induced by axial pressure drop.

)
 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4. j I APPROXIMATE CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS 193
192

find that eqn (4.104) becomes as in the parallel plate or cone and plate instruments, this transverse now is
negligibly small when the gap between plate and rotor is sufficiently small.
vf>=GT2VIV, whence ?=GT2IV+C. (4.105) There are several reasons for corisidering flows of this kind other than the
simple cone and plate and torsional flows. First, analysis of edge effects in the
In the final result we replace T2 by -W2/TJ, evaluated at each point with the shear basic flows requires consideration of flows that are not completely controllable.
) rate appropriate to that point. By doing so, we obtain Second, the cone and plate instrument often has a rotor that is not exactly a cone,
but a cone with its tip cut off to prevent fouling (Fig. 3.5). Third, in order to
p = -Gz + 12 - GW2W/TJ + C. (4.106) estima te the errors that can OCCIJf due to incorrect setting of the cone, it is usefUl to
consider the operation of the cone and plate device when the tip of the cone is
By using this result in the expression (4.30c) for the stress, we find that the separated from the plate by a small distance c (Fig. 3.5).
normal thrust Oil the tube wall , say Pu, is '. FinaJIy, the cone and plate can be used in. attempting to meaSiire the second
(4.107) normal stress difference, by operating the instrument with known, non-zero tip
pu = -Gz + /2 - N2 + C. separations.
KearsJey (J 970) has considered the pressure error for a slot along the direc­ In all of these cases we suppose that the motion is a steady circular now
lion of flow. The tube, augmented by such a slot , is merely a tube of a different (Section 3.2.3). The stress is given by eqn (3.23). We use this in the equilibrium
cross-section. We can interpret the preceding result as the undisturbed pressure at equa tion (that is, negiecting centrifugal force) and specify that there is no azi­
the site of the slot mouth. Deep inside the slot , where the velocity and shear rate muthal pressure gradient.
are negligible, the pressure is Pg = -Gz + C. Thus the gauge error for a flow We suppose that the gap between the plate and the cone or other rota ting body
has a width her) at the radius /", ann th8.t h is e\'eryv,'h:::re mueh Si"lidiier than the
parallel to a pressure slot is
outer radius '0, If Wo is the angular veiocity of the rotor, then the shear ral::: is
- ~~
.... (4 . 108) approxin1Zit:..:ly
[Ie = Pg - P" = N 2 - 12·

,­
i
I '.
I.
In the constant - \lJ 2 approximation, for which 12 = N 2/2, the pressure error is half
the second normal stress difference. This is Ihe result obtained by Kearsley that
i = rwo/h(r), (4.109)

I was mentioned in Section 4.11.2. and thus it is a function of r alone. In these cases we find (Pipkin and Tanner 1972)
In wbe and channel flows the first normal stress difference produces an extra
tension along t he streamlines that tends to pull them straight if they start to curve, rro

QUI OIherwise has no efiecl. Normal stress effects in such flows are caused by the
second normal stress difference, so il is natural to attempt to use such flows to
measure N 2 . As we have just seen , the error for pressure siot along the direction of
flow is directly related to N2 and more generally the distribution of normal thrust
around the tube wall depends on N 2 . We have already discussed a method based
on measurement of the difference in normal thrusts on the two parts of the
boundary in the flow in the annular gap between two coaxial cylinders. Such
measurements afe subject to correction for pressure-hole errors, of course, if
pressure holes are used; note that mounting flush·fitting ga uges on curved walls is
> not easy.
) more toierable than those which occur with other boundary conditions, it has
4.11.4 Gel/eral lorsional flows
) Steady nows in circles are kinematically admissible viscometric flows, with sur­
faces of revolution as slip surfaces (Section 3.2.3). These flows generally cannot
sa tisfy the dynamical equations exactly. Both centrifugal forces and normal stress
effects cause transverse flow, and the motion is then no longer exactly visco­
metric. However, when the flow is produced by holding a rotor near a flat plate,
p(r) = j (NI + 2N2 )(dr/r) -I hh) - lkro) + Po, (4.110)
where io is the shear rate at the rim and Po is the radial pressure there; h is defined
in (3.28).
Uthe sample is held in the viscometer by surface tension so that the outer radius
ro is the boundary of the fluid (the free boundary condition), then Po is atmo­
spheric pressllre, at least approximately. However, there is some smail ambiguity
because the shape of the free boundary is not known exactly, as wc mentioned
previously.lfthis is ignored, we can computethestress from eqn (3.23) and (4.110).
Although we believe tha t this slight error in the "free boundary condition is
been proposed that the viscometer be operated fully immersed in a sea of liquid so
that there is a large body of fluid outside the rim roo In this case the estimation of
the radial pressure Po at the rim requires further analysis. It has been shown that
if h is the gap width at the rim (with h« r o) , the zone in which the shear rate
changes from its full operating value inside the gap to negligible values outside the
gap, has a width of the order of h. From eqn (4.110) we see that the change of
194 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4 . 11 APPROX1MATE CONSTITUTIVE EQUATiONS 195
)
P across this transition zone, from Po inside to Poo, say, outside, is given by If the rotor is a cone then the shear rate is uniform when e = 0, and the integrands
are constants, apart from the explicit factors involving r. The relative error
Po - Poe = hCio) + NIO(h/ro)· (4.111 ) dM/M due to a setting error de is then found to be
If H is the depth of fluid just outside the gap and we take Poo to be the hydrostatic dM=_3dlogiTJ! d c,
pressure pgH, and if h/ro is sufficiently small, then (4.118)
M 2 d log i Ic=o ho
Po = pgH + h h) · (4. 112)
where flo is the gap at the rim when e = O. For a cone with its tip cut off, so that
th~re is a flat of radius rr, the derivative dM/dc differs from that shown by a term
Thus the radial pressure at the rim is nOI the hydrostatic pressure as often )
of relative magnitude O(rf /I~), which is usually negligible.
assumed, but depends on the shear rate at the rim. In the constant - '*'2approxi­
From eqn (3.23), the thrust against the plate is P - N 2 , and the total thrust is
mation, 12 is equal to N2 /2 and thus the pressu re just inside the rim is smaller than ..................... _.....1; .... .-1,.

CI'-'vVI U'Holy
hydrostat!c by half the !I1agnitude cf the second i10rmal streSS diffen:::Ilce )
F = 27r ~ (p - N 2)r dr
1 = 7rr~ Po - 7r 1~ (2N2r + r2pl) dr.
(assuming that N z is negative). In terms of the thrust against the plate, the result is
(4.119)
(4.113)
o . 0
- Ozz (ro) = po - Nz = pgH + hho) - Nkro) ·
For a cone, since i is independen t of r when e = 0, we find that the slope at e = 0 is
With this meaning of pressure, there is an excess of pressure (over hydrostatic)
under the rim, equal to - N z/2 if 'liz is trea ted as constant (Pipkin and Tanner dF/ de = (7rI· 0 / wo)[dN I /dc.-y-I) - iNzJ. (4.120)
1972) . Thus, neither the radial nor the axial pressure is equal to the hydrostatic
pressure. it has ueen proposed that this siope be used, along with known values of N i , to
It has been sho,vn that the pressure neC1r the rin1 , vv'ithin dis tances of the order determine 1\]2. However, we no tice that since each di fferent iatio n with respect to c
or the ga p width h, is descri bed rea son~b!y '"vell by cqn (4.113). t'-~ote thai if jV 2 i::; introduces a new factor I/r into the integrand , the integrand of d 2 F/ dc z is pro­ )
negative, then the rim pressure -oz.(ro ) is greater than hydrostatic . and vice portional to I /r and thus this derivative is infinite . This means tha t numerical
versa. Experiment s with flu sh-mounted pressure gauges show tha t the excess rim differentiation to determine dF/de at c = 0 is a practical impossibility, and thus
pressure is positive, 35 expected (Pipkin and Tanner 1972). that using eqn (4. 120) to determine N2 can give highly misleading results. In the
To consider the problem of gap-setting erro rs , we suppose th at the gap width case of a cone with its tip cut off, the second derivative is not infinite , but it
l1(r) has the form involves a factor log (r,jrr) that may he substantial.

her) = 11'(r) + c, (4.114) 4.11 .5 Eceenlric-dise flow

so that changing e represen ts changing the spacing. A common method of testing viscoelastic materials is to measure the stress
The moment required to hold the plate is needed to produce a small, sinusoidally oscillating deformation (Chapter 2) . The
stress can be decomposed into a part in phase with the strain and a part 90° out of
/,0 (4. 115)
phase, in phase with the strain-rate. By dividing these parts by the strain
M = 27r)o Yrir2 dr. amplitude, one obtains values o f the elastic-storage modulus [G/(w) ] and the loss
modulus GI/(w). The dynamic viscosity is related to the loss m o dulus by
T o compu te the change of 1.1 due ;0 a sJTI aii setting error c '" 0, we first note from TJ'(w) = GI/(w)/w. (See Section 2.6.3.)
eqns (4.109) and (4.114) that Gent (i960) described an ingenious method of testing solid polymers for G*
and Maxwell and ChartofT (1965) used the same principle in a device adapted for
8c.-y-')/8c = I / wor . (4.116) the testing of polymer melts (Fig. 4.20). In this instrument a steady rotational
flow is used to measure the frequency-dependent properties of the material , and
Then the measurement of phase angle is replaced by the task of measuring steady
forces .
dM = 27r /,0 d(7TJ? rdr . (4.117) The device consists of parallel discs that rotate at the same angular velocity n
de wo )o d (,),- ) about axes perpendicular to the discs but not coincident. When the distance h
 196 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES 4. i 1 APPROXiMATE CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS 197

'\ This analysis also requires the strain amplitude a/h to be in the linear range.
Gross and M ax well (1972) have shown that the measured stress remains pro­
portional to a/h up to values of this strain of the order of 0.50 for some polymers
(compare Fig. 4.9). They emphasized that the limit of linear behaviour depends
on the strain amplitude, not the strain-ra teo This is of interest because some
. rheological models require a small value of the strain-rale amplitude afl/h for
r-
I I /. ~
! KOlallon
.
Fy
linearity (for example, single integral models with a strain--rate dependent
kernel).
I I sense To obtain the results (4.121·· i22) we postulate the velocity field (v = (I.l,V,w» is
(Fig. 4.20)
)

u=-n(y-aD, v = flx w = O. (4.123)

M"
]f edge effects and velocity lag (i.e. a difference between flu and fl L ) are neglected

)
)
" //

r
.h-­

__ ("'I
//---- Sample

F
:r
but inertia is ta ken into account, the velocity field has the form

u= -nlY - Yo(z)], v = nIx - xo(z)J, w = 0, (4.124)

with a line of centres that is nol I he straight line Xu = 0, Yo - " z!!; assuilled above.
~ '-+" ·"C Abbott and Walters (1970) determined the line of centres exactly for the case of a
I
fl M,. Newtonian liquid (thus tliscovering a previously unknown exact solution of the
Navier-Stokes equation) and for a linearly viscoelastic liquid with arbitrary
\,. ­
~
"
Fig. 4.20 Eccentric disc rheometer s h ow ing plan view (lOp) a nd side view (hoI/om) and" 'free
edge' config uratio n fo r the samp ic. III normal o pera lion n,,'i:ll L =S2.
moduli. They found that the line of centres departs from straightness by an
amount proportional to the offset a and proportional in lowest order to the
!
Reynolds number pnh 2 /'ri. Under ordinary operating conditions this Reynol ds
:.
.. between the plates IS sufficiently small . the Ollie! can be held in the gap by surface number is so small that inertial effects are negligible .

)
I
.' tension. In some cases the lower disc is replaced by a rotarine (".Jp .
A Ouid element starting at the right-b and side in Fig. (4.20) is sheared [rom a
top-outward position to a top-inward position as the discs rotate through ISO°.
Thel to is an interestin g paradox concerning the fl ow between discs of finite
radii. Except near the edges, the rate of energy dissipation is ox,afl/h, with O"xz
uniform . The total dissipation is then Voxzafl/h, with V the effective volume of
"'1 The elastic force required for the shearing is in the positive y-direction on both the Oow region. Hwe define the effective contact area between the fluid and either
sides. The viscous force, related to the rate of shear, is parallel to the x-direction. disc as A = V/h , then the total rate of dissipation is seen to be equal to aFxfl with
Gent (1960) recognizee! that the stress components in the test specimen would Fx give n by (4.121). However, if the effective contact area is a ci rcle centred on the
) be uniform and constant in time, and he showed that the force needed to hold the axis of rotation and the stress is uniform in this region, then no work is done by
top disc in pl ace would be related to the viscoelastic moduli by the disc on the fluid . This way of stating the paradox contains its soiution; the
) region in which the stress is tolerably uniform is nol centred on the axis of
F< = A (ajh)G"(fl), (4. i 2 i) rotation .
)
]n normal operation of the rheometer, one of the discs is driven at a prescribed
and
) angular velocity fl and the other is allowed to rotate freely. Except when a = 0 ,
Fy = A(ajh)G'(fl). (4.122) this leads to a small difference .0.fl between the angular velocities of the discs. If
) the top disc, say, is turned with a moment M and the lower disc rotates freely
Here A is the contact area, a is the distance between the axes of rotation, h is the about its axis, then the power supplied is Mfl. This must be equal to the rate of
gap width, and fl is the angular velocity. This result requires that the shear dissipa tion aFxfl, so that the moment is M = aFx . Then either the effective con­
amplitude a/h be smali enough that non-linear geometrical effects can be tact area is not a circle centred on the axis of rotation, or the velocity field does not
neglected. have the ideal form (4.123).
)
 198 CONTiNUUM-DERIVED THEORIES REFEREN CES 199
)
The eccentric di sc device is sometimes a u seful method of measuring the moduli Green , A. E. and Rivlin, R . S. (1956). Q. appl. Math., 14,229.
G' and Gil especially a t low frequencies beca use one thereby avoids the problem of Green , A. E . a nd Rivlin, R . S. (1957). Archs. ratio n. M ech . Ana/., I, I.

Gross, L. H . and Maxwell, B. (1972). Trans . Soc. Rileol., 16, 577 .

accurate phase angle m easurements . However, ins trument s tructural ne xibilit y

Higashitani , K. ar.d Pritchard, W . G. (1972) . Trans. Soc. Rheol., 16, 687 .

can give rise to problems, and the method seems unlikel y to supplant tim e­ Hill, R. (1950). The mathematical theory 0/ plasticity. Oxford University Press.
sinusoidal testing. Further discussion and other variants of this method of Hohenemse r, K . and Prager, W . (1932). ZaMM ., 12,2 16.
measurement are given by Walters (1975); see also Huilgol (1969) . Huilgol, R. R . (1969). Trans. Soc. Rheol., 13, 513 .

Huilgol , R. R. (1979). J. Non-Newtonia n Fluid M ech., 5, 219.

4.12 Summary
From the material in this chapter we sce th a i the ce ntral area in Pipkin's di ag r am
(Fig. 3.9) is difficult to de sc ribe by the co nt inuu m approach to finding con­
s!!tutive re~at! cns. The ~ C$ t Do tD.b!e success is the ir,c vcrsible I(D:ZZ ri10d e ~ ,
Huilgol , R . R . and Phan-Thien, N. (1997). Fluid mechanics 0/ viscoelas ticity, Elsevier,
AITlsterd am .
Joseph , D. D. ( !98 1) . Archs. ration. Mech. Anal., 75, 25i.
Kaye, A. (196 2). College o f Aeronautics, Cranfield, No te No. 134 .
Kearsley, E . A. (1970). Trans. Soc. Rheol., 14,4 19.
L aiJgl0is, \V. L. and ruvlifl, R. S. (i963). Rend. !vial., 22, 169.

which does not follow the cl assical pa It ern of equa tion developmen t a nd appea rs Larson, R. G. (1988). ConstilUtive equations lor polymer melts and solutions.
Butterworths, Bos ton .

to have b<:en inspired b y rubber-elastic theory . We shall now leave the cl assica l Larson , R. G. and M o nroe, K . (1987). Rheo l. Acta, 26, 208.

approaches and look to microstructural ideas in th e next chapter for a further Laun, H . M . (1978). Rheol. Acta., 17, 1.

guide to possible types of constitutive model s for non - linear viscoelastic mate­ ", Leigh, D . C. (1968). Nonlinear continuum m echan ics . McGraw-Hill, New York .
rials. At the end of Chapter 5 we shall s urvey the various constitutive proposals Lipscomb, G. G. and Denn , M. M . (1984). 1. Non-Newt onian Fluid Mech ., 14, 337.

Lodge, A. S. (1964) Elastic liquids. Academic Press, London. )

and class ify their responses to various test now s (Table 5.4).
Lodge, A. S. and de Vargas, L. (1983). Rhea!. Acta, 22, 151.

Luo, X. L. and Tanner. R . I. (1 988). fnt . .! lVI'Y!'! . Me!!! . Er.;; ., 25, 9.

')
7' References Magnin, A. and Piau , 1. -1'.1 . (!992) . in Theorei;ca[ and appiied rheology (ed.

P. Moldenael s an d R. Keunings), p . 195. Eisevier, Amsterdam . .

Abbott, T . N. G. a nd Waiters, K . (1970). 1. Fluid Mech., 40.205. Ma xwell , B. and C hartoff, R. P. (1965). Trans. Soc. Rheol. , 9, 41.

At a pattu, D . D ., Chhabra , R . P . and'Uhlherr, P H . T. (J990). 1. Non- .Ne ,,·tol1ion Fluid O'Donova n , E . J. a nd Tanner, R. I. (1984). J . Non - New tonian Fluid M ech., 15, 75.

"'­
''.; M ech. , 38, 31.
Ogden, R. W . (1984). Nonlinear elastic de/o rmation . Ellis Horwood, Chichester.

Atkinson, C. a nd El-.<I..!i, K . (!992). J. Non · NCH·t() lI ian Fll.i id Mech .. 41 . 339 .

Oldroyd, J. G . (950). Proc. Roy . Soc., A200 , 523.

Barnes, H . A. (1992). Proc. X I fnt. Congress on Rheology. (ed . P . Mol de naers a nd

Oldroyd, J. G . (1958). Proc. Roy. Soc., A245, 278.

.., R. Keunings), p . 576. Brusse ls, Elsevier. Amsterdam . Osak i, K ., Kimura, S., a nd Kurata, M. (198 1). J. Rheol. , 25, 549.

Barnes, H . A. a nd W a lters, K. (1985). Rhea/. Acra, 24, 323 .

Papanastasiou , A . c.. Scriven, L. E. ana M"cosko, C. W. (1983). J. Rhea!. , 27,387.

Beris, A. N ., '1 samop o uJos, J. A ., Arm s trong , R . c., a nd Bro wn, R. A . (1985). J . Fluid Papanastasiou , T. C. (1987). J. Rheo!., 31 ,385 .

Mech., 158,219. Petrie, C. J. S. (1979). Elongational flows, Pitman, London .

Bernstein, B. , Kearsley , E. A., <lnd Zapas, L. J. (1963). Trans. So c. Rhen/., 7 , 391. Pipkin, A. C. and Tanner, R . I. (1972). Mechanics today, 1,262.

Bevedy, C . R. a nd T an ne r, R . 1. (i 989). 1. Rheol., 33, 989 .

Pipkin, A . C (1964). Rev. mod. Phys ., 36, 1034.

Beverly, C. R. and T an ner, R. 1. (1992). J . Non-Newtonian Fluid M eek, 42 , 85.

Pipkin. A . C. (1972). Lectures on viscoelasticity theory . Springer-Verlag, New York.

Bird , R. B., Armstrong, R . c., an d Hassa ger, O. (1977 ). Dynamics 0/ polymeric liquids, Reiner , M. (1945). Am. J. Math., 67,350 .

Vol. 1., Fluid dynamics. Wile y, New York .

Rivlin , R . S. (1948). Proc. R . Soc., A 193, 260.

Bird , R . B., D ai , G . c., an d Yar usso, B. J. (1982). Rei'. Chem . Eng., I , I.

R oland, C. M . (1989). Rubber Chern. and Tech. , 62, 863 .

Boger, D . V. (1977) . .1. Non -Newtonian Fluid lvfech ., 3, 87.

Schwedoff, T. (I R90) . J . Physique, [2], 8, 34.

Broadbent, J . M ., Kaye, A., Lodge , A. S ., a nd Vale, D . G . (1968). N ature L ond. , 21 7, 55 .

Sherwood, J. D ., Meeten, G . H ., Farrow , C A., and A lderm a n , N. 1. (1991). 1. Non-

Chakrabarty, j . (1987). The ory 0/ plasticity . McGraw-Hili, New York.

New tonian Fluid Mech ., 39, 311.

Cheng, D. C. H. (1986). Rhea!' Acta, 25,542 .

Sugeng, F., Phan-Thien, N. a nd Tanner, R . 1. (1988). J. Rheol., 32, 215.

Criminale, W . O., Ericksen , J. L. , and Filbey, G. L. (1958). Arch. rat ion. Mech . A na!., 1,
Szabo, P . a nd Ha ssager, O. (1992). J . Non·New/onian Fluid Mech., 45, 149.

410. Tanner, R. i. (1968). Trans. Soc. Rheol. , 12, 155.

)
Currie, P. K. (1982). J . Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech., 11 , 53.
Tanner, R. I. and Pipkin , A . C. (1969). Trans . Soc. Rheol., 13, 471.

Debbau!, B. and Crochet, M . J. (1988). J . Non -Newtonian Fluid Mech., 30, 169.
Tanner, R. I. a nd Simmo ns, J. M. (1967). Chern. Eng. Sci., 67, 1803.

Einaga, Y ., O saki , K. , Kurata, M ., Kimura, S., and T a mura, M . (1971). Polymer J . Tanner, R . I. and Walters , K . (1998). Rheo logy: An historical perspec tive . Elsevier,
(Japan) 2 , 550. Amsterda m .
Gent, A . N. (1960). Br. 1. appl. Phys., 11 , 165 .
Tmesdeil, C. and Noll, W. (196 5). The nonlinear /ield theories 0/ mechanics. Springe r­
Giesekus, H. (1963). Rheol. Acta, 3, 59 . Verlag, Berlin .
)
200 CONTINUUM-DERIVED THEORIES PROBLEMS 201

Wagner, M. H . (1977). Rheol. Acta, 16, 43.

10. For the steady flow of the UCM model [eqn (4 .25») Ren a rdy has argued that near
) high stress points Ihe constilutive equation can be approximated by >.C!>.r/ c!>'t = O. Show
Wagner, M. H. (1978). J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. , 4, 39.

Wagner, M. H. (1979). Rhea!. Acta, 18, 681.

that this has an exact solution of the form Tij = h{'Ij;)Vi Vj where Vi is a velocity component
Wagner, M. H. and Meissner, J. (!980). Makromol. Chemie, 18i , i533 .
and h is an arbitrary function of the stream fun c tion 'Ij;.
Wagner, M. H., Ehrecke , P. , Hachmann, P., and Meissner, J. (1998) . J. Rheol. ,

42, 621. II. Show that the result in Problem 7 can be obtained by using (4.87) and (4.91) direclly.
Walters, K. (1975). Rheometry. Chapman & Hall, London.
12. Consider a slider with a sharp corner (Fig. 4.21) sliding with speed W in the
Walton , I. C. and Bittlesto n, S. H. (1991). J . Fluid Mech., 222, 39.
z-direction parallel to the plane y = 0; the entire space is filled with a second-order l1uid.
White, J. L. a nd Tanaka, H. (1981). 1. Non-Newtonian Fluid M ech , 8, 1.
Compute the normal stres s on the surfaces deep Vv'ithin ihechanneL (i.e. far to the left of A).
Whiie , j . L. and Tokita, N. (1967). J. Phys. Soc. Japan , 22 , 719.
What difference would a radius (o r chamfer) at corner A make?
Wii son, S. 0. R. (19930) . J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech., 47 , 2 I!.
Wilson , S. D. R. (1993&). J. Non-Ne wtonian Fluid M ec" ., SO, 45. 13. Consider a truncaled cone-plate apparatus (Fig. 4.22). The angle a is grossly
Zapas, L. J. (1974). In De/ormation and fra cture 0/ high polymers (eei. H. Kausch), exaggerated_ Compute the ~o!"q!.!e .~1 ar:d th~..iSl ,l.C:on the (;un~ as function s of h/ I-f. Assulne
p. 381 . Plenum Press. N e w York a second-order fluid model.
Zdilar, A. M . and Tanner, R. I. (1992). Rheol. A cta , 31, 44.
14. Repeat Question 13 but with an error in spacing of cone/plate so that h is zero but the
cone tip is now separaled by a distance c from the plate [eqns (4.118) and (4.120»).
Problems
I . C ompute the response of the Reiner- R ivlin fluid in a steady extensional flow. Show
tha t the extensional viscosity [see eqn (3.94») is unsymmetric so that 7Jd i:) oj 7Jd - i: ) in
ge neral.

2. Show that for flow ofa powe'c-Iaw fluid [(eqn (4.4)] that ~ similarity '()""i0l~ "~;SlS fc~ -1 I
"'!'l
ille (i-iamei) tlOW consisting of n o w into ~ converging plane channel. Deri ve a n cquailon 1 . I ,
satisfied by th e radial vefoci!y, Vr where Vr is of ihe fo nn r - 1/(0) in ri<lne po la r coordin<!tes. , I
~1
1 I

"­
Omit inertia if needed.
I
I
II ,I~Zero pressure
3. In vestigate Ihe response of the Oldroyd equation (4.1 3) in steady elongational flow
with J.lo -., 01 = ti l = A2 = 1'2 = Oas a function o f th e Iwo parameters A,E, and ,1, /
A,. Find
a ny crilical ra les of strain (thai is. whe re 7JE --4 (0) as functions of Ihese two param e lers .
I
I
far awi'l v

.
4 . C o nsid e r a beam of square cross-section (side a) modelled as an ela slic-plastic ,/ ( / /" / / / / ( rOA
J!
I / )
,I

1 -- - . . /./
r;
incon1rr~5sjble n1ater:3!. '.vith y;ckJ stress ClIlJ 'Young's moduius E. A constant mome nt
( )I

is applied \0 bend Ihe beam. Lei the axis of the beam lie in the z-direction , x and y lie in the
cross-seclion, parallel 10 Ihe sides. The axis of the applied moment M is Ihe x-axi s . Sketch
Ihe y ielded and unyielded a reas as M is increased, using simpic bea m theory. What is the
maximum moment that can be withstood by the beam?
yt
~
x
, - - - - - - - ..../
- - - - -­
.J..---Fluid

Fig. 4.21 Problem 12.

5. Work oUI Ihe steady shear and elongation results fo r the co-rotational model. In this
model,,! = A" /12 = A2, and J.lo = a, = a2 = 0 in eqn (4.13). What do you conclude about
ils a bility 10 de scribe typical fluid s?

)
6. Compute Ihe shear viscosity of a third-order fluid as a function of s hear ra le . Show
lh a l there IS an upper shear rate beyond which Ihe approximation fail s to be realistic.
't'M

.- --,tF I
i

~
) 7. For Ihe second- o rder fluid model, compule the stresses in a flow into a lin e sink of
s trength 2-rrq (q < 0). (Inertia is 10 be included .) Suppose the slress a,,. is zero al a finile
) radius R i . Piol the res ult s for a" and aoe as a function of radius in creeping flow when q = I,
Ri=5.
r '
H " Llh
8. Prove result (4.84). I ___
T 7 7 ' 7 T 71 T-" 77-T~-~"-'1T7

)
9. Using Ihe delinitions (2.89), (2. J 06) , and (4.45), show Ihal as W --4 0, "r -> 0, one has
Ihe relation w, h) = 2G'{w)/w 2 . Fig. 4_22 Problem 13.
 202 CONTI NUUM-DER IVEO THEORI ES

15 . Compute the steady shear response of the double integral form (4.42) assuming
-/.Li(/) = (TJI / >..2)exp {- r/ >..) and /.122(11,12) = (TJV >..4 ) exp-(II + /2) / >'" What is the
viscosity fun cti on?
16. Calcula te C- I for (2. 43) . Show that 11< = 1<_ , in this case (thi s is a general result for
incompressible materials). 5

17 . Compute the C tensor for the eccentric disc flow (4 . 123).

MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES

It is ciear from Chapter 4 that in many cases it is difficult to find an accurate,

useful m a terial description purely from continuum considerations. In nearly­
v!scomet!"!c f10'NS S0!ne success h2S bee:} achieved and I<J31<..Z-type theory has
been generally useful. Nevertheless, it is instructive to try and derive constitutive
models from micromechanical models, and this is the concern of the present
chapter. An ultimate goal is to derive rheological behaviour from the know'n
material parameters and structure, and progress in this direction is being made.
By taking account of the microstructure of substances we expect to gain more
insight into the type of constitutive equation needed to describe their mechanical
behaviour. At the extremes , we can deal either with dilute or concentrated
solutiOi:S; ;r. the fOriT. e;', ~uch partic:c interacts oniy wiib ihe sojvent and not with
~
other suspended particles , while in the latter there are particle-pa rticle intera c­
lions, which are dominant; in this case molecular ' entanglements' may form.
Particles may also be ofsignificant size, leading to su spension theory. To begin we
-;; will concentrate on dilute solution theory.

i 5.1 The polymer molecule

... We m a y rli~ $ 0lve a ll sorts ofsubsta r!ces to ferm sCh.!t~ O D S : hc:rc we -wiU Ontl) think
P-i of polymer molecules . Many books (for exampie, Biilmeyer 1964) give details of
the chemical structure of polymer molecules, where they occur, and how they are
made . Note that the linking of many monomer units leads to very elongated
stntctures; for example, poly(ethylene oxide) is formed by linking many units of
the form:

[- CH2 - CH2 - 0][ - CH2 - CH 2 - 0][ - . . . J.

This is a linear polymer: others with side branches and grou ps are quite possible;
often 105 units can be assembled into a macromolecule. Since the molecular
weight (rvrW) of an element of poly(ethylene oxide) is 44, we can have an overall
MW of 4 x \06 or greater. It is possible to make molecular models (for example,
·Fig. 5.1); note that the molecules at the chain ends ha ve slightly different
neighbours from the other molecules and so must behave some what differently;
this aspect is not considered here. Note also that not all molecules are the same
length, a lthough sometimes we assume they are.
Although the chemical form of a linear polymer molecule might suggest that
the backbone is a straight line, this is not so, and the spatial configuration of a
 104 M ICROSTR UCTURA L TH EORI ES 5.1 THE POLY MER MOLECULE 205

molecule. at a given instant. is complex and random. Bond angles between pairs
oratoms somewhat res trict relat ive local configurations but due to the very la rge
numbers or atoms in a molecule the possible number or global configurations is
immense . Consider oniy three carbo n atom s l. 2. 3 (Fig. 5.2). We can see that
atom 3 has a lot or rreedom with respect to atom I. since each molecule can move
on the conical paths suggested in Fig. 5.2. A model ora polymer m o lecule made in
wire looks like a random path in space and represents a n instantaneous picture or
!he molecule. N o te that due to Brovv'ni an motio n the m o lec ule changes COI1­
tinuousiy from one configuration to another : there is an enormous number or
possible con figurations. The elasticity or pol ymer molecules. and hence or
solutions and und iluted rubbers . is in!irr) 8tely connected wi th these rCondom
mol ions and random configurations.
Now the exact so lution or the problem or the moti on or an actual molec ule is
clearly a very dirfi cult problem. and we will make simpler models or molecules.
For example. we will. in the pre sent elementary treatment. neglect the problems
orhindered rot a t ion and excluded volume errects (ina bilit y ortwo molecules to be
in the sam e place) . The book s by Treloar (195 8). Flory (1969). and Ya makawa
( 1971) ha ve acco unts or so me or th ese problems.

r-­
~ .,
) (b ) 't
Fig. 5. ;(0) Freeiy jointed chain motleis dupJicallng the same co nfi gu ra ti o ns as the models above.

-'.
''":::.
Norma ll y, howeve r, in th e idea lizati on o r a ma c ro molecule by a rreely jointed cha in, each bead-rod

IInit corresponds to abo ut 10 to 20 mon ome r units (rrom l3irel er al. I 977a).

) :,
.... --
" ..... ~-/
" ,
)
'r:'
, /'

/'
/'
/'

1 ", /'
/'

Fig. 5.2
--
Showing relative motion o r adjaccnt bonds bet wee n molecules.

5.1 .1 Mean end-ro-end ieng !h of a poiymer moiecule

We now regard the cha in molecule configuration as a random walk in space so
that each 'link' or vector between successive molecules is in a randomly chosen
direction relative to its neighbour. Thus we expect the end-to-end di stance to be
(.) proportional to a.JN, where N is the number or link s and a is the length of a link.
This end-to-cnd distance is commonly taken as a meas ure or the size or the
Fig.5. l(a) Fi sher- Hirschre lder-T" yto r models o r eig ht monomer units o r a poly(ethylcne ox ide)
molecule: we will ta ke an ensemble average over man y identical molecules to
cha in in IW O of man y possible co nfigur<ui o ns.
 206 M IC ROSTR UCTURAL THEOR IES 5. 1 THE P OLYMER MOLE CU LE 207

define thi s quantity . Hence we define the average end-to-end length r as Note that the actual length of the molecule is Na( = R) which is enormously )
(O( VN) greater, a thousand tirnes greater, possibly) than the average end-to-end ,
• 0
-. I~- length. The solvent can cause some change in r due to in teraction with the
rL=-L r /, (5. 1)
q j= 1 molecules: for this problem see Flory (\969).

where r j is the end-to-end length of the jth molecule of the representative set of q 5.1.2 Distribution/unction/or end-to-end length/or ideal chains
molecules. N ow suppose the molecule is modelled as s hown in Fig . 5.3 being For any given ideal chain of N links, the end-to-end vector r is a statistical
made up of N vectors of length a oriented randoml y: then quantit y a nd may be characterized by a probability density peN, r). W e may think
of one end of the chain being at the origin if we wish. Now consider the addition of
N
== ""' 3 (j) one extra link with vector a; clearly
r) (5. 2)
D"
;= 1
P (N + I, r ) = P(N, r + a ), (5.8)
a nd hence for any given configuration.
If I a I « I r I we can expand the right-hand side of (5.8) as a Taylor series,
r 2 ~a;) }2
q { N
= ~~ (5.3) noting that a has componen ts ax> a y , az ·

[a a; + -aay-2p I a;
2 2
P(N, r + a) = P(N,r) + V p. 1
a +, --;:;--fPI
This is a general result and we have to be more specific about the relative 2. uX .= 0 3=0
)
orientation between molecules to get useful results . In genera!, we have, fr o m
eqn (5.3):
iJ 2
+ "'!>2
P'1 2
az +
_o 2p!
L fhA,. I axa y +
I
." I +
3
O (a ). (5.9) )
uZ l a:-:O l!~~'-'j' la =U J

i I 'I ( ( ') ( .) (') I" , ,', , ,, , ,,,

Ir we average (5 .9) over a ll possible a, noting that (a) = 0; then
i 2 _ _q )
tI' I\ {I ""
1
+ a 2J · , + ' " a""
N
+ a '!'
1
. a '" + ... a '" . a "I )
2 N-I N '
(5.4)
I ":,
...;
~ Nowa!2 ' = a 2 for all links, (they all have the same length) and hence
a 2 V2P .=0 + 0 (a3 ) .
(P(N, r + a )) = ( P (N, r )) + 6 I (5 . 10 )
.....
~
/, 2== Na 2
+! t(a\) .a~) + .,. a~~ 1 . a~J). (5.5) Here we have used the fact tha t (a;) = (a;) = (a;) = a 2 ; (axay) = 0 and so on.
!
q )= 1 Now we den-ote ( P(N, r)) = peN, r) , where we ha ve averaged out the direction )

of r. Since ( P(N + I, r)) == peN + i, r) , then if N ;:p I, we can a lso write

The simplest case to consider is when we have an ideal freely-jointed chain; in

that case the projection of one bond on another (31/) . 3 ~)) is, on average, zero ,
and \)"Ie f:nd , ns anticipated above, p(N+ l , r) = P(N,r)+~~+O(I /"P). (S.ii)

r = a/N. (5 .6) Thus, equating P(N + I, r) a nd ( P(N, r + a» ) we have, approximately

For other chains (non-freely rotating) we get, dependin g on constraints (Flory aP v2p a 2

(5. 12 )

1969): aN=6 ,

r= const x a/N. (5.7) which is a diffusion equation for per, N) when N is large . The relevant solution of
this equation depends only on r since the undisturbed molecule is spherically
32
(j)
•
,symmetric. This solution is the point-source solution of heat-conduction:

.«c----~) P = const. x N - 3j 2 exp( -3r 2 / 2Na 2) . ( 5. 13)

rj
(Notice that this distributio n does not go to zero for r > Na, whereas a ny real

Fig. 5.3 Random-vector m olecular model. molecular distribution function must do this; if N » I, P is small for r > Na.) The

 208 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES 5.2 POLYMER MOLECULES IN DILUTE SOLUTION 209

normalizing constant is found from insisting that the end-to-end distance is The first law of thermodynamics can now be applied. If the work output from
certainly between 0 and 00 : the chain is d W, the hea t input is dQ, and the change ofinternai energy is dE, then

faN P(r)4r.,. 2 dr = I. (5.14)

dQ=dW + dE. (5.19)

In the present case dE is assumed to be zero (no change in internal energy) and
)
Hence, we find the complete solution: ifthe force on tbe free chain ends is F, then in a small displacement dr of this end,
the work output d W is - F· dr. For mechanical equilibrium, F and r arc always
12 \ -3/2 ( 3,.2) parall cl, and hence dr a nd Fare aiso parailei. Thus the work output d W is just
'I
P(N, r) = ~37ra2N) exp - 2Na 2 . (5.15) - Fdr, at constant temperature. Hence, since dQ = Tds in a reversible process,
2
dQ = Tds = - Fdr; and thus F = I F 1= - T(dsldr) or F=(3kT/Na )r, from
eqn (5.18). This gives the average force in the chain when the ends are held a
By integration we fllld
distance,. apart. The molecule is equivalent to a Hookean spring of zero length
)
(r2 ) = 1 00

r2 P(r)47rr 2 dr = No 2
Note that the most proba ble separation of the ends is zero and the molecule is
then in a compact spherical configuration; note also that we have neglected the
effccts of the solvent; its effect is minimal for the so-called e solven t (Flory 1969),
(5.16)
and spring constant 3kT/Na 2 .
This result is only true for small rlNo since our expression for s is only valid
under these circumstances, as careful examination will show; if rlNa ~ I, the force
must increa se indefinitely since the molecule is almost completely straightened
out. The actual spring law is an inverse Langevin function L - I (Fig. 5.4), where
(Flory J 969)

aF
5 . J.3 T "'!'Isiun in a poiymer chain /?i = C!(rjNa), (5.20)

Suppose that we hold the chain ends clamped a distance r a part. Because of the
and
type of ideal chain con sidered, the interned energy is constan t (zero), i The entropy
j.;
is not constant , howe ver, slIlce the number of configurations available to the
ch~in is less when thcends arc forcibly held apart. In this development we assume
(OF) aF)
= coth (kT
kT r
(5.21)
.......
L\kT of Na
a finite number or configuration s exists. From the way we defined P, and the fact
"":"' that all chain states are equally probable, it follows that the number of config­ A useful approximation to the inverse Langevin function has been derived by
urations available at ~ny given r is proportional to P . Also, from the Boltzmann Warner (1972). He suggested that one could use, in place of the rule (5.20), the
rule, the entropy (s) is proportional to the logarithm of the number of available following approximation.
~ ~ configura tions. Hence
\
s = kin P I- con st. , (5.17)
F= 3kT:/f l _
Na" L
(;-)21.
iva / j
(5.22)

) where the constant is arbitrary . Thus, from (5 .15) This curve is also plotted in Fig. SA. In future, we shall often use eqn (5.22) in
place of (5.20) . The retractile force of individual molecules is responsible for
2
s =c_ 3kr (5.18)
rubber ela sticity and for the viscoelastic behaviour of polymer solutions; each
2Na 2 ' molecule can store mechanicai energy and subsequently release it.

where C is an arbitrary constant and k is Boltzmann 's constant. i Clearly s is a
maximum when,. = 0, which is the most probable configuration of a free chain.
'This approxim'te result foll o ws from experiments on solid rubber composed o f ma ny molec ules
(Treloa r (958).
tk= 1.3807 x 10 - 23 J /K.
5.2 Polymer molecules in dilute solution
Two other factors are relevant when a molecule is in solution:
(i) Hydrodynamicforces. If the molecule is displaced from its equilibrium state, it
will elastically return to the equilibrium configuration; the average motion

)
.,
)
 210 MICROSTR UCTU RAL THEORIES 5.2 POLYMER MOLECULES IN DILUTE SOLUTiON 211

aFl kT t
)0 I
I
,,'
I! '
I
I

~m.'«""
I
I
I
Bead

'"r
/1,II
If
j
l
I Fig. 5.5 Bead·spring 'm olecule' notation.
I Inverse
I Langevin
(ii) Brownian mOlion. This refers to the random action of the solvent molecules on
10
Warner the polymer 'beads'. The theory goes back to Einstein and was very important in
I
establishing the kinetic theory of matter. For a free particle, Einstein's theory
/
/ imagines that the particle is bat te red by many random, uncorrcla ted forces and in
Pi I / / i cor:.scquence undergoeS a rall<Jom waik, composed of mauy small steps. This is
r- I /,/ I very similar- LO lhe spaii a i rand o m-waik problem of the polymer moiecule dis­
I ~"""'~Lln e(lrSpring

~-;
c
L,=======,
o ...
v.< '"' .
0.4 0.6 0.8
I
I.U r; Na
cussed prcviously; howeVer, the addi lion of another 'step' is now equivalent to an
extra time step, and the differential equation is fonned by replacing N by I ; hence
P(r , lV) is repiaced by 1/;(r, r) and the differential equation becomes,

......
Fig. 5.4 Various spring laws. a1/;
01
= DV 2".<p, ( 5.24)

through the fluid meets with viscous resistance from the solvent. Since molecules where D is a diffusion coefficient. The solution is, following eqn (5. I 5)

.... are small, the Reynolds numbers are small, and we can use Stokes's law of
resistance.lt is usual to idealize the molecule by lumping the viscous resistance at 1/;(r, r) = 1 2
J < exp( -r /4 Dr), (5.25)
" (41TDI) .
- discrete points with frictionless springs in between; each submolecule wi!! be long
enough so that the 'spring' between acts as an ideal freely-jointed chain. We now giving the density of particles at (r, r), subject to there being a total of one particle
suppose that the viscous resistance force on bead i can be written as a force F~ v) over all space.
(see Fig. 5.5): If a gradient of the 1/;-(density of particle) function is present, then this is
equivalent to a force F(b) on a particle. More precisely , on the bead we have a
F~ v) = ((, - fj). (5.23) Brownian motion force

Here v is the local solvent velocity, fj is the bead velocity referred to the same co­ F(b) = -kT :r in{1/;(r, I)}. ( 5.26)
ordinate system, and ( is a constant friction coefficient.
Each bead will induce a velocity field at every other bead, so that really F~v) Similarly, for N beads, we will have a joint probability density function

contains a component from other, especially nearby, beads; this hydrodynamic 1/;(r" r2," . ,I) and the force on the ith bead is, following (5.26)
...

interaction leads to the Kirkwood- Zimm (1956) theory. To begin with we will
ignore bead-bead interaction. At this stage this seems permissible, since some of F(b)
a 1/;.
= - kT-ln (5.27)
the most dramatic effects in solu tions occur when the beads are widely separated. I Ori
 212 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES 5.2 POLYMER MOLECULES IN DILUTE SOLUTION 213

5.2.1 Equation of conservation of beads I -r

N on mear spring

) F inally, co nsider many molecules moving in configuration spuce (r, i); noie r2
that we do not work in phase space (r, i:, i) because 'ij;, will not be assumed to
rI
!

~?

depend on the veiocities of the beads. (The use of phase space has been explored
by Bird et al. (1987b». The number of points in a finite volume of configuration
space n is, for N beads

inr '!,i.>dXl dX2· ·· dXN

I r t' \

~~ in 1/)(ln'5-a'Y-j... \ (5 .28)
r I

Points 'l/J(X i, " . XN) in configuration space are nol created or destroyed, as
each represents a molecule, thus the rate of loss of points in a volume Fig.5.6 DumbbelJ modei. Solvent velocity at any point r is Lr.
n( - %tJl1,tj;dn) must be equal to the number of points crossing the surface s
of n = L
1j; II· nds where II is a hyper-velocity (i-I, f2, ... i: N) and n is an outward­
pointing unit vector in the space. Thus from a balance of the number of beads,
we have Hence, ro is the centroidal position, and if R is the end-to-end vector (Fig. 5.6),

0['
'"
ut. n
'l/Jdn+ j'-' 1/Ju·nds=0. (529) R = f2 - fl· (5.32)

;;.,. Vie \,,·/i11 find an equation for 'fer}, -2) under the foHo"Viing assuniptions:
Now, by Green's transformation r
1/JU - nds = (" V· (1/)u)dn, where V· (z) =
(D/ or;){ z;}; hence. after red lIction th~ integral r<.;;~ (5 '29)' bccomes . , {2} Dumbbe!! does ~ot 3!ter local solvent velocity ';(r).

--.
-::
-~
o '!,i.>
01
()

ori {'!,i.>i-;} = 0,
(5.30)
(b) Only homogeneous incompressible nuid motions are considered ; that is,
v = Vo +Lr, (5.33)
\.
which is the equation of continuity in configurati o n space.
~ """
o:~
where
o,!
) L = L(t), Vo is the constant speed at the centroid of the molecule and
5.2.2 Dilute dumbbell solutions
.....
~
Here we will only treat the two-bead model (dumbbell) in detail although the N­
trL = O.(incompressible condition). (5.34)

-'"-. bead analysis follows the same pattern; it has been found that the dumbbell
The equations of motion for the beads are then formed by a force balance.
qualitatively reproduces many features of the N-bead response. The model
Neglecting dumbbell mass-accelerations these become
molecule is as shown in Fig. 5.6 . We will ass ume the surrounding Ouid is at
constant temperature, that it is incompressible, and there are no molecules/unit 8 .
volume. ({V(fl) - i-d + F(c) - kT-ln '!,i.> = 0 ( 5.35)
8r l
In a dilute solution molecules do not by definition, interact with one another.
The criterion for non·interaction has been given by James and Sridhar (1995) to ({V(f2) -i: 2 } _F(c) -kT!!.....ln'!,i.> = 0 ( 5.36)
be that the product of mass concentration (c) and intrinsic vi scosity, (1)], should be ()r2
less than about 0 .77. (The intrinsic viscosity is the quantity ('I] - 1)s)/ 1)s C in the limit
c -, 0, where 1) is the solution viscosity and 1)s is the solvent viscosity.) We suppose where FCC) is the tension in the. connector (not necessa rily a Hookean spring).
tha t this is observed here. Subtract'ion and division by the friction factor ( gives
Define
. 2 () 2 8
R = LR--Fc --kT-In'!,i.>. (5.37)
ro = ! (rl + r2). (5.31 ) ( (8R
 '\
214 MICROSTR UCTURAL THEORIES 5 .2 POLYMER MOLECULES IN DILUTE SOLUTION 2 "u

Addition ofeqns (5.35) and (5.36) gives A similar result holds for more complex molecules. Initial conditions on 'lj; will
also be needed for unsteady flow problems; these will be supplied as needed.
leT!j!n -:f'
ro = Vo + Lro - 2( ~. (5.38)
5.2.3 Calculation of the stress tensor
To calculate the stresses when the function 1/J is known we write the total stress as
With the homogeneous velocity gradients assumed, we do not expect the dis­
tribution function 1/1, to depend on fO, and hence the last term in eqn (5.38) u = - pI + 27Jsd + ,(m), (544)
vanishes. Then the dumbbell centroid moves at the speed of the surrounding where 27Js d is the Newtonian solvent stress contribution and T(m) is the molecular
fluid. Now the continuity equation is contribution to the stresses. There are two factors contributing to ,(m):

81/) 0 a (i) There is a contribution io ,("') due to the flux of dum bbells across a fixed
8/ (r i ,r2,t) I Orl . (rl<P) + fh' (i: 2',p) = o. (5.39)
element (Bird et al. 1987b) of amount - nok TI which may be absorbed into the
pressure term - pI,
Putting eqn (5 .39) in terms of 1/J(R, I) and R we find
(ii) The main contribution to the stress across a plane is by dumbbells strad­
dling the plane, as sketched in Fig. 5.7.
o1/J + ~ . (R1/J) = O. (540)
at oR
Each molecule that straddles a plane exerts a tension from outside to inside of
the box, parallel to the spring, of F(c) Resolution of all such forces normal and
Substituting for R, using (5.37) , VJe obta.in nD equation of diffusion for ~ (R, t):
p3.!"3!!e! to the plailc 'w'iii gi-vT the stress con1}ioneots. if we consider a unit cube,
~"
r­ iJll) a J 2 (c) 2 _aWL
containing no molecules, then flO 4;(R) JJ( d:r dZ is the number of jTIolecuies with
an end-to-end vector R(= i /¥ + jY + kZ). Then the probability that one of these
.........
'at l '!,!,LR -
-+ oR' (F -q) - (k,7 oRJ = o. (5.4l)
molecules will cross the face normal to X is just X. Thus the stress ,~~) is
....:; ;
Here L is supposed given; also F(c) = (dX / dR)R/ I R I where X(R) is a spring
110v>uXdYdZXFt lor this group oi molecules. Integration over all X, Y, Z
gives, where d V = dX d Y dZ and the momentum flux term 110 kT has been added:
"""
'­
-.:II

-r.:,
potential which is supposed known. Thus we can solve for 1/J. [n case the fluid is at
rest (L = 0) then the equilibrium distribution function 1/J does not depend on t, is
sphericaily symmetric and may be found by integrating eqn (541). Normalizing
the result we find
,~,;) = no JJ1: 1/J Ff) X d V - 110 kT. (5.45)

Similarly, we find T~~) = no III 1j)F;C) Xd v, and generally

... ..
~

', p= eXP(-X / kT)/ l°O{dR41TR2exp-k~} (542) ,(111) = no JJ1: 1/J F(m)R d V - no kT J,

In the special case of a linear spring, then 1/J is a Gaussian function, as already which can be written as
seen in eqn (5.25). T(m) == no(F(C)R) - no kT J, ( 5.46)
The question of boundary conditions for the diffusion eqn (541) arises. The
y
boundary in this case is the limit of the configuration space. For the linear-spring
molecule, all points in space can be reached and it is only necessary to ensure that F (cj
1/J vanishes when I R I becomes very large. In other cases, one needs to ensure that
there is no flux of particles out of the space. [f n is the outward vector from the
configuration space, then we must have on the boundary, for the dumbbell case,
z )
1/JR'1I = O. (543) Fig. 5.7 Basis for stress calculation showing connectors crossing planes.
)

216 MICROSTRUCTURAL T HEORI ES 5.3 CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS 217

where () denotes the ave rage over configur<ltion space. Since pc) is parallel to R , U sing index nota tion and absorbing the nokTI momentum flux term into the
clearly the s tress component r(rn) is symmetric·· an important rcsult in view of the stresses, we can define "(ij using eqn (5.46) 1.0 be
discussion given in Section 2.2.
ln most cases we cannot avoid solving the diffusion eq ua li o n (5.40) and using _, (m) 3no kT {
rij=l1 okTl5ij+rij =--z- RiRj ). (5.51 )
that value of 1/;, to find T(m ) via integration of (5.46). This is very laborious, and Na
even if done numericall y it is often expensive and inaccurate. In some special Ifwe take the diffusion equation (5.41) , with F (c) = 3k TR/Na 2 , mUltiply it by RiRj
flows solution is easier, as we now show. and then average over co nfiguration space, the unsteady term in (5.41) becomes
a/ot(RiR). which is pro portional to o r u/ot. Similarly, by the use of the diver­
5.2.4 Steady pOlential flows gence theo re m on the other term s, we can show, when 1/J vanishes on a large
sphere, tha t the following expression results
Lel v = V q>; then cf>=!RTLR if L is a constant sym metric velocity gradient

ato (RiRj) -
matrix. In thi s case it IS easy to solve for 1/;:
Ljm(RmRi) - Lim{RmRJ>
X
1/;=Cexp ( -k T+ 2kT'
(t/J) (5.47 ) 12kT 4kT
-1 (Na 2 (Ri R ) - TOij = O. (5.52)

where C is a normalizin g const<lot and (dX/dR) = Ftc) so that X is the spring Multiplicati o n by 3kTno/Na2 gives a constitutive equation for rij:
potential. Now consider a linear spring law where
OTij 12kT 12(kT)zno

F lC ) __ 3kT
-·R 3kT 11 2 -;:;-
vI
- Ljk Thi - Lik r;kj + N. a z(~ 'ij = l\I n ;
., _ 2 ."
l5ij. (5.53 )

Na l X = 2Na 2 ,. , (5.48)
If we le t Na 2 (/ 12k T be A, a time constant, then if we define (6.( ),,I6.t) by the
an d an e lo n gaUona l flow wh..:re foll owing [compare eqn (4.26)]: ' .

\' = (ix _EY

, , 2 '
_ EZ)
2 and ~)
I
= .( -X2 -
£:
2
I 0

4 (v'
-
' + z 2 ))\ .. (5.49)
6. ( ) ij
~ = ......,,--
L>t vt
a() ij
VXk
a( ) ij

+ Vh ---;::;-- - Ljd )ki - Lid )kj' ( 5.54)

) --­
~1r
- '!-t o
then and note that spa tia l gradients of r~m) are ass umed zero here, we can rewrite
... ( (5.53) as

..... 3R2
1/;= Cexp - -- z + - x 2
(E ( y2 z2)} 6.rij _
....
.,; 2Na { 4kT
- - - -
2 2
( 5.50)
A 6.t +rij=nokToij. (5.55)

and r em ) can be found using (5.46). Now if (E/ 4kT > 3/ 2N(/2 then 1/J --> oc as Now in the dilute solution the total stress Cf, from (5.44), is made up of three parts,
R --> 00, and we will no t be able to find C because the integral o f 1/; over all space one of which is the pressure term. If we subtract off the momentum flux pressure
does not exist. Phys ica ll y, th e springs have been s tretched indefinitely by viscous nokTI from T, so tha t we have (eqn 5.51)
forces, and no stea dy solution exists. Generally, we need a mo lecule of limited
T(m ) = T - 110 kTI (5.56)
length to avoid this problem so th a t X --> 00 a t finite! R ! . This is a n easy but
tedious problem in general. For no n-potentia l fl ows few ge neral results can be then the equa ti on for r (m) becomes,
obtained, except for Iincar springs.
6.T (m)
A-- + T (m) = 2 7](m) d (5.57)
5.3 Constitutive equations for dilute dumbbell solutions 6.t
with Hookean springs
where d is the rate-of-deformation tensor a nd the viscosity 7](m) is just A7]O k T. This
In this case we ca n find a constitutive equation valid for any flow by an (upper) convected Maxwell model (5.57) is identical to (4 .25). The term "co n­
averaging process . vected n derives from the form (5.54); it is often called the UCM model.
)

 218 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES 5.3 CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS 219

5.3.1 An equivalenl inlegral/orm of Ihe conslilulive equalion A second source of multiple relaxation times arises in molecular models more
Consider the equation complex than the dumbbell, where many 'modes' exist (Bird el al. 1987b), even if

' ox ox
aii moiecuies are aiike.
Multiple relaxation times in dilute solutions may be difficult to measure. In the
l
".,(m)
Tij(X" I) = ~exp{ -(I - 1')/ A} _ ' _1 dl l (5.58)
-00 A orm orm absence of a measured spectrum, for monodisperse molecules where all molecules
are the same, one may use as an approximation the Zimm spectrum, which
Then rk are the components of the position vector at time I' of the particle which includes hydrodynamic interaction between beads in an N + i-bead, N-spring
will be at Xi at time I. The expression orJoxj is the displacement gradient Fij model. I n this case (H uilgol and Phan-Thien 1997; Bird el af. 1987 b) a good fit to
[eqn (2.28)] and OXk/ori is lhe component of the inverse of F, (F-!)'k' Thus the G' and G" is obtained, and one finds the viscosity difference to be
term (oxJor",)(oxj/or m ) is the inverse of the strain tensor C, [eqn (2.34)]. Ifwe now
tV
differentiate (5.58) with respect to time, while following a particle, we find (noting
Xi is a functicn of ti~ne t)
7J - TIs = no kTL Aj (5.62 a)
j=J

DTij r/ m ) I ;., ''1(m)

where Tfs is the solvent viscosity.
Dl = ~ oij - >: Tij +. -00 y exp{ -(I - 1')/ A}
Now no, the number of molecules per unit volume, can be expressed in terms
of the polymer weight concentration c. We have no= NAc/M, where NA is
x -OXi _OXj + _OXi _ox;.] dl l (5.59) Avogadro's number (6.02 x 10 23 ) and M is the molecular weight of the (linear
[orm orm or", orm chain) polymer. The viscosity difference (or the intrinsic viscosity [Tf] == (Tf - Tis)/
Now we can rewrite ox,';orm as (8VJOXk)(ox/,/or",), and hence the integral in CTfs, vanishingly small c) can be measured, and hence the sum of the relaxation
:;r- (5.59) can be converted into a form containing stresses iimes can be found from (5.62a) once M is kno wn. if the longest relaxation time
(j =.. I). in (5 .62a) is AI then the remaining relaxation times scale approximately as )
DTij Tf(m) I )..-;t+(J}, where (T varies with the 'goodness' of the solven t for the molecules
DI ~ ~Oij - iij >: + L,k'kj + LjkTik. ( 5.60) (Blrdelal.1987b).
.---.,.. One finds (T varies from 0 to - 0.5, ann e,;limRtes of cr ca!~ be fel!!1d frelY!. the
.:'
Rearranging (5.60) we recover (5.55). Thus the forms (5.55) and (5.58) are literature. Once (/ is known, and the number of relaxation times (N) is fixed, then
• ~;:lr(2+a) can be found, enabling Al to be calculated, and hence the remaining

-
equivalent, and either may be used in calculations; the form (5.57) differs only by
an isotropic pressure term; it can also be used conveniently. N - I relaxation times. )
5.3.3 Response of Ihe COl1vecled Maxwell model )
5.3.2 Mulliple relaxalion limes
-,' ....
With the form (5.58), we can immediately generalize to the case where there is
a number (N) of relaxing species of dumbbells, each with its own value of Tf(m)
We wiil compute the response from the integral fonn (5.58) thus avoiding some
careful limit processes for step strains. Consider a simple unsteady shearing
-~
and A; the stress contributions are aclditive, and we find motion where the velocity vector is
N v = Y1'(I)i, (5.63)
T= LTn, (5.61 ) I
n:.::1 where 1'( I) is arbitrary. Then we can easily compute C- , following Section 2.3.6

C"")~ C~" ~l
where s
I (5.64) )
T" = 1~ rJI/\~2 exp{ -(1- 1')/An}C- 1
d£l (5.62) o i J
In the differential form (5.57) each Tn satisfies a similar constitutive equation. The where the amount of shear
integral form will be referred to as the Lodge model, since the polymer stress
contribution is identical to that of Lodge's (1964) rubber-like liquid, discussed in s = 1'1'(1') dl' = ,(I) - ,(I') (5 .65) )
Section 5.6.2 below. " )
 220 MICROSTR UCTU RAL TH EORI ES 5 .4 WEAK AND STRONG FLOW CLASSIFICATION 22 1

is independent of po siti on x. Computing the s hea r response Txy from (5.58) we corresponding value of 17E is given by
get,
17E = 4r/ m) / (1 - .\2i 2 ). (5.72)
1] exp
Tx;.( l) = >.2 /1
- I/>' _ooh(l) - 1'( 1')lel '/~ dl ' , (5.66) In this case the minimum 17E is just 417(m) at i: = O.

or, integrating by part s, we find the linear viscoelasti c form [cf. eqn s (1.24) a nd 5.4 Weak and strong now classification via dumbbell mechanics
(2.83)]
It is clear from the preceding section that the Lodge moud sh ows great differ­
1]( 111 ) (f ences in res ponse to shearing and elongati o nai flows. The o bvious question that
Txy(l) = T L oo exp( - (t - I') / >.)i(t')dl' (5 .67) arises is to ask what happens in other cases, and is it possible to use dumbbell
mecha nics to se t up a flow classification scheme which enables one to decide
The res ults for stress rela xa tion a nd sinusoidal shea ring a re the sa me as (2. 105) whether a given flow is shear-like or n o t? Such a classification sch eme is com­
and (2.94) respectively; the viscosity is constant in steady shearing for all shea r plementary to th a t of Pipkin's (Section 3.6. I), which deals with 'fast' or 'slow'
rates. For an impul se of strain-ra te (step -s lrain of mag nitude 1'0 at 1 = 0) we ha ve flows within a single ca tegory (for example shearing flows).
Suppose th a t a dilute solution o f dumbbells is subjected to a stead y, hom o ­
17(10) geneous flow field , so tha t the velocity gradient tenso r L is co nstant. After a long
Txy( t) = T l'o e-I/ ~ (I > 0) ( 5.68)
time, the dumbbells will either reach some eq uil ibrium average end-to -end dis­
tance or the y will he extended beyond bound. We shal1 ca ll the former weak flows
Lodge ( 1964) has aiso shown that N , reia xes a t th e same nHe as the shear st ress and the la tter strong.
for one relaxati on time . He also shows that in a sinu so id a l shearing N\ has a We Hlake use of previous calculati ons (Secti on 5.3) and 'we sec from eq n (5 .5 ] )
,1 frequ ency twice tha t of th e s hear s tress. For a s udden -star t o f shearing. we find th i1 t if R is the dumbbe!! end-lo-end vec tor ,

-.
~ ..
Txy = r/m L'Yo( I - ex p -1/ >.) , ( 5.69) (RiR;) = constant x ri)' (5.73)

..
,..
..... and the normal st ress N\ = T~':') - T~;' ) and hence (R? ) = constant x Tii· The question of whether the flow is weak (or
. ~
is (i > 0) ,
not) depends on the co nvergence (or n o n-convergence) of the integral in eqn
(5.58). Equiva lently, we can go back to eqn (5.37) , which gives, for the Iinear­
~
:r,
N I(I) = 217(1n)\ -y2 [1 - (I +±) eXP(-I / /\ )] , (5.70) spring case with relaxation time .\,

'-" while N 2 = 0 a t all times. Thus there is no overshoot o f either shear stress o r R= LR - R / 2'\ + Brownian m o tion. (5.74 )
"
''4 normal stress difference.
" Finally we consider steady elongational flow . Let th e rate of elongation be i: for Suppose we conside r the injection of some (possibly hypothetica l) tracer particles
) aii I, and the veiocit y fieid be v = (i:x , - i:y/ 2, - i:z/ 2). Then we obtain the into our fl ow field. If the y are si mply sm a ll spheres or other compact pa rticles,
Trouton viscosit y 17E, already given in Chap ter 4 [eqn (4.27)J they wil1 trace out the fluid particle path lines but wi 11 not tell us anything about
) the expected respo nse o f a viscoelastic m a terial element in such a fl ow . If, how­
31](10 ) ever, we consider injecting dumbbell models, consisting of two very small spheres
Txx ~E: Tyy == 1]E = (1 _ 2.\i:)( I + .\t') (5 .7 i )
linked by a linear-law spring whose rest length is ze ro , then the response of these
models in a given fl ow will resemble the respon se ofa dilute solution in the same
For i: = 0 we find 17E = 317(m) as expec ted. It is curious lhat 17E has a minimum flow .
when i:.\ = - 0.25 of 1.617(m) and rises sharply so that no solution exis ts [ef. It will be demonstrated below that a dilute so lution of dumbbell models and a
) eqn (5 .50)J for .\i: > ~,.\i: <' - I. The hydrodyn a mi c fo rces expand the dumbbells pla usible network model of a concentrated solution behave in an identical
to infinite separation in these cases, and the model is u seless in this region . manner (that is, have an identical constitutive equatjon for the polymer co n­
) For the two-dimensiona l elongational field (sometimes called pure shear­ tribution to the stress tensor) and th a t this constitutive law is useful for at least
ing or strip biax ial extensio n) where th e velocit y field is (i:x, - i y, 0) , th e qualitative discussion of real viscoelastic flows of co ncentrated polymer fluid s.

)
 222 MICROSTR UCTU RAL THEOR I ES 5.4 WEAK AND STRONG FLOW CLASSIFICATION 223

Hence the !low classification will also be useful for concentrated solutions and so that (5.74) becomes
melts. In the present classification scheme for flows we are concerned with the
solutions of eqn (5.74), and the question of interest is the boundedness of these I,
dR = L'(t')R _ ~R. (5.77)
solutions: this depends on the eigenvalues of (5.74) and not upon the random dt'
excitations. Hence we ignore Brownian motion here; it is not necessary for
For any given dumbbell, we suppose that an initial value of R is given at 1==0:
modelling the transition between weak and strong flows. There is no need of
Brownian motion to prevent total collapse of the hypothetical test particles; at R = Roatt' = O. (5.78)
time zero they are inserted into the fluid with a definite spacing between the beads.
Thus, because of the nature of the response it seems reasonable to use our Thus, since R depends only on L' when Ro is fixed, if we can solve (5 .77) and
hypothetical dumbbell 'behaviour' to characterize the kinema tics of a flow field. compute the end-to-end vector R as a runction or time, we can characterize our
The vague term ' behaviour' must mean something related to the length of the !low fieid.
vector joining the beads for a single dumbbell; it will actually turn out to be more The soiution of(5.77) is
convenient to consider a swarm of dumbbells and to compute ensemble averages
of the quantities of interest. By studying the dumbbell tracer response, we will R =. e-" 12 Fo(I*)Ro , (5.79)
demonstra te a method of flow classification and characterization. We assume the
where FO(I) is the displacement gradient (OR/oRo) referred to the initial config­
velocity field is homogeneous in space around a given dumbbell, so that at point x
uration at I' = O. So, for any given dumbbell , the value of R 2(1) may be computed
the velocity is
formally as
v = L(I)X, (5.75)
R2 = e-"RJCRo, (5.80)
"f.i'
,,-' where the components of the velocity gradient matrix L may in general be w'hcrc C is the relevant strain tensor. 'J-/c nov..: suppose that Oilf seeding of
.1 functions of time (I) but not of space (x); no loss of generality occurs due to the dumbbells '>.'25 initia!!y rand0!11 in orierHation and that aU dumbbells ha'.'e the
--.
~r'
suppression of the motion of the origin in this calculation. To justify these sim­
plifications, we assume th at the scale oflength appropriate to our test particles is
same initial length ho·
lfwe avera ~e over ihe orienta tiou space, we Jiuu iiIe average 01 R 2 as a mea s ure
o{' much smaller th an a ny length scale appropriate to the flow field. It is also
. of dumbbell dis tortion by the flow field. Carrying out this process, we find
...... assumed that the centroids of the test particles are convected at the local fluid
"

velocity without slip. It then follows th a t L maydepend on time even in a Eulerian h2 .

steady !low and that the variations of the velocity gradients at the particle due h2 = (R2} = ; e-' trC, (5.81 )
~
separa tely to unsteadiness a nd transportation in such a fixed frame are irrelevant;
-~.
it is only the material or particle-following rate of change that is significant. This where ho = I Ro I· The suggestion is that
TJ. point is emphasized here because it seems to be largely independent of the details

(-hoh) 2= 1/3e- ' .{trCo(I')}

-~
of the rheology of the fluid. The above formulation is, of course, identical, except
for the omission of Brownian motion, to the above formulation for a dilute
solution or linear-spring dumbbell molecules when hydrodynamic interaction
between the spheres and internal viscosity are neglected (Section 5.3). In most
'I
cases, the main functions of the Brownian motion are to maintain the molecules
in a non-collapsed condition in a quiescent !luid and to maintain a random
orientation in the same condition. In many so-called strong flows its contribution
to the force balance on the molecule is minimal except in very small velocity
gradients, and except in these conditions, our test dumbbells show molecular
behaviour, as we wilJ discuss below. Defining dimensionless quantities in (5.74)
we have
I' = II>', L' = >.L, (5.76)
Sg;:: (5.82)
is a suitable criterion for judging the severity of structural distortion in a time I of
a structure being convected by a flow field. We shali cail Sg the dimensionless
stretching parameter.
While the above results are exact, they are not very useful owing to the need to
compute tr C; this is not a trivial operation in a general flow field. We now
consider the simpler case of constant velocity gradients.
5.4.1 ConSlanl velocily gradienls: slrong and weak flows
Before going to the finite time case, we can consider the steady-state case when
t --> 00, and the test particles spend a very long time in a region of constant

)
 224 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES 5.4 WEAK AND STRONG FLOW CLASSIFICATION 225

velocity gradient. From eqn (5.80), the value ofSg in (5.82) will depend only on Ir.ll' 2

whether the largest real part of any of the eigenvalues ofL' exceeds, equals, or is
less than 0.5 . In the firs t case, Sg is infinite , and we ha ve a strong flow; in the two
latter cases it is not. Thus, all the flows may be divided into strong and weak now
classes. A convenient way to consider this is to form the matrix Sf = L' - P [see STRONG rJ FLOws
) eqn (5.77)], where I is the unit matrix. Then, if any eigenvalue of 2 has a positive
real part, we have a strong flow. Forming the determinantal equation explicitly,
noting that tr L = 0 and tr Sf> = - 3/2, we find that the eigenvalues X of 2 satisfy

3
X3+ 2" X2+ 2. [9
X 2" - tr !E 2] - det Sf = 0 (5.83)

) Thus, they depend only on the two parameters tr Sf2 and det Sf. We can use the v
Hurwitz- Routh (Bellma n 1960) criterion to obtain the result that weak nows
exist if
2, /1q ( 0
: ~
_deLl!'
det Sf < 0 (584)

and
- j

:u -
10
3
-4 tr Sf2 + d et 2 > O. (5.85) /f ' A
r".."..
z..~ Figure 5.8 shows a chart where th ese regions of strong 3nd weak fl ows arc /f
A' I
(

1 ­ 2
WeAl(

!
delineated in terms of the two paramcters det.5f' and tr![>2 We may note that the
~
'"'": above c riterion gives precisely the same re sult s for strong and weak nows as other
ryslI
"'LO " ,

,;< /
~ -;. criteria in which Brownian motion is considered . The result for plane flow s with a
. <,
velocity gradient matrix of the form /
"-­ / -3
~
(1 b I
i9
:;
L' = (
~ -a
o g) (5.86)

I
I
I-- PLANE
FLOWS

) 1 -~ .... is
Fig. 5.8 Regions of slrong and weak fl ow in terms of the invariants of th e modified veiocilY
deLS!" = ~ (a 2 + be - ~) < 0, ( 5.87) gradient matrix. whcre .<.t = )"L -!J. Da shed line is locu s of all plane flows a nd also the eccentric
disc rheome ter flow (del .? < 0) . The point V represenls fluid s al resl and all viscometric flows.
and
and
H- ~ tr 22 + det !t? = 1 - a2 - be > O. ( 5.88)

c + 'I = (i 0
In the case of a simple elong3tiona! flow, where L " - diag (E, - i/2, - Ej2), we 41'c 3 - 43'2 \2 - 1\2(.
) c+ ')
I > . (5.91 )
have shown that the flow is weak if
-J < i<!. ( 5.89) Thus, both criteria are significant here. In summary, we see that in these simple
flows , in which the Deborah number (De) is zero, we find from the present
Ifwe compute (5.84) and (5.85), we find, for a weak flow approach that there are two dimensionless numbers which are related to the
Weissenberg number (Wi); both det 2 and tr 22 play the part of significant
(i + J)2(2i - I) < 0, ( 5.90) dimensionless numbers in classifying s teady homogeneous flows.

,)

226 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORiES 5.5 DUMBBELLS WiTH LiMiTED EXTENSION 227

Neither det .!L' nor tr 22 can be regarded as a Weissenberg number. This may and
be seen by looking at simple shearing or at any other viscometric flo\v, v/here \ve
lind ~ - ~ Ir (>.L -1 i)2 + det (>.L - ~ i) > O. (5.85)
. I

det.fL' = -1 / 8 and tr.!L'2=3/4,

which are independent ofshear rate. To define a Weisser-berg number, we may go

back to the idea of Pipkin (Section 3.6 . 1) for shear /lows, where a significant
parameter is the amount of shear in one rclaxa tion time or we may take the value
of the stretching parameter after one relaxation time , which may be found from
(5.82), or, as is more usual, we s imply define (Wi) = >.~, following (4.3).
(5.92)

II 2. Definition of the Weissenberg number

(Wi) =>.~
3. Definition of (De) in a steady homogeneous flow regime

(De) = >. / (time of dwell in regime)

(5.94)

(5.93) '}

5.4.2 The Deborah number
The concept of the Deborah number has been mentioned. We now approach the
definition of such a number through th e microstructural ideas discussed above.
In some early uses of the Deborah number a /low time was compared to the /luid
characteristic time in problems involving starting-up from a state of rest. Simi­
larly, in sinusoidal motions it is easy to define a characteristic frequency when the
Deborah number is formed. In generaL we need to identify a characteristic rate
:;~~ of ch(~Dge of nOV~i cOildiiion s to defiilc the Deborah number. ii is naiura: thai
the stress state: be tak en as the relevant flow 4 uClIlliry. I\ccording to Lodge (! 974) ,
'-'-'ho considers convected coordinates ul1d compuics the stress state relative to the
These are the definitions of 'strong' and 'weak' flows, and the distinction between
the Weissenberg and Deborah numbers, which will be used later.
5.5 Dumbbells with limited extension
The behaviour of the linear dumbbell in elongational /lows is unrealistic and it is
desirable to irnprove this by !imiti!1g the extension of a. dUlnbbell to the total
moiecuiar iengLh, Na. in generai, no ciosed form resuits like (5.57) can be found
for these cases, and approximation or numerical solution is necessary.
Soiutions orthe diffusion eqn (SAi) for the distribution function 1/J in strong

- ~

. At
particle trajectory, there are scarcely any rheologically steady states. Even spa­
tially-steady homogeneous nows are not in general deemed rheoJogically steady
from his point of view because the axes of principal stress rotate relative to the
/lows often show [compare eqn (5.50)] that 1/J is a highly localized function, and
this fact can be made use of to produce an approximate constitutive equation.
The high localization of the beads means that the diffusive Brownian forces are
particle path framework. Thus , elongational /low is not considered steady in this weak compared to the other forces on the beads. Consider eqn (5.46) and suppose
..... ~
sense. From the microscopic view , this definition appears to be too restrictive,
.
c:r.>
~
because the stresses are not changing in magnitude along the particle trajectory .
Thus, here we propose only to consider measures of rheological unsteadiness
we normalize the stress by the factor nokTso that

S == r/no kT == (r(m) + no kTI)/no kT = 3N(Krr), (5.95)

.
".:;
-.j..
depending on the invariants of the stress st<ltes; in a homogeneous flow field these
quantities are constant. where r is the dimensionless end-to-end vector
Let us suppose the flow field has been divided up into regimes in time and space
which one is prepared to consider as regions of homogeneous steady flow. Then r = R / Rm, (5.96)
we may consider whether or not each regime is strong or weak and define a
Rm is the maximum molecule length, Rm = Na;and K is the dimensionless spring
Weissenberg number for each regime as outlined above. It is then natural to
constant giving the deviation from linearity for the spring. I f the spring force is
define the Deborah number for a regime simply as
F(c) at an extension R, then we can define the dimensionless spring constan t K by
(D e ) = >./(residence time in regime). (5.93)
F(C)/{3NkT/R m } =rK(r) . ( 5.97)
We wiii set out forciarily the definitions that have been used in this section; >. is
the /luid relaxation time. For a Hookean spring, K = I, for the Warner spring (5.22) K = (1 - ,2)-1.
We now suppose that the distribution function '1jJ is highly loca lized and that we
I. Test for weak now. Flow is weak if [see Fig. (5 .8)] can approximate it as a delta-function, so that
det(>.L - ~ I) < 0, (5.84) '1jJ=o(r-b). (5.98)
 228 M ICROSTR UCTURAL THEORIES 5 . 5 DUMBBELLS WITH LIMITED EXTENSION 229

where b is an unknown vector. By using this approximation in (5.95) and taking The replacement of the true distribution function by a delta-function is an
)

the trace of this equation, we find (b = 1b I) approximation th a t has been tested against more accurate theoretical predic­
tions. It is expected to be a much better approximation for strong flows than for
trS = 3NK(b )b2 . (5 .99) weak flows and in order to demonstrate how it performs in the weak flows we
need now to generate some test cases from (5.106).
We now suppose that K is a once-differentiable single-valued function of /' so tha t When the fluid is at rest, the stress is just an isotropic tension of amount 110 kT.
we can solve (5.99) for b in terms of tr S . Then , from (5.95) we have Hence at very slow deformation rates tr r ~ 3110 k T , and thus (5.1 06) becomes the
same as thc convected Maxwell case (5.55) with A repiaced by AN/(N + I). Since
3N (rr) = 3Nbb = S / K,( trS). (5. j 00)
the zero-shear viscosity in (5 .55) is Ano kT, it follows that the zero-shear vi scosity
If we now return to the a veraged diffusion eqn (5 .52), noting now that we cannot for eqn (5 . 106) is N/(N + I) times this value. We use this modified zero-shear
remove the 3kT/Na 2 spring constant from the fourth term , we can rewrite this viscosity as ~ nonnalizing factor !!1 'Hhat fo!l o\vs . Cleariy, there are also [iJ od­
equation as ifications to G' and G il, obtained by replacing A by AN/(N+ I). Since N » I
often, these are not large changes. Similarly, the value of WI at zero-shear rate is
6 (RR) 4 4lcT
(5 . 101 ) reduced by N 2 /(N + 1/ from the pure Maxwell case. N2 is zero for all steady shea r
- - +-r=-I
61 no ( ( ' rates; this result is valid for all springs (Problem 5.4) .
At high rates it may be shown that (Problem 5.7)
where 6 / 6(1) is defined in (5.54) . Using (5 .51) we can rewrite (5 . 101) a s the
Giesekus (1966) relation, valid for all dumbbells: . -2/3 WI . - 4/3
17'T/O~f
/ ' \T!~f , (5.107)
Ie
r (m) =_ n,,( 6 (RR ) I .t: I f\....., \
\ - ' . J V~ )
4 -z;:t hoth of \,vhi ch are fairly typical of rea! fluid beha\.:iour. rigure 5.9 ShO\"iS tile
computed va lues for various shear rates using the appi" o x;rn n ~e con s titutive
NormaJi z!!1g and rep!3 c i:~ g (RR ) in (5 . : 02) b y usin g (5 . ; 00) , \,vc find £1 cO llslii u­
model (5 . 106) compared with the exact calculations of Warner (1972) and
--...
'--­
tive relation for S :

-~
- . A6(S/ K l/61

In term s of T,
+S = 1

we can write (5.103) as

(5. 103) 1. 0 1 ~. ~ _ _ n l n.

...".

r:'~
A 6(TU/ K) + T u" = no kTbU' (5 . 104)
6l
"­
"­
'-.., where K = K(T ,,/nokT) . When K = I , we recover eqn (5 .55). For the Warner "­
-.... "­ .....
spring [eqn (5 .22»), 0.1
asymptOl e
1 .(
K= I +- trS (5.105)
3N ' ~
:-.. ,
) and (5.10 3) becomes, a~ a constitutive equatio!'! for r (T a ~!')er 1975) I " I
6
A 6l [r;j/ (I + r" j3 Nn okT)] + Ti) = 110 1cTbij . (5 . 106) 0,,1
0.1 10
""j 10>

A variant of thi s equation is described by Bird e l al. (1987b). In general, this Weissenberg numbe r A. y

equation needs to be solved numerically. We can replace nokT by the macro­ Fig.5.9 Non-linea r dumbbell results. Comparison of ex act res ults of Warner (1972)-and res ults
scopic parameter (N + I )'T/O/ AN, where 'T/o is the viscosity at zero shear rate, and of constitutive equati on (5.106) for N = 3~ ( x and e) . The a symptotic forms correspond to
obtain a constitutive model in termsofmeasurablequantities and the parameter N. (eqn (5 .107)].
 230 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORiES 5.5 DUMBBELLS WiTH LiMiTED EXTENSION 231

~'i ~---------~~~~~------
~1
II

';
"

r---)J; ~3.162

20'\ I
I
>-
:i
'1II

)~I
II I I
I
""
.,..
~

-;:: 15
+
I
.~

o?
I
:::;.,.
o~
,
!i;
?V·
"-W/~" " "-,,

I
I
I

-Irl I 1

: I
II i \\

10
t,
,,,
Dirn e n ~ ionlcss lime (IA

". Fig. 5.10 Transient shear flow from [eqn (5.106)J. N = 31 in this calculation. Weissenberg
'1 numbers (A"() are
~
=
". 0
x
Ai = 0.1
Ai' = 1.0
0
6.
Ai
Ai = 31 ,62
10.0

h, + Ai' = 3.162
k..
o 2 6 8 )
Dimensionless lime ,/,.1.
Fan (1984) , The Warner-Fan calculations solve first for the distribution function
and then use eqn (5.46) . The comparison in the weak now being considered is very Fig. S.lI Transie nt e1ongational fl o w from eq n (5 . 106) for N = 3t·
good and provides support for the delta-function approximation. Figure 5.10
shows the shearing viscosity curves as a function of time after starting and also the improvement on the Maxwell model, especially as regards s tea dy elongational
decay of stress, and Fig. 5.1 I shows the elongational now response after start-up and shearing viscosities, and may be used when the Maxwell model is grossly
and cessation of elongation . The sudden application of a step strain is inevitably inadequate.
a ccompanied instantaneously by corresponding bead movement; a certain
maximum strain which can be applied is obtained, and up to this point one . 5.5.1 Chilcott-Rallison and Giesekus models
obtains a 'stiffer' response as strains get larger. It is not possible to apply a Chilcott and Rallison (1988) produced a related model, setting
step strain greater than this critical value. However, because of the Newtonian
solvent, to which a step strain cannot be applied, this is not a serious problem A .6.A = -f(R)(A - I), (5.108)
with the model. In summary, the approximate constitutive model is a great .6.t
)
232 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES 5.5 DUMBBELLS WITH LIMITED EXTENSiON 233

where the structure tensor A = (RR) here; t:>jt:>l is the (upper) convected deri­ it was left to Lielens el af. (1998) to systematically compute the exact transient
vative (5.54), A is the relaxation time, and response for elastic dum bbells and compare this with the results of various clo­
) sure approximations. Lielens et af. considered the dilute solution of dumbbells
feR) = 1/ (1 - R 2/ L2), (5.109) with a Warner spring (5 .22) in one-dimensional transient flows; these have been
shown by Keunings (1997) to be quantitatively and qualitatively relevant to real
where R 2 = tr A, and L is the fulIy-extended length of a dumbbell. To compute the
three-dimensional elongations, such as the experimental work of Doyle el of.
(dimensionless) stress they set (1998). In the one-dimensional (dimensionless) approximation, the equations
(5 .22), (54!), and (5.46) become scalars, of the form
-PI
• + L1]
- d+>:J\R
cb a ) A, (5.! ! 0)
(7 ' s
F(R) = R/(I - R2 / L2) (5.22a)
where the s tress and pressure have been made dimensionless using 1] s Uja, where
Uja is a ci1al'3Cierislic shear rate, and 1]s is the solvent viscosity; 1; is the volume
T=(FR)-I, (546a)
concentration of dumbbells; d is made dimensionless using Ula . The difference
between (5.108) and the equa tion (5.! 04) is in the right-hand side. The right-hand and the equation for the probability 'Ij;(R, I) is
side of (5 . 104) is equivalent to -fA + 1 in the notation of (5.108). The steady­
shear viscosity of the Chi1cott-Rallison model is constant, equal to 7/s( I + <p), in O'lj; I fi 'lj} 0 . I 8 .
) contrast to the result shown in Fig. 5.9. The first normal stress difference is - = - - - - (E(f)R'Ij;) + - - (FIj}) (54Ia)
01 28R2 oR 28R
quadratic at Ai -> 0 and approaches linearity in Ai for large Ai.
The elongational viscosity 1]E rises to a finite value proportional to L 2 for large where £(1) is the unsteady, spatia Hy uniform extension rate. Numerical solution
r elongation ra tes. Originaiiy this model was proposed to fit Roger nuid beha viour of (SAl a) is ieasibie for various transient 110ws, and was reported by Keunings
)
(Boger 1977) with a constant viscosity; it clearly differs ere1lOy fro m (5.104) in (i 997). To iook at variolls ciosure schemes Lielens et at. (i 998) define the
behaviour, despite the structural similarity. quantities
The second normal stress difference is zero in the models (5. 104) and (5.108),
and Giesekus (1982) introduced the idea of it non-isotropic drag on the bead s .
Instead of the scalar drag coefficient «) in eqns (5.35) and (5.36) he introduced a A=(R2), B = (R4) , A' = 2(1 _ ~:/V) and

- ...­
~...
...,.
tensor drag coefficient. The resulting constitutive equation may be written, in a
notation like (5 .57) Be = 4(R4/(1 _ R2/L2)).
r.:'{
t:>T(m ) a 2 Admissible values of B were found to lie between the values A2 and L2A2 Ifa
+ T (m ) + -G (r"')
.'­
.r .
A- -
t:>l
= 2nd
./ , (5.1 1I) o-function [Fig. 5.12(a)] dis tribution is assumed, as in (5.98), with delta functions
at ± b, then one finds A = b 2 , A C = 2b 2 /( I - b 2 / L2) and so
--........
where a is a constant, G is a rigidity, and 1] = AG. The rangc of a is from 0 to I;
when a = 0 one recovers the UCM model (5.57). With (5.111) the second normal 2A
stress difference is non-zero (negative) in shearing and the elonga tional viscosity A' = I _ A/L2 (5.112)
1]£ asymptotes to a constant value for large Ai. Thus this model avoids many of
)
the problems of the UCM model (5.57). We shall compare it with actual data for which is the FENE-P (finitely extensible non-linear elastic-Peterlin) a-function
polymers later. approximation used above (eqn (5.98» (Assumptions of more than one location
for the delta functions were made by Lei!ens el 01. (1998) without significant
5.5.2 Exael modefs and approximalions improvement in performance. A reasona ble approximation where two peaks at b
The models discussed above, although reasonably accurate descriptions of and another between 0 and h were assumed, has also been found.) The evolution
steady-state flows, often give excessive overshoot (Fig. 5.10) in shear transient equation for T using delta functions at ± bj2 [Fig 5.12(a)] corresponds to
)
flows , and are generally too 'elastic' in recovery. Many of these effects are due to
the closure schemes (like 5.98) used to form the constitutive equations. Although
early workers had computed steady state probability distributions (see above)
OA = I+2E(I)A_
Dl C - ~/V) (5.113)
 234 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES 5.5 DUMBBELLS WITH LIMITED EXTENSION 235

,,,v With these results the so-called FENE-L evolution equations (so-called from the
f'" L.. shaped distribution function) emerge:

j I I c
DA = 1 + 2i(t)A - 2A
DI I c (5.117)
DB = 6A + 4i(I)B - 2B
t ~6 DI

o b L R
~brj!'
o b L
.
R
with T given by (S.114) as before.
The results of comparing the numerical (stochastic) simulation, the simplc
resuit (S.l i3- S.1 i 4) and the system S.117 are shown in Figs 5.13 and 5.14. The
constraint j .8A2 ~ B is enforced in the solution of S.117. The results are given for
a complex now history :

!,. (a) (b) i(1) = 100/(1 - l)exp-41 for 0:::; I:; I

(5.118)
= 0 otherwise.
Fig. S.12 Distribution function s ti" (a) Two della functions at ±b (Tanner 1975). (b) Flat
distribution plus delta (L-sh"pe) functions (Lielens el 01. 1998). The results in Fig. S.14 show that good agreement with the simulation is given
by the FENE-L model, and it also shows the hysteresis characteristic of the

..
311U
T = A
(1 _ A/L2) -
.
I
1
= "2 Ac -
which is cssentially the same result :lS (S.lOO) above. A marked improvement in
i. (S Jj 4)
.-J
II .
"vIR) atl2 U
j I
w(R) atl3
.
1 '---.-- ---,
i

~ l " ,~:;, ",...1

rcsponsc followed from Ihe inclusion of a uniform distribution with the dclta 400
functions [Fig. S.12(b)).
..."-, This leads to the equalions ({3 is the fraction of dumbbells in the delta fun clion)
2 2
'-­ A "'" {3b + (I - (3)b / 3 300 I I "v(R) at II ,
I
.."...

B = {3h 4 + (I - /3)b 4 / S
~ )
-
~
~

"~ ,

--
~- 2
'-", .. A'"", 2{3b 2(1-j3)l 2 f.~1 (L+b) -11J -0
200 I

- b1 / L 2 + - l b n L - b) 0..
(S.I IS)
,
B "'" 4{3b + 4( I - '8) L [L-b In (L-
I - b 2/ L2
4
+-b) -
L - b
4
I+-
3L
b]
100
1/J(R) at 14
Here B:; 1.8A 2 , and the size of the delta-function parameter {3 is found to be

(3 = [9A
2
- SB + V(9A2 --. SB)9A 2 ] / lOB (S.116) o o~ l~-
12
.
~
0.2 0.4 0.6
(RR)/L 2
and also
Fig.5.13 One-dimensional complex flow: polymer strcss versus mean square extension (L 2 = 50).
b = I SB
- ; dashed curve, FENE-P; thin curve, FENE-L; thick curve, FENE. Comparison between FENE
V3A + v'9Az - SB'

and FENE-L distribution functions at four selected items, defined in insets. The symbols (> and
o mark these times on the FENE-L and FENE hystercses, respectively.
 236 MI CRO STRU C TUR A L TH E ORIE S 5 . 5 DU M B BELLS WITH LiMITE D E XTENSION 237

12 13 14 10 II 12 13 14
.p(R) a t 12 Ij/(R) a t 13

200

) 8
~
~
" 6
.~
§" 4 r/)
[JI
:;; 4 ",W

~l ~
150
2
I </I ( R) al! ! - -I
g I
~I
°0 0 .5 0 0.5
Time

40/
II 12 13
.,
T ime
14 II
I I
12 13 14 ~
;.,
100 ~ I J
1\ I . /
;£
08
, '­
~ 300 \
~ 0.6
~ 200
<>:;
<>:; 0 .4 50
»

&: 100
0.2

00 0
0 .5 0
T il llC Time o~ v
.......===:
r.....
V .L
' .
0.4 2 0.6
..... (RR) !L
Fi~ . 5. 14 O ne-dimensional comp lex n n w' p. vn ll1li Q P of s t n~ i n rr'! IC :! !!C! $ ~ !"? ;n . Comp:! :"::.c ;-; b:;:: t·..~·c cj'j
r ENE-P. FEN E-L and FENE res ult s fo r th e po lyme r stress a nd m e~ n squa re ex ten sio n (L ~ 50).
2

-.
Up per cla shed c urve , F EN E-P, thi l) c ur ve. F EN E-L; thick c urve, F ENE (nu meri ca l). Fig. 5.15 Sta rt -up elo nga ti o n followed by relaxa ti on: po lymer stress ve rs us m ea n sq ua re extensio n
( L 1 = 50 ~ nd Ai' = 2). Dashed c urve (ri ght), F EN E-P; lhin cu rve, FENE-L; lh ick cur ve, FENE. Com­
pa riso n be t we~n F ENE and FEN E -L di sl ribu tion func tions at fou r selec ted times , a lso delin ed .
The sym bols 0 a nd 0 ma rk thesc times on the F ENE-L a nd F EN E h yste reses, respecti ve ly.
~~.
. ...
numeri ca l res ult s a nd the ra pid d ecay o f elo nga !io nal stress . This ma y be seen
-: .... fro m stud ying th e resp o nse o f th e vario us models to a step pulse of strai n ra te
~ (Fi g. 5. 15). The FENE·P clos ure does no t show hysteresis ; the numeri ca l and
,. where the m odulus G i a nd the rela xation time Ai a re rel a ted to struc tura l evolu­
f!!~\,. FEN E- L results d o. Thus the closure c hose n h as a grea t impact on the res ult s, a nd tion pa ra meters Xi by the rules
molecula r simul a ti on s can be used to dev ise im p ro vements.
-~~ .

,
'C.. .. .
M o re complex models ca n be contemplated, but their worth has no t bee n G; = GOix, ; Ai = AOiX).4, (5. 121 ; 5. 122)
-"-. esta blished , pa rti cularl y with respect to n umeri cal solutio ns. We will return to
numerica l simula ti o n meth od s in Chap te r 8. and an evolution equ a tio n

5. 5 .3 The approach of Aciern o and co-work ers -ddlXi = -(

I I - x ,) ­
Ai
aXi -I
Ai
J(Ei)
-,
G
(5. 123)
Aci ern o e l al. ( 1976) h ave proposed a Ma xwell-type model of th e foll o win g fo rm i
1'0 1' th e polymeri c stress tensor r ;
where E; = ~ tr T i , a nd a is a parame ter.
,,""" ( 5. 11 9) The va lues of G oi and AOi are not disp osa ble, being the equilibrium va lues fo r
r = ~T i
the fluid a t rest. H ence a is the only adjusta ble p a rame ter. The values of a th a t
have been used a re in the range 0.4-1 .2. Though the theory is quite simila r in
struc ture 10 those just described, it is no t intended onl y for dilute solution s a nd
) ~
G +A~
i
r
6.1 (~r)
G / = 2A d
I I
i
I ,
(5.120) most a pplications have been to concentra ted solutions a nd melts. The results
fro m thi s model are quite realistic in man y respects but th e ad hoc nature of

)
 238 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES 5.5 DUMBBELLS WITH LIMITED EXTENSION 239

(5.) 2 I) and (5.122) is to be noted. The results for suddenly applied strain are not
realistic. In this case the structure has no time to 'evolve' away frolll equilibrium (~. )

after the strain step before relaxation begins; it must therefore initially relax in the
same way as the simple Maxwell model, which is contrary to the experimental
results of Einaga et al. (1971) (for molten polymers) shown in Fig. 4.8. There is
also a large overshoot of elongational stress when starting up , which is a t variance
with some experimental results; see, however, Wagner el 0/. (1979). The general
patlern ol (5. i i 9)-(5. i 23) is inieresting and simiiar io that of Hinch and Leai (see
Section 5.8) and the Lielens et 0/. (1998) results given above: one has a struct ural Bead t
dynamics equation plus an equation for computing the stresses. This seems to be
)
a common feature of Dlany complex constitutive models. o
(b)
5.5.4 Further developments Fig.5.16 (a) Bead-rod assembly. (b) Rigid dumbbell molecule.
Many examples of non-linear spring calculations are given by Bird el at. (I 987b) ,
Bird and DeAguiar (1983), and DeAguiar (1983).
The Maxwell model has been generalized to many beads and (linear) springs
dumbbell [eqn. (5.38») the centroid moves with the fluid. The restraint of a con­
(chain molecule), and the result is precisely of the form (5.6 I) and (5.62). Many­
stant length (R) can be incorporated by recognizing that two unrestrained beads
bead non-linear spring models ha ve been discussed briefly by Bird (1982) and by
have a relative velocity of" = LR == RLu. The veiociiy componeni aiong (he
Bird ef (1/. (! 987b). Some idea of the (hff~cul!i·:s !D this C2s·e are g~ven by W~~s! 2::d
u-vector is v· u = RLljujuj, or, using the notation RLIIU, we fi nd the rela tive speed
Tanner (! 989). Further deve!oplTICnts of approx!!na!-: consti tutive models for
along the iine ofR to be R(Luu)u. Hthis is subtracted from RLlI, the beads, when
ctumhhells with v(lrillble rri(:tion, interned viscosity and hydrodynamic interac­
_. tion (Phan-Thien and Tanner 1978) have also"been studied. In most of these cases
the results are similar in kind to those derived above, and the reader is referred to
constrained by a rigid link , have a relative velocity R given by

v= R = RiJ = R(LlI - (L:uu)u). (5.124)

the original papers for details. See also Fan and Bird (J 984).
~ Verhoef el al. (1999) considered a dumbbell model with a viscous component Brownian motion is also present, and produces rotary diffusion in this case.
-......
cr..
to the connector force. They assumed a connector force of the form Fj(c) = Let the Brownian force be F(b), equal to - kTCJln'l/J/ fJu, where "If; is the prob­
. ~~;:-'; f(R)R; + g(RJRkdjk)R; where R is the connector vector and djk is the rate of ability density for the state u at a given time. Then the constraint of rigidity needs
deformation tensor. They were able to use pre-averaging of R to obtain good us to consider only the effect of tha: par: of F (b) which is not aligned wi th u. To
.l~_
agreement with their experiments. Once again, a reduction of the model's elas­ obtain this, the part ofF(b) parallel to u is (F(b) '11)0 , or F?)ukuj and subtracting ~
1.1 ; ,. ticity was sought, but the physics of the model is not completely clear. this from F (b) one finds a reduced Brownian force of (I - !.m)· F (b) Using this
"""­ result by adding the resulting motion to (5.124) yields
5.5.5 Rigid dumbbells and rods
In many cases macromolecules are not flexible (for example, some proteins, Ii = L . II - L: IIUU +~
(R
(I - u) . F(b)
. (5.125)
DNA in a helix configuration, tobacco mosaic virus) and a rigid dum bbell model,
albeit crude, is more relevant than a flexible bead-spring model. Figure 5.! 6(a)
The connector force F(c) can be found from the force balance (5.37)
shows a multi-bead and rigid rod arrangement; when there are two beads and one
rod, of length L, one has the rigid dum bbell. We will only give detailed results for
this case; for many other bead-rod-spring models see Bird el al. (I 987b). F(C) = ~ F(b) + ((LR - R)/2. (5.126)
In the case of the dumbbell model [Fig. 5.16(b»), with two beads spaced a
distance R apart , the beads are not supposed to interact hydrodynamically in the From (5.125) and (5.126) we have
present calculation; this may not always be a realistic assumption.
From Fig. 5. I 6(b), rl - r2 = Ru where u is a unit vector directed from bead 2 to F(C) = ( : [L: uuu] + ~ (Uti· F(b). (5.127)
bead I. The solution is supposed to be dilute; in a similar way to the elastic
)

240 MICROSTR UCTU RAL THEORIES

5 . 5 DUMBBELLS WITH LIMITED EXTENSION 241

The Kramers-Bird expression for the polymer stress '["em) is given by (5.46) and
on links offixed length jointed together; typically they used 100 links and studied
using (5. 127) in (5.46) we find the unfolding numerically.

r(m) = 110((~2 (L :uuuu ) + ~UUU' Fb) - nokTI (5.128) 5.5.6 Experimental polymer molecule dynamiCS in dilule extensionai flow
Perkins el af. (1997) studied optically the details of the elongation of single
molecules ofa DNA in a sugar solution, molecule by molecule. Hence, there is no
where ( . . ) denotes the average JJJd V'lj;( ... ).
) doubt that their results are for dilute so lutions . They were able to study the
From a result of H uilgol and Phan-Th ien (1997) we have
uncoiiing ofidentical molecules (all the DNA molecules were the same) in strong
elongational nows. The configurations adopted by the molecules were many and
(UIIU . F (b)) -_ '6kT
T ( uu) (5 . 129) varied; few were stretched to full length despite a relatively long exposure to
clo;:;.g::tio;:;. compared with tlie feiaxation time. Figure 5. I? shows a partial tax­
a nd hence (5128) becomes onomy of the stretched molecules . For lower extensional ra tes (i:A max ::; 0.5) the
molecules remained coiled. The behaviour of individual molecules is very diverse,
'["em ) = ~no(R 2L: (UUIIII ) + 3no kT(III1) - no kTI. (5 . 130) some deforming only slightly, while others reached a steady-state extension
comparable to the total molecular length. For i: = 0.86 S-I, with a relaxation time
By using the Giesekus form (5.102) we derive an evolution equation for u: of 3.9 S , and a long dwell time, one would expect most molecules to be highly
extended. Those molecules in a dumbbell configuration (Fig. 5.17(a)] extended
I faster than folded molecules, and the residence time at which significant
A[t:. (1111) / t:.1 + 2L: (UUIIII ) J + (UII) ="3 I, (5 . 13 I)
stretching occurs was highly variabk. The actual probability distrihlltion of
exlension is close to, but more complex than the Keunings L-distribution
where A = ( R2/ I? kT, t he time consta!1t~ has tbe saIne form:!s ~he e!~~ tic d:.;;nbbcll (Figs 5. 12 and 5.13) and Perkins et al. exprcss doubts Ihat a simple dumbbell
re sult (5.52) if Na 2 , the mean square <\nd end-end distance is replaced by R,2 model will give accurate predictions of stress. Also the mean spring law was found
Generally, (5.1 J I) will need a closure approximation for the founh-order to be roughly of the form
product in term s of (uu ) . Various closure schemes are discussed by Feng el al.
c·
(J 998), and in Section 5.8. 1 below. F(c ) L 2[ ]
k~ 3NkT =:3 0.25/{ I - R / L )2 - 0.25 + R/ L (5.132)
Alternatively , one may solve a diffusion equation for ·if). This has the form given
- ...... by Bird el al. (1987a) and is not detailed here.
'".. ..
~ " ,.",
To lind 1/J one can either soive this equation (see Bird el al. 1987a for many Harrison el al. (1998) also studied very dilute solutions of polystyrene in an
examples) or, one can avoid it by using a simulation based on a stochastic for ­ extension-dominated flow. They inferred from birefringence measuremenls
1 '. _ mulation (Chapter 8). Typical results for the rheology of rigid dumbbells include that many of their molecules reached 90 per cent of full extension and that the
t .... \, (Bird el al. 1987a) . Chilcott-Rallison model (5.108) fitted the data well. However, they also pre­
ferred a spring of a form different from the Warner spring to describe their
(i) Shear thinning with T(m)(-y) ~ (-y)l fJ for very large shear rates: results. They suggested replacing the/(R) on the righi-hand side of (5.1 08) by
(ii) N2 = 0, as in all simple dumbbell models : 2 2
) fl{R ) = I +2 .3{R ) / L
(iii) NI 00-,,/ / 3 at very large shear rates: (5. 133)
{I - R 2/U)01
(iv) A finite extensional viscosity at all elongational rates., eq ual to 6 TJo as )..i:
becomes very large .
Extensions to various 'molecules' including those of the type shown in
Fig. 5. I 6(a) with or without hydrodynamic interactions and internal viscosity,
have been made. See Bird el al. (1987b). No explicit, exact constitutive equation 1
(a) Dumbbell
~
(b) Kinked
l
(c) Half·dumbbell
~

(d) Folded
seems to be available for this model.
Dilute solution theories for a variety of other 'solutes' are described by Bird Fig. 5.17 Sketches of DNA molecules after elongation straining. Most of the molecules are in one
) el al. (l987b). Rallison and Hinch (1988) discussed a 'molecule' with rigid bonds or other or the above configurations. After a photograph by Perkins et al. (1997).
 242 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES 5.6 THEORIES FOR MOLTEN POLYMERS 243

K, I . r---.--- I I 1-1

A~j~l"

5r

4 ~ Perkins el al. (1997) - - /

It
I
c

:t
I
/
/
I

/ I}
I
'1

/~ Inverse Langevin

/;
»
/
/ /
/ + I
/: / ,/ /. I
~ ~ ~~_~ ./ // Hamson el I .

_~....:;::::~::_~~ ~
I fJ'Oj,o;m"h0
_ L- / / a (1998)

1h
Warne r (1972)
- J L ·.near s prmg

j POj';: :o~: :"O '~o~.

.

0.5 1.0

Fig.S.18 Expe rimenlal and theoretical spring 'consta nts' for molecules. K is Ihe ratio of the spring
'constant ', as a function or (RIL), normalized to the G<lussian spring constant leqn (5,48)]; R,I Li s
Rll.

IL
polybutadiene

~POly(telrame~1'
0111 / / /

/ / I
.J
~
I
)

the fraction of extension related to maximum length of the molecules. Perkins el a/. (I 997)--leqn 'P_siIPhenYI~ne
(5.132)J; H a rri son el al. (1998)- eqn (5.133). Warner and Inverse La ngevin, seeeqns (5.22) and (5. 21). siloxa ne)
poly(methyl /;

me thacrylate)

1., ' The spring laws [(5.20) (Inverse Langevin), (5.22) (Warner 1972), (5.133) )
,..' (Harrison el al. 1988), and (5.132) (Perkins el al. 1997») are compared in Fig. 5.18 ,
polyelhylen /
..:......
..,.. . all no rma lized to 10 for small extensions. The differences between the two
glycol
polyvinylacelate
.. ':tI;:
experimentally fitted laws (Perkins el af. and Harrison el at.) are small for R/
L < 0.6, with wide divergence thereafter, in accordance to observed differences in log M +con stant
.~ extensions .
.....,-­.
Fig. 5.19 Relalionship be tween zero-shear viscosity and molec ular weight for several melts of
.., .... The considerable differences between molecules' experimental behaviours and narrow polydispersity from Berry and Fox (1968).
the theoretica l Warner and inverse Langevin laws are also clear.
(Berry and Fox 1968) due to entanglements. See Fig. 5 . 19. In the following sec­
tions we will present some of these theories.
5.6 Theories for molten polymers and concentrated solutions
Section 5.5, dealing with dilute solutions, shows how difficu! t this simpler case is, 5.6.1 Theory 0/ rubber elaslicilY
and few successful attempts have been made to deal with rheological problems in The theory of macromolecular substances developed in the 1930s via the work
the intermediate case of medium concentrations. For the high concentrations of of H. Staudinger, H. Mark, and W. Kuhn (Tanner and Walters i998). Appii­
greater interes t in polymer engineering, other paths are needed. The most !;uc­ caiion to rubber elasticity foiiowed; the general concept of an entropic force (see
cessful basic. ideas are the Yamamoto-Lodge network theory and the develop­ Section 5.1.3) in long-chain molecules was used to construct a theory based on
ments by Doi and Edwards. In both cases the concentration is so high that gross cross-linked molecules. Ifin Fig. 5.20(a) one imagines physical links at points A ,
interference between molecules is inevitable, and one is well beyond the 'k nee ' B, and other crossings, then one can develop a theory connecting stress and
point of the zero-shear viscosity vs. molecular weight curve where the zero-shear deformation for polymers. The book by Treloar (1958) gives a clear picture of
fa Ie viscosi ty begins to rise proportional to the 3.4-power of the molecular weigh t earlier work; the vast scope of the sta tistical theory of ru bber elastici ty can be seen
 244 MICRO ST RUCTURAL THEORIES 5.6 THEORIES FOR MOLTEN POLYMERS 245

simply supposed to a ppear and disappear, and the strands connecting them are
) a ble to transmit force. The network is not permanent, but constantly changes its
topology . Lodge (1968) has carefully discussed the physical picture, including the
Brownia n agitati on of individuai strands. We neglect completely the contribu­
tion to the stress from the solvenl; it will usually be negligible as may be seen by
comparing solvent and solution viscosities. Thus the theory is useful for both
m o lten polymers a nd solutio ns, and both will be regarded as incompressible.
Let us call the element AB of the network a chain . Each chain is, from Section
5.1, properly regarded as a non-lin ea r spring. Howeve r, it is often permissibie to
consider chains as linear springs, and this will be initially adhered to. Each chain
is supposed to be made up of a certain number N o f molecules or 'subm o lecules'
a nd we can describe ea ch cha in as being of type (h,N), where h is the end-to-end
'TUbe' m ade o r vector [Fig. 5.20(a)).
01 h er molecu les
) Consider a position x in the fluid, relative to a la boratory frame of reference.
,.- / ..... There will be a distribution function ¢ which describes the distribution of
'" "­
,.'" ~ ', , ..... chains of type (h, N) around the point x at time I , so that ¢(h, x, N, I) dh 3 dx 3 is
the number of chains in a small element of physical space (x) and chain space
(h) around the poi nt x at time l. T o begin with, we will suppose tha t N is constant
for a ll chains; eve ntually this will lead to a sin gle relaxation time, and one can
) see th3! each group of cha ins with differe nt ;V will contribute on a different
,/ , / t:me-i"eh1x<uion sca le. V./e can ,;./rite a bal~Ill,;e equaiion for <pCh, N, x, l) :
(b) ' rcp laling'mo lecule
.....
Fig. 5.20 Co nce pts for co nccfltra ted polymcr so luti o ns . (a) Ya marnoto-Lod ge ne two rk .
(b) Doi- Edward s virtual tu be . d 3 1
- (¢d h dx-) =
rrate of chain creation]
. dhdx ,
3 3
(5. J 34)
dl l -rate of destru ctton
'­ in the boo k by Erman and M a rk (1997) . However, given the co ncept of stored
-- energy and elasticity, the n the equilibrium stress-deformation relations must fa ll
wi thin the continuum elasticity theory of Section 4.7 . One is left to consider non­
where the rates are for chains of ty pe (la, N). Hencefo rward , we shall dr op the N.
'\ it being taken equal for all chains at prese nt. We shall write the rate of chain
equilibrium effects in non-ideal rubberlike bodies from a microstructural
crea tion as g, and the rate o f destruction as (3¢, it being natural to write the
standpoint , but this would require too large an excursion from the ma in purpose
destruction rate as being proportional to the number of chains present. Thus,
o f this book . We now consider how the theori es of rubber el as ticit y were a dapted
eqn (5 .134) ca n be written as:
to no n-crosslinked materials or fluid s.

5.6.2 The Lodge-Yamamoto nelwork rh eory d

) di(¢dh 3 dx 3 ) = [g( h) - (3( h) ¢ ] dh 3 dx 3 (5. 135)
These theories of networks were formulated following the concepts gi ven by the
pioneering work of Green a nd Tobolsky (1946) . Both Lodge (1956) a nd
Yamamoto (1956, 1957, 1958) produced similar theories at the same time; the We now introduce the afline defonnation hypothesis which rel a tes an h vector
) publication of the book by Lodge (1964) undoubtedl y drew grea t a tten tion to for a chain before defo rmation to the same quantity fo r the same chain a fter
these contributions. deformation. From our previous discussio n an element of the x vector, 6.x at
Suppose that in the polymer liquid one has a 'network ' of molecules with time I, was represented by 6.r at time I', and hence
tempora ry junctions [A , B in Fig. 5.20(a)]. We shall not be much concerned here
with the ex ac t nature o f the junctions, which has been disputed ; the juncti o ns! a re
6.r(I/) = ~: 6.x (r) = F6.x. (5 .136)
10rten called entanglemen ts; we s ha ll not use this te rm .
 246 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES 5 . 6 THEORIES FOR MOLTEN POLYMERS 247

The afline deformation hypothesis is that h vectors also transform by (5 . 136) First, we note that the soiution of (5 . 142) in this case is
so that

(5.137)
<p = /~ dl'g[h(I')] exp -(3(1 - I'), (5.145)
h(I') = Fh(I) .
where any initial conditions were imposed at 1= -00. From (5 . 143)
I n both the h-space and the x-space small volume elements are conserved
('incompressible'), and so
Tij (X, I) = KJJ'r d 3hh (/)h;(/) f'
Jh (/)
j
J- oo
dl lg([h(I/)]) exp - (3(1 - I'), (5. I 46)
~(dh 3 ) =~(dx3 ) = O. ( 5. 138)
dl dl But by using (5 , I 37) we can change to integrating over h(I'), and also we can
invert the time-space order of integration to obtain
Hence (5.135) becomes

8q; . 8¢ . a¢

Tij = Kj' -00

dl ' exp - !3(/- I/)J)! r,d3h(I')(F- I)ikhkhm(F- I )jmg(h).
Jh (, )
'"
vi
+ Xi ~
VXi
+ hi~1
v Ii
= g - !3c/J. (5 . 139)

(5.147)

From (5.137) we find Now F(I') is not a function ofh, and so it can be moved outside the triple inte­
gration. The remaining integral, JJJ gh khm d 3h, is spherically symmetric, and is a
dh f} I dr \ mUltiple of the unit tensor Ok",. Hence we can rewrite (5 . 147) as
- = - ! - lh( / ) ( S.i40)
dl ' 8x\dl ' ) " "
Iij ~ K
- I
Ir' exp - !3( I - I
! \)1:ik
~ ' ll~'jk-' l dl.
' I
(5. 148)
Clnd if VJ C evti!uate thi s at time! 'He find .~ - 00

Ii = L(x,/ )h(I). (5.141 ) I

Now Fi'k I Fj'k I = (C- )ij' the inverse of the strain tensor, and hence (5 . 148)
becomes a constitutive equation identical in form to (5 .58).
:. I f we concentrate on homogeneous stress states, then the seco nd term in (5 . 139)

= u + pI = K' 1~ exp -13(1 -

is zero, and using (5 .141) we get
T I')C- I dl l (5.149)
ac/J 8c/J
OVi
(5 . 142)
- + - h j - = g -f3¢;.
81 aXj ahi If we let 13 = 1/ )", K' = 170/ ).. 2, then we have the convected Maxwell model (5.58).
By ailowing each chain category (N) to have its independent relaxa tion time, and
Solution of this equation yields c/J(h, I) when g, !3 and suitable initial and boundary
summing over these contributions, we obtain the Lodge (1964) model
. cond itions are given; for example, c/J may be given at some initiai time and we may
require <p -; 0 as I h I -+ 00 . Given <p, then the stress tensor may be computed ,
using argument s similar to those yielding (5.46), from u + pI = 1~ J..L(I - I')C- I dl
l
(5.150)

Tij = crij + pOij = IJ1 4>d 3

hF(C)h = (F(c)h ) , (5 .143) Clearly, this form has the same virtues and vices as the convected Maxwell
form for dilute solutions, and the response is identical for identical relaxation
)

where the integration is over all h-configuration space, and F(c) is the force in the
chain. Cieariy , (5 . i43 ) is sirllilar to (5.46), but (5.142):5 ~ot the sarne 2S the dif­
fusion eqn (5.41) for 1/;. If we take the hypotheses of Lodge (1964) so that
F(C) = Kh , (5 . 144)
where K is a cons tant, and also assume 13 is constant, and that g is a function only
of the magnitude o fh, denoted by h, then one can derive a constitutive model.
spectra. However, in concentrated solutions the Zimm spectrum discussed in
Section 5.3.2 is not recommended, and measurements should be made wherever
possible.
. It is remarkable that two such diverse microstructural ideas arrive at the
same constitutive model and we begin to see that the constitutive equation,
in broad form, is rela tively insensitive to details of the microstructural picture.
This is fortunate , and gives confidence in the microstructural procedure being
adopted .

)
)

248 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES 5 . 6 THEORIES FOR MOLTEN POLYMERS 249

5 .6.3 Variable rOles of nelwork erealion and deSlruelion
Lodge assumed that the junction creation function g [eqn (5.135)] was Gaussian;
one does not alter the results significantly by changing this assumption ; the
response remains Maxwellian.
By con trast, the fluid response depends critically on the destruction coefficient
/3 for which various form s have been suggested. A s written in eqn (5 . 135) , (3 is
This model shows many realistic features but has an implicit form, requiring
computation. If the functions g and (3 in eqn (S.142) are not function s ofb, but are
functions of the invariants of r (or another related stress) or the local rate of
deformation 0, then one can s till mUltiply (S.142) by hJ< hm and integrate over the
space of h. Use of the divergence theorem yields
6.r r

given as a function of h. Takano (1974) has investigated various forms of (3 C;; + :\ = goI, (S.156)

numerically; specificaUy she takes {3 = f30 /1 2 , so that longer junctions tend to

disappear more readily. The computed results show decreasing vi scosity a nd
many other realistic fea tures of real solutions. Approached in this way the theory
is , of course, llnwiekly hut the following ~pproxirn :He appro ach , following the
dilute solution pattern (Section 5.5) yields a constitutive equation.
In eqn (5 .143), suppose that the network ha s a linear force- chain length
cha racteristic:
where g = go7.f;o , with 1/)0 an equilibrium di stribution, a function ofh. Also), = 1/(3;
go and f3 are supposed independent ofh . Larson (1988) has termed (S . IS6) the
Generai Network Modei; he aiso contemplates replacing 6./6.1 by a more general
derivative in (S . IS6). Equation (S.IS6) can be put in an equivalent integral form
(Phan-Thien and Tanner! 977), for multiple relaxation times:

)
F (C) = Kh. (5.151) r = l.= ., gO( /') [ ;., di" ] "
; -00 ),i(/') exp - I ' ),,(/") E(/, l ) dl (S.IS7)

Then , (5 . 143) becomes, with a constant K

where lhe strain tensor E satisries
ri; = K(h i hi) , (5 . 152)
roT.'
or, taking the tracc , we find ~ - w T . E - Ew - a(d · E + Ed) = 0 (S 158)
Dr
"

(h 2 ) - rii / K. (5.153 )
'!. If we now assume lhal m ost of the chains are oriented in the S(l me direc lion , then
we have the equivalent of the delta-function approximation used for dilute
solutions. In addition, if a group of highly-extended chains dominates the mean­
,;;;
square value (h 2 ), we can write as a (closure) approximation
T
Here w is thc vorticity tensor 1/2 (L - L) (Chapter 2) and a is a constant ; ir 0 = I ,
we have the upper convected derivative; a = 0 gives the corotational derivative,
and a = -I the lower convected derivative. Ecan be a combination ofC and C - I ;
for example, a useful form is to set

... (h
2
) "" h
2 E = (I +~) C- I +~ C (S.IS9)

-- .
~

We may then replace the function (3(h) by {:i(tr r) in (5.142). SII1CC r is not now
which can gcnerate a second normal stress difference such that N 2 / N j = !c,
where
regarded as a function ofh, we can complete the an a lysis lo obtain a con stitutivc
c is a constant. .
equation of the Kaye (1966) family:
Modifications made to the' Lodge model include 'network rupture' , the
replacement of tr res) in (S.ISS) by some function of the rate of deformation
r = ( ' f.1.(1 - s, tr r(s))C- 1 (s) ds. (5.154)
invariants, and the KBKZ theory (see Section 4.8) where strain invariants are
J- oo
) used in the kernel. Another possibility is to replace C- I in all these form s by an
For the case when f3 = const x h 2 (Tabno 1974) the kernel J.L takes the form (ror optimum strain measure H of the form
one set of uniform chains)
IIc-1 )C- I + h(l c-J, Ilc-I )C,
f.1. = const x e xp - -
I jl tr res) ds, (S. ISS)
H "'" I, (Ie l ,
(4.64 )
)o.K. I'
as suggested in Section 4.8. Then we recover a KBKZ form, but without the
where), and K are constant. V-function. Most of these form s may be expressed as differential forms by

)
 250 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES 5.6 THEORIES FOR MOLTEN POLYMERS 251

differentiating as in Section 5.3.1; an exception is the KBKZ model. Larson From this assumption, a constitutive equation for the network contribution to
(i 988) has given an approximate way of finding differential equivalents for the stress tensor r is found (for a material with a single relaxation time ),)
this case.
Despite the many attempts, the results of these efforts are not on the whole D
), [ Dt r - IfT - rif
TlJ + YT = 2)'Gd, (5.161)
better than the KBKZ theory, and in some cases they are worse. For example, the
use of the strain-rate invariants (Carreau 1972) yields the same type of infinite where 2 is the effective velocity gradient tensor, defined by
Trouton viscosity at finite elongation rates as does the Lodge model; it also may
be objected to in uitra-high frequency smail osciiialion tests because lhen the !f = L - ~d, (5.162)
rate of deformation may not be small although the strain is. Experiments by
Gross and Maxwell (1972) (see Section 4.11.5 and Fig. 4.9) and many others where Y is a function of tr T , and G is a constant. This form can easily be gen­
support the idea that the departure from linear viscoelastic behaviour depends on eralized for multiple relaxation times Ai as follows. Let
strain magnitude, not on strain-rate magnitude, and hence the Carreau (i 972) 1'=L1'(i),
fomls are not thought to be fundamentally sound.
Even excluding this class of behaviour, then one still has to face the problem
of recoil and double-step relaxation results described in Section 4.8. and 4.8.2. then, for the isothermal case ,
Since most of the models discussed here behave poorly in these respects, we
or(i) .
shall return to this point yet again in Section 5.6.6. In summary , although the ) ,Ot- + Yr(l) =
I
2AGd
I I ,
(5.163)
assumption of variable rates of creation and destruction of junctions yields
good agreement vY'ith rnost experiments, there arc still other id eas that need where Y is a function of (n(i) , Gi is ihe usual linear-viscoelastic shear moduius,
explora tion.
and
.,.,

5.6.4 The relaxation 0/ the Gaussian spring assumption ,51' U) = D1'(l) _ 2"1'(i) _ 1'(1) 2"T .
(5.164)
"4
Tt - Dt
.- ::;
Lodge (1968) showed that one could permit the network 'springs' to be non­
linear, as in the dilute solution case, but that the results were not very useful. This form of constitutive equation gives the following results:
..., Specifically, the shear viscosity is now a rising function of shear rate and the ratio
---. (i) Linear viscoelastic behaviour at small strai'ns.
N 2 / N, is positive. Neither of these results is realistic, and since it seems, from the
r=
., ,,l.~ ........
microscopic point of view, that spring stiffness must increase with extension, no (ii) Good fit to viscosity and first normal stresi> difference data for low-density

'%i _, further ".;ork will be done with this hypothesis. polyethylene for both steady and transient shearing.

An extreme case of this model is the network-rupture theory of Tanner and (iii) A non-zero second normal stress difference, where N2 = -(~/2)Nl, [eqn

,-;- \.
Simmons (1967) where the network is assumed to break when tr C-' reaches a (5.163)].

. '''''''.,., critical value; this equation shows possible behaviour, but needs multiple (iv) Reasonable elongational behaviour at all elongation rates.
relaxation times to be at all realistic.
Two forms for Y have been extensively used:
5.6.5 The non-a/fine de/ormation assumption- PTT model
(a) Y= I +!.... tr 1'(i)(Jinear form), (5.165a)
Phan-Thien (1978) has considered relaxing the hypothesis of affine deforma tion Gi
[eqn (5.137)]. In particular, if h is the end-to-end vector of a network segment, he and
assumed that
Ii = Lh - ~dh, (5.160)
(b) Y = ex p { ~i tr r(i)} (exponential form). (5.165b)

where L is the macroscopic velocity gradient in the nuid, d = 1/2(L + L T ), and Here, G i is a rigidity, and c: is a constant.
~ is a constant. (In the original paper a further term in (5.160) of the form - O'h Apart from the linear viscoelastic data Ai and G i , eqns (5.162)-(5.165) contain
was used, but Bird et al. (l987b) have shown that this term must be zero for only two constants, c: and~. It was found that ~ may be estimated in several ways
stability.) from linear-viscoelastic and viscometric data, while c: (principaJJy) governs the

)
 252 MI C ROSTRUCTUR A L TH EO RI ES 5.6 TH EO R I E S F O R M O LTE N P OLY M E RS 253

exle nsio na l fl o w resp onse. When € = 0 , th e cons tituti ve equ a tions a re identical to /1 ---..J'
th o se o f Jo hnson a nd Sega lman ( 198 1) whi ch were d educed by a n a ltern a tive 1.0 c.. ..... ""' k.

(co ntinuum ) meth od ; in this case the m o del becomes o ne o f th e Oldroyd fa mil y,
eqn (4. 13). T he main ad va nta ge of th e PTT model ove r both th e 10 hl1son­
Segalm a n m o dcl and the m odel of Ac ie rn o e f a l. (197 6) seems to be in elonga ­ "i
ti o na I fl o ws; the form er does no t show a li mi ting viscosit y with elonga tio n ra te , '\
while th e la tter shows an oversh oo t in tra nsient el o nga ti o n whic h is h a rd to '}

)
reconc il e wi th a nctwo rk- type th eory. It sho uld be no ted, h oweve r, th a t s uch a n
oversh oo t h as been see n by W agn er e l a l . ( 197 9 ).
Thu s th e m odel be haves well in m a n y tes ts, and we n ow ex amine it in a singlc­
step tes t. I f a sudden (single or mUltiple) shear strain is a ppli ed to a sa mpl e, and
"'I \\
\ \
the resuitin g s tress relaxati o n is studied, th en thi ~ stress is a functi o n o f th e shea r
s train h-) a nd the time ( I) . In thi s test th e res ult s (for c: = 0 , ~ ~ 0) a re equi va lent to
I
) a n integra l model, but with a specific kernel. The pro bl em s previou sly fo und fo r
d o ubl e-stc p relax atio n persist with the m odel a mI com plica ted rem edi es fo r this 0.0 11 IO'y
0.1
be hav iou r ma y be needed . For th e sin gle-ste p rel axa ti o n , if we divid e th e shear
s tress T by -yG(/), whe re G(l) is the lin ear shea r stress rel ax ati o n fun c ti o n, th en we Fig. 5.21 N on-linea r behav io ur in single-slep re laxa tion ; f is the ra lio o r shea r stress to -yG(I);
can d e fine a fun ction!, where whe re -y is the step or strain a nd G( I) is the li nea r rel axat io n rUll ction . The so iid line is the
Ph a n·Th ien prediction eqn (5. 16 1) w ith ~=O. I and the dashed lin e is ex perimenta l data.

~ fh) = r {;)/rG(i) (5 . i 66)

r" (a) Steedy shearing
F or linea r vi scoc ias ti c res po nsc /= I ; typical ex perlln ent a l res ult s fo r / as a
! n thi s case le t \, = ",-y: where i is th e s hea r l a te a nd i is the unit vec tor in th e x ­
fU Dc ii on of ,;, ~If " sho wn in F ig. 5. 2 j an d predictions fo r th e presc nt m odel a re a lso
t,. directi o n. Th en th e s tress compo nen ts Tyy, T: ., Tzy a nd Tzx a r e seen to b e ze ro and
.....
c-·
plo tt ed . The predi c ti o ns a re co nsid era bl y in err o r as the ch<l nge with -y is initi a lly the rem a ining equ a ti o ns fo r T .", and Txya re
too slow a nd is th c n too fas t. The fo rm fo und for I fo r thi s m odel is
~
- 2AT xy i + Txx/= 0 (5. 168)
'-. /= (si n -YV~( 2 O)hy'~(2-~). (5 . 167)

F o r ~ = 0 (Lod ge's m odel)1 = I. H ence, th e prese nt mo del is a n impro vement on

Txy/ = TJoi (5 .169)
_.....­ this m o d el in this fl o w. I t is clear th a t if -y exceeds 7r J~(2 - 0, / will become H ere
~~
negati ve . Thi s is no t a n acce pta ble result a nd thus predi ctions fo r la rge -ya re
""'\.0 .
.........
unrea li s ti c . If ~ = O. I, th en th e critica l va lue o f -y fo r th e o nse t o f nega ti ve/is 7.2 1. / = l + -T xx
AC:
or rA€T
eXP l- ­
Xx ]
(5. 169a)
This mode l embraces the ex tre mes o f th e L od ge mo del a nd th e coro ta ti o na l TJo TJo

mod els o f Bird e l al. ( 1977 , 1987a) as ~ goes fr o m 0 10 I . I t s hould a lso be no ted Txy :; !l = /~ I

that in a simple shear fl ow th e shear s tress goes thro ugh a m ax imum as th e shear TJo-Y TJo

rat e is inc rea sed . Thi s is no t usuall y acce ptab le. One ca n add a 'solve nt viscosit y' so that /- I is th e viscosit y ra tio. From (5 .1 68), a fter elimina ling T.<y u sing (5. 169)
to o vercome thi s pro blem if required , but o th e r id eas have u suall y been pre ferred , we find
s uch a s usin g m ultipie relaxa ti o n times.
2
N, = [xx = 2TJo)..i 2/ - (5. i70)

5.6.6 Affine PTT models ([, = 0) .which is a single equ a ti o n fo r T xx (o r N, ). We can rea rra nge it in terms o ffa nd
In this case the mo ti o n is aga in affine, a nd the respo nse o f the m o del to step the W eissenberg number ( W ;) )..i to find
s tra in s is always reaso na bl e. The solutio n of the respo nse fo r simple shea rin g and X/2(X) = 2c:(Wi )2
s tead y elo nga ti o n fo r the lin ea r m o del (5. 165a) is give n below fo r two va lues o f e,
fo r a single relaxa ti o n time A = TJo/G. where X = C:).. Txx/TJO'
 254 MICROSTRU CTURAL THEORIES 5 .6 THEORIES FOR MOLTEN POLYMERS 255

Thus, for any givenJ,t we can find the corresponding Weissenberg number.
The second no rma l stress difference is zero 'with this m odel, and IV! is given by I!I !!II!!!
1111111
eqn (5. 170).
In practice, the two forms of J given in eqn (5. J 69a) have both been used ; Lhe
followin g asymptotic beha viour as (Wi) - 4 00 ca n be verified:

(i) J(X) = 1 + X gives Txy ~ (2c) - li3(Wi )-2/ 3

EA Txx
TJoi

~ (2E)I/3( Wi )2/3 (5. J7 1)

']'.IIIIIIUllflllllllllllJlWIIIIIIIII

710 f?
(' I)
"U:;

(ii) J(X) = eX gives

T
71:i ~ (Wi )
J t"" ....
1....

EA Txx ~ In ( Wi)

TJo

The behaviour (5.17 J) is consistent with som e dilute solution theories di scussed ~=ill ..E
a bove (Section 5.5). , I I I IIII I I I I I I II I I I I II III I I I I IIII I I 1IIIf
(b) Steady elongation

10- 2 1-.11 1111 1I uu.u

Here the equations to be solved are (c = au/ax and r yy = Tzz )

• • •• • • ••• , I ;",. I 1 l I I L I.!1

- 2AErxx + TxxJ { Y} = 2'/lofi:

-.
."'~
',...
A€T),) , -I- TyyJ{Y'} = -710€
[] 111 11111 III ttllli 111111111 III1I1111 I IBUIll
10- ' 10 102 10 3

.... -­
. ..... where Y = EA(Txx + 2T)'y)/T/0.
Wi(A-Y;A€)

The asympto tic behaviour in these cases (Ai » I) is Fig.5.22 PTT model response in elongalion (lOp) and shear (below) fo r lwo values of £; A is the
"",-.:-t," .,.-"'­­ (single) relaxation lime and t: = 0 (affine motion).
(i) J(y) = J -I- Y : T.u - Tyy _ 2 (5. 172a)

'-' -....
....-1 _ .. . (ii) J(y) = exp (Y):
TJoi

T xx
- ;

-,'yy = ~ lCin(Wi)] (5.172b)

and hence
Y = - EX/(3X + 210) :>
71010 10 (Wi) Ai = X ( I + X -I- 2Y) /2(X +10)
For mo lte n polymers (5. J 72b) is pre ferr ed (Larson 1988). Thus , given a choice of X , Yand 10, Ai can be found. Then the ratio ofT/E/T/o, which
To illustrate solutions, we take the linear form J = I + {EA/T/O)tr T; two values is equal to
of 10,0.02 and 0.25 a re used . The former reOects dilute solution behaviour , while
11E = T xx -ryy = (X _ y)/c(Ai),

10 = 0 .25 is closer to the response of some HDPE melts (La rso n 1988). 110 TJoE

Figure 5.22 shows these respo nses (€ > 0 o nl y: the fi gures for 0 > i are slightl y
differe n t.) can a lso be found .
To co mput e the curves in Fig. 5.22, eq ns (5 . J70) a nd (5. 17 1) were used and the Example: POiseuille fl olV in a channel-PTT m odel
equations were rearra nged by defining Let the channel be of width 2h, and the wall shea r stress m ag nitude be Tw' Then
X = EATxx/710 du

Txz = -Twy/ h = 17 dy

Y = EATyy/710
)
256 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES 5.6 THEOR!ES FOR MOLTEN POLYMERS 257

From (5.169) and (5.170) we find By solving for A'w/T/O as a function of Aii/ h the velocity profile can be expressed in
terms of ii and the other parameters,
E)..'n 'lID
f= I +--= I +X = - ,
5.6.7 Fitting experimental data with PTT models
~o ~
)
Considerable work has been done in litting the PTT-type models t to experi­
and from (5.170) mental data (Larson 1988; Byars el aI, 1997), and provided enough modes are

2d 2 rd,u 12 = X( I + X)2 = [~O _ Il f770

LOYJ ~ J l~J
r

used, the lits obtained are reasonable. For example, Byars et al. (1997) fitted data
for the standard sample S 1 and compared the Giesekus (1982) model, the PTT
model, and an integral model. The ialter is a White-Tokita model like eqns (4.63­
4.64) where the strain function hi = 0 and
Rearranging, one has
l
h_! = 0'[0' - 3 + fill - (I - j3)hr (5,173)
170 = 2c )..2 [,~y2] I
~ ~~ ---,:;2 + I, Here 0' and j3 are constants, I, = tr C- and 12 is the second invariant ofC- J also
equal in magnitude to tr C. A four-mode model with a solvent viscosity was Ii tted.
The linear viscoelastic parameters used are those in Table 3.8 , and the non-linear
and
model parameters are shown in Table 5, I. The Giesekus model (5,111) has the
extra parameter 0'; G; = ~;/A,foreach mode. The PTT model used the exponential
~ __ 'wY = _'wY [I 2E)..2 '~vy2]
form (5.165b) in (5.163), and the slip parameter ~ was also allowed to be non-zero.
~oh ~6 h2

dy - '1/17 .
p"H the jTIodels fit the !1ieasureo iinear viscoeiastic . sh ear viscosity and norrn31
stress data well, hence only the lits of the steady elongational viscosity (Fig. 5.23)
i iliegralillg,
are dispiayed. Baaijcns el al. (1997) also litted the exponential PTT and the
r ..;;),2 2 T~y4
Giesekus model to low-density polyethylene data with some Sllccess for both
":'", U = /'/0 - -- - EA - -,- ,

27/0/7 2~ohJ models, but there were areas (that is, wake behind a cylinder) where the models
,­ appeared to be in some disagreemen t with the experiments. Tha t it seems essenliai
:. wh e n y = 17, /,/ = 0 (no-slip condi tion), hcncc to use severa! modes in these models is clear from the results. This poin t was made
by Azaiez el al. (1996) where 4-mode Giesekus and PTT models were compared
Uo =~+
,h EA _
_
2
,3 h
w_
with a one-mode PTT model.
!, ;~,, -
(:-.. 2~o 2~6'
Table 5.] Coefficients for the four-mode Giesekus, PTT, and

f.,. . .M . and White--Tokita models

::..~ . Mode No. 2 3 4

U =
'w h [[
2 '1)0
y2] E)..2,~
I - 17 2 + T
[
I -
y4]]
/74 .
Giesekus Q 0.27 0.29 0.03 0.5
0.001
Also, if the mean velocity in the channel is ii, one linds 0.04
PTf f, 0.072 0.072 0.072 0.072
_ 'w lr +6E)h~"1
lCI 0.2 4 ....0 x, 1(,·­ 4
0.2 0.2
U=- ---. E: IV

3710 5 '176 J
White-Tokita Q 25 for all modes
f3 1.1 x 10-)
Hence, by choosing 'w, ii can be found; and the equation can be put in the form
for all modes

Aii = ~
h 3 5
[I
[A'rIOW] +~E[A'W]2].
~o
I Here Ihe PTT models are assumed 10 be of differential forms (5.161) and (5.156); via eqn (5. 157)
one can also write Ihese models in integral form.
 258 MICROSTRU CTURA L THEORIES 5 .6 THEORIES FOR MOLTEN POLYMERS 259

(a) 10s,.---.-t " ,,~'" , ""-' "".

~,.,...,,-----.~
'~
Langouche and Debbaut (1999) have also fitted a 9-mode PTT model and have
shown, remarkably, that it gives fairly good results, even for recoil, for High­

o~
Density Polyethylene.
To alleviate errors with the one-mode model, Phan-Thien (1984) has modified
/--~~~~~~ I' the PIT model so that the viscosity 'I'}(=AG) on the right hand side of eqn (5.163)
has the form
~• w' I la
,;0 8","- ­
~
0"
I + ~(2 - OA2i2
; '1;49 "­ 'I'} = 'l'}o (5 .!74)
II "l:: ­
~ . ~ . ~ .- . - . - . - . -
(I + r 2i 2 )(I-n l/2 '

'1,.,,/ where r is another time-constant.

102
I
/ This yields a Carreau form for the viscosity function, NI = 2Ai 2T}, and
/'
N2 = - (~/2)NI'
GiesekllS, "'2 = 0.29
3
While these forms are useful in shear-like f1ows, these modifications are dif­
GiesekllS, "' 2 = 10-
ficult to regard as microstructurally inspired. Suggestions that (5.174) be
10
GiesekllS, "'2 = 0.04
expanded to include a stress-invariant form have also been made (Tanner 1965);
PIT
one could also consider a Reiner-Rivlin form (eqn 4.1) in order to model N 2 , but
White - Tokita this has not , to date, been much explored.
I' ,,,,
10-7. 10-' IU 10'
,-­ i: (S - ')
5.6.8 The Kaye and Leoiiov ;;;odeis
~ Kaye (i 966) made (h e assumption that the destruction ofjunctions function f3 in
(5.i54) was a function of the invariants of the deViator of the stress (Td). By
carrying out an analysis similar to that of eqn (5.6.3) one obtains a result in terms

... ~
(b) lOS E' 1 of the deviator Td

Td = T - P tr T,
- ~~ .

d:.f
IO· ~ /"'" .. so that
~~r:

~:~-:. 10) T=a+p]= L f' 77;gj(ll)exp{_ f'gj(t") dlll}C-Idl " (5.175) )

...... ' l.
-----------­ j I-oo Aj ii'
Aj
-""-.. ~

' -;7/_'­
'"
S
~
./
./ where the gj(x) = gj(JJTd(X), IIITd(x)) are functions of the two independent
invariants Ofl"d; (5.175) is a model of the form (5.148).
- - ­ experiment
By dilTerentiating (5.175) with respect to time I, we find , for a single relaxation
. ..:~ l Gicseku; processj, ify = LjTj, the result

6. Yj
I I
PTT
,White, T?kila, gj-I (I)~ t;i + T, = \'l'}j I ' (no sum onj) (5.176)
o 2 4
Time(s) which is a Maxwell element of the form (5.55) but with a time 'co nstant' Ajgj-I
which varies with the current stress level.
Fig. S.23 (a) Steady elonga tiona l viscosity and (b) ex tensio na l stress growlh a t i = 2.2 s- , (21 cc).
The parameters arc those or Table 5. 1. From Byars el al. ( 1997). Leonov (1976) introduced a constitutive model which appears to be most easily
visualized as a rubberlike response from the present configuration to a 'relaxed'
or stress-free state. This 'relaxed' sta te may not ever be occupied by the f1uid , but
 260 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES 5.6 THEORIES FOR MOLTEN POLYM ERS 26!

it can be properly defined. The notation used here differs from that of Leonov; where). is a time-constant for the relaxation process being considered; e thus
Leonov's C is here called C- I to conform with previous sections. If an infinite­ contains the deviatoric part of the stress, and is derived from the potential
simal eiement of length dx in the current state corresponds to an element dr in the function W" which is symmetric in1c and Ie - I.
relaxed state, then, using the defini tions (2.31) and (2.32) the relevan t strai n
measure is C. To track the evolution of Ihe r-slate, we find 2W S = W(lc,Ic l ) + W(Ie-I,lc). (5.182)

dv, = dx, = Lijdxj . (2.21 ) The neo-Hookean potential W is the simplest choice:
)
By dirfclcnti<tting (2.31) with respect to time olle finds W = J.L(Ic-' - 3). (5.183)

This completes a simple set of relations; more complex versions can be written
) -dr2=
' dx T{-+CL+LTC
DC. ~ dx = dxT -9 C dx (5.177) down. In the Leonov (1976) paper fCC) is set equal to
III @.
I... -"-"'. ) .::L/t

f(C) = eC + Ce o (5.184)
which gives a convected derivative rule for C; note that this rale rule is Ihe same as
that lIsed in the Oldroyd equation (4. J 3). We shall denole the brac ketted term in These are the set of equations as used by Leonov el al. (1976); other functions f(C)
(5 . 177) by '!2Clq;;l.lt is now assumed that the stress in the fluid is developed from and much more generality are possible at the cost of simplicity; see Larson (1988).
an isotropic el<tstic rel<ttion similar 10 (4.53) , plus a viscous component of stress so The resulting equations are fairly easy to solve analytically for steady flows.
the model represents a Maxwell model with a parallel viscous dashpot, see They appear to give adequate description in weak flows. In strong flows it can be
Fig. J .16. The stress is assumed to be of the form of a sum over N relaxation shown that the elongational viscosity is only slightly increased at high shear rates
processes (Fig. 4. j 5) contrary to experiment.
The connection of the above simplest model with other continuum models can
" be established. From (5.179) and (5 . 183) we find for a single relaxation mode
(! + pi = l]csA! + LTl( ; (~ 1751\I
\ -' . • , v

l(", I
T = 2j.J,C- I . (5 . 185)
.:. where in the viscolls part s is a number between 0 and I, and the elastic stress
..........

" components TK are each of the ro rm (4.53):

Using a formula of Leonov (1976) we can replace (5 . J 80) by an evolution
equation for C- L
"".f;;::; OW oW II
TK=-2 { -
ale
C --C
81 e · ,
J. K
(5.179) "C-
_L.:>_ _
I
= C-I
.
_ C- 1L 1- - LC- I = -C - I e - e C - I
, (5.186)
6.1
~..,. ',.
-. '. ';' We shall set K = I for initial exposition here corresponding to a single Maxwell where (5.184) has been used for the right-hand side of (5.186). MUltiplication of
'l>-- • ..
element. Each component has its own relaxcd state, its own strain tensor and its (5.186) by 2J.L converts this equation into an evolution equation for T
own free (or strain) energy function W. Although one can envisage strain tensors
which are not incompressible, we shall assume that C is. An evolution-rate 6.T
equation for the rate of change of C is also written 6.1 = -(Te + eT). (5.187)

From (5.181) and (5.182) we have

.81 C = f(C), (5.J80)
.811 i
4"\e = C - C+tI(Ic -Ie-I). (5.188)
) where f is an isotropic function of C.
We denote In terms of T we find (5 . 187) to be

1 {OWS( I ) oWs _ I I )}
(5.18 J) 0 = )6.T I {T
. - +-T - - 2J.LT _I I [ 2f.ttr(T _ I ) - -trT]} ,
+ -I
e= - 2J.L). ale C-'jle J -mc_I(C - 'j lc ll , 6.1 2 2J.L 3 2J.L
(5.189)

)
 )

262 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES 5.7 DOl-EDWARDS THEORY 263

or, rewriting the bracketted term as K( r) Doi and Edwards represent the cage by a tube of diameter a and contour length
L enclosing each chain. The chains are random coils with molecular weight M
6r
A-+K(r)=O, (5.190) and mean-square end-to-end distance R? There are v chains per unit voiuwe. The
61 tube diameter is assumed to be independent of M and the tube length directly
which is a non-linear convected Maxwell model. proportional to M. Each chain and the path of its associated tube have random
The similarity between the Kaye result (5.! 76) and this result should be noted; walk configurations with the same end-to-end vector. The distance a represents
the Kaye result is a special case of(5.190), corresponding to the right-hand side of the mesh size and is assumed to correspond also to the step-length of the tube
(5.186) being a function of the invariants of C multiplied by C - l . We shall path. Therefore, we have
therefore not investigate the Kaye model separately. Leonov el al. (1976) have
aL = R2 (5.191 )
shown that the model describes steady and unsteady shearing well; see also
Upadhyay el al. (1981) for transient shear flow behaviour.
Alternatively, the tube path is a random walk of N steps, each of ienglh a, and
The response of the Leonov model in double-step shearing is compared with
the KBKZ model in Fig. 4.13 (a, b) using the spectrum of eqn (4.77); the dash pot Na 2 = R2. (5.192)
term in (5.178) is set equal to zero (s = 0). There is some inaccuracy in the single­
slep response. With the elongational viscosity (Fig. 4.16) we note that the The self-diffusion coefficient for the chains is given by (Graessley 1980)
response is not as good as the KBKZ model; here the relaxation spectrum of
Fig. 4.14 was used. (See also Table 2.1.) Since the number of parameters that have D = kT/3N(r, (5.193)
been chosen is minimal for the Leonov mode!, it is attractive . The step response
might <11S0 bp. imrrnved by using a different W-function in conjunction with where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature, and (r is the
another f(C) function
= kT!(~;([ rx .M).
molecl.ilar fdct!on coefficient of a R~ Quse ch<=tin (D:-
Doi and Edwards calculate the stress following an inst!ln taneous deformation .
Immediately after deformation the ~tress is that for an affInely deformed
5.7 Doi-Edwards theory
.....
' Gaussian network with //N strands/volume:
Although the Green-Tobolsky concept of a network structure has proved dur­
!:. able and useful, there has always been some obscurity about thejunction concept. rij(O) = 3vNkT«(F . u)JF . u)), (5.194)
An alternative view of the structure of entangled polymer fluids has been given by
in which r is the extra stress tensor, F is the deformation gradient tensor, and ()
..-­ . Doi and Edwards (1986). The theory is based on the reptating chain model of
Edwards (1967) and de Gennes (1979). [See Fig. 5.20(b).] denotes an average taken over all directions of the unit vector u. Equilibration
An essential idea in the Doi-Edwards theory is that the transverse segmental within the distorted tubes requires a time of the order of the Rouse relaxation
motions of each chain are impeded by the meshwork of strands from other chains time [Ar = (I/6-rr2)(rR2/kT; Ar ex: M2]. After this process is complete the stress is
in its neighbourhood. Large-scale configurationai rearrangement and diffusion
"
are assumed to proceed mainly by reptation ; that is, by random snakelike
j(F· u)i(F· U)j) __I _ (5.195)
l"ij(Ar) = 3vNkT\ IF. ul (IF. ul) ,
motions of each chain along its own length. Each chain continually disengages
itself from ItS current cage of strands, creating new cages and eventually a new
configuration as its emerging end worms randomly through the mesh. Since the where the first IF· III accoun ts for the equilibration of local stretches within the
tube and the second for the assumed retraction of the tube path to its equilibrium
sirands of the mesh are parts of chains which diffuse similarly, the lifetime of each
cage constraint is itself comparable to the disengagement time for the entire length L. For longer times (12 A,) the stress decays according to
chain. Thus, for chains which are long compared to the mesh size, the frequency
8 ~ ( _ n2/)
of transverse jumps is smail enough to make plaUSible ihe idea of a semi­
permanent cage and predominantly snakelike motion.
Lij(l) = TIJ(A,) -rr2 L n2I ,-xp
oddn
\ Ad ' (5.196)

I f the system is deformed t he cages are distorted and the chains are carried in to
new configurations. Stress relaxation proceeds first by a relatively rapid equili­ in which Ad is the tube disengagement time given by
bration of chain configurations within the distorted cages, then by a relatively 2
slow diffusion of chains out of the distorted cages into random configurations. .\t = L (r/-rr'lkT. ( 5.197)

)
)
')
264 MICROSTR UCTU RAL THEORIES
The lo ng-time process [eqn (5.197)} corresponds to diffusion ofchains out o f their
original cages. Since Ad OC M3, the equilibration a nd dise ngagement processes will
be widely sepa rated in time-scale if the chai ns a re long enough.
R es ults have been obtained for several of the flows mentioned above a nd it is
possibl e to obtain (Currie 1982) from the theory a KBKZ constitutive model o f
the form (4.63) see also Larson (1988). Use of the Doi-Edwards spectrum (5.1 96)
and associated potential gives only modera te agreement with experiments (Saab
e / al. J982; Currie 1982). Doi and Edw ards (1986) have shown that the
'irreversible ' ne twork idea of Wagner (197 9) a rises naturally in the theo ry; in
physical terms the behaviour of a caged molec ule is not independent of the pre­
vious strain pa ttern. Curtiss and Bird (1980) a nd Bird el al. (1987b) have pre­
sented an a iterna tive deriva lIOn of this type o f theory showing its reiation to the
bead-spring (Rouse) theory. They ha ve also ex tended the theory and made
comparisons with ex periment s (Saab el al. 1982). Currie (1982) has discussed the
Curtiss-Bird theo ry; it often shows be tter agreement with experiment th a n the
Doi-Edwa rds version, but it ca nnot describe step-strains. While these newer
) theories a re a ttrac tive intuitive pictures of polymer response, they are at least as
complex as the KBKZ theory in computations.
~ It is pe rh aps useful to contrast here the Doi-Edwards theory with the earlier
) network theories. The network modeis make no a ttempt to connect the memory
function /.l(s) with molecular parameters directly; the Doi-Edwards theory
) i actually predict s the relaxation spectrum. Similarly, the rest of the Doi- Edwards
-r.....
.
' . ,~
(D- E) theory contains few adjusta ble parameters, an d is therefore a more basic
theory. The D- E theo ry gives (DOl and Edwards 1986; Doi 1995) the following
) positive resu lt s:
... .....
-
__ oJ
, (i) The diffusio n of pol ymeric molecules is successfull y predicted;
) ~::--'- (ii) Thc s trc ss - op ti ~d law is prcdicted ;
.
" .­ (iii) General ag reement with polymer melt behaviour is predicted.
Not e tha t (i) is not addressed in network theo ri es and (iii) needs considerable
) defined as
experime ntal input with the network theori es.
) However, there a re problems with the D-E theo ry- for example, the viscosity
function is a typical, a nd a maximum in shear is predicted; the D-E viscosity
function decreases too rapidly. Also, the theoretica l relaxation spectrum is close
to a single line, a nd lacks breadth. The general form of the D-E constituti ve
model is again the separa ble single-integral KDKZ inodel, and so recoil remain s a
problem. A critical rev iew of the description of stretching experiments on HDPE
by D-E theor y is tha t of Wagner el al. (1998). They conclude that the damping
functions arising in the D-E theor y underestimate the stresses arising .in
) HDPE considerably a nd so new concepts are needed ; see a lso Larson (1988) and
Kasehagen a nd M acosko (1998). One example is the 'double reptation concept'
, of Graessley (Wasserman and Graessle y 1996); see also lanniruberto and
Marrucci (1998) fo r some improved D-E-type theories.
5 . 8 RIGID PARTICLE MICROSTRUCTURES 265
5.8 Rigid particle microstructures
So fa r we have mainly discussed fluids with very flexible mjcro~tructures. In the
present Secti o n the particles are essentially rigid , a nd interactions can only be
avoided at low concentrations. vVe will be concerned with suspensions, collo id s
and briefly , liquid crystals. In all cases the size o f the particles is assumed to be
severai orders o f magnitude smaller tha n the geome trical features of the flow .
The forces on the particles may include (viscoelastic) hydrody namics, Brow­
nian motion, gravi ty, electri c forces between charged particles, inertia and other
attracti ve forces. Thi s wide field ha s been discussed by Ru ssel el al. (1995) in their
book Colloidal disp ersio/1 s. In the present trea tment , we will not consider electric
and other att raclive rorc~s . The :ReynoJds number is ge~erany assumed to be so
small that inerti a effec ts can be neglected, and gravity forces will also be ignored ,
despite their import ance and interest [see , for example Davis and Acrivos (I 985)}
in settling problems.
Particle sizes range widely, from coJJoidal particles of order 10- 2 _ 10- 3 11 m in
diameter, up to sa ndlike particles, of order O. I mm in diameter. Particle shapes
also vary, from ne ar-spheres to rods; even more complex bead-rod shapes have
also been discussed. (Bird e l al. i987b .)
5.8.1 Su.\pensio/1s 0/ spheres
To begin we supp ose the suspending fluid is Ncwt o nian with viscosity TIs. One is
studying the interaction of Brownian , visco us, gravity, and inertia forces. These
give rise, in a particle of ra dius a, to three dimensio nl ess numbers characterizin g
beha viour. The firs t is the volume concentra ti o n (cp), the seco nd the Reynolds
number. To form the Reynolds number (Re) fo r a pa rticle one uses the iocal
veloci ty (U) a nd finds (Re) = pUa/17s, which we wiJJ o ften ignore. The other
dimensionless group is the ratio of viscous to Brown ia n forces. Here the local
velocity U is of no significance, and the viscou s forc es will be written as TI/ya 2 ,
where i is a characteristic (generalized) shear ra te . Brown ian forces are, from
(5.26), of order k T/a. The ra tio of these force s determines a Peclet number (Pe)
(Pe) = iTlsa J jkT
(5.198)
Hence, a large Peclet number is associated with rapid shea ring, or very viscous
solvent and /or large particles.
Alternatively , o ne can define a diffusivity Ds of a sphere in the suspending fluid
as Ds = k Tf67rTlsa, so obtaining a Peelet number ia 2 j Ds which is 671 times the
value defined in (5.198). To put matters in concrete term s, consider a 1000 Pa-s
solvent at 300 o K. Then since k = 1.3807 X 10- 23 J/ K , we h a ve from (5.198),
(Pe) = 2.5 x I 02J a Ji, o r for i = 0.1 S-1, (Pe) = 2.5 x 1022a 3 If (Pe) > 1000, we
need a> 0.3 micron s.
To avoid settling out, the Brownian 'forces' must counterbalance gravity; for a
4
particle of radius a, we require a 6.pg/kT < I, where 6.p is the density difference
 266 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORJES 5 .8 RIGID PARTICLE MICROSTRUCTURES 267

between sphere and suspending fluid, and g is the gravitational acceleration. effect. They replaced I - cP by I - ¢!</>m in (5.200a) and so obtained
Thus for a neutrally buoyant, inertialess suspension of identical spheres din1eH­
sional analysis tells us that the suspension viscosity (1]) relative to that of the 1]/1]5 = (i - cp/¢m) - l )1>", (5.20Ia)
suspending fluid (1]5) is a function of (Pe) and the volume fraction (</» only: )
which agrees with the Krieger- Dougherty formula. The results are shown in the
1] / 1]5 = f[(Pe), </>J. (5.199) fourth column of Table 5.2, assuming rPm = 0.64. This approach can also be
extended to several particle sizes (Barnes et al. i 989).
When (Pe) -> (Xl, then the (Pe) dependence disappears from (5.199). The approach of Lund g ren (1971) yields
The beginning of s uspension theory is the resul t of Einstein (1905) for very
dilute suspensions of spheres (vo lume fraction of spheres less than about 0.03 of ~= (I - 2.5</) )-' , (5.202)
the total volume) in any now field : 1]5

~ = 1+ 2.5</>, which becomes infinite at ¢ = 0.4.

(5.200)
1]5 According to the excellent survey of Metzner (1985) the best theoretical
equation is that of Frankel and Acrivos (1967):
where 1]/1]5 is the average relative viscosity of the suspension.
Einstein's (1905) derivation of (5.200) was arrived at via a dissipation argu­ "2. 9((j)/¢11l) 1/3
ment, balancing micro- and macro-scales; Huilgol and Phan-Thien (1997) give a (5.203)

derivation starting purely from viscous, inerti a -free hydrodynamics, and hence
1]5 8{ I - (¢/4>m)I/3}

Brownian motion is not a factor in (5.200). It was a considerable time until

where ¢m is the iilaximum packing fraction (~0.62 - 0.64 for uniform spheres).
Bg tch<:>lor i1nd Green (1972) extended (5.200) in shearing now to add th·:;: term
Frankel and Acrivos recognized that in dense suspensions the ' lubrication ' (see
5.2¢2. If Bro'.v!1ian mot!on is consjdered~ this term Vias found to be 6.2¢/; for

,~
, e!ongationa! nnw the c()effic~ent v,'as found to be 7.6 (Batchelor 1974). Thus the
now is already 'anisotropic' in the sense that shear (l nd e longation have different
effective viscosities.
Chapter 6) forces between neighbouring particies dominated, and that sphere­
sphere distance was a n important parameter. By considermg a simpie
cubic lattice, side b, with sp heres of radiu s a, we find </>max = n/6 "" 0.52, and the

There are many proposed forms for the viscosity function (5.199) for every
..... large Peclet numbers (Metzner 1985; Utracki 1988). One of the simplest ideas has Table 5.2 Relative viscosity formulae for smooth sphere suspensions .
....... ~ been discussed by Phan-Thien and Pham (1987). They consider a suspension with
This table gives Ihe relative viscosit y ("1/"1,) as a function of the volume concentration ¢,
:t:
volume fraction cp and viscosity 1]. Addition of a small amount of particles d</> to for va riolls formula e, identified below
! .. ?~
the I - rP fraction of nuid remaining raise s the volume fraction by d</>/( I - ¢». EinStein Batchelor' Eqn Frankel 2 Eqn 3 Experiment 4
<I>
Using the viscosity 1] as an average viscosity of the nuid , and using the Einstein (5.200) and (5.201 a) (5.204)

,-.-1'1-'
,. relation (5.200) the increment in viscosity d1] is Green

""'::1
0.01 1.026 1.026 0.375 1.030 1.029
5~1] (5.200a) 0.05
1.025
1.141 1.139 0.840 1.165 1.156
d1] = 2(I _ cp) 1.1 25
0.1 1.250 1.312 1.312 1.313 1.375 1.365
Integrating, one finds the ' self-consistent' res ult 0.2 1.500 1.748 1.821 2.375 2.007 1.978
0.3 1.750 2.308 2.751 3.916 3.202 3.052
1] 0.4 2.000 2.992 4. 803 6.633 5.898 5.697
-:;;: = (I _ </» -5/ 2. (5.201)
0.5 2.250 3800 11.38 13.12 14.27 15.75
0.6 2.50 4.73 84.45 51.73 72.25 63.89
For </>va !ues near </>max, the IT,aximum packing fraction ( '" 0.64), the expression in 0.64 2.60 5.14 00 00 289.0 i 18.9
(5.201) gives too Iowa value. The result can be extended to several sphere sizes
'Batchelor and Green (1972): 1'//1'/,= I +2.5q,+6.2q}
and it has an expansion at low cp which agrees with the Einstein result (5.200). 2In this formula q,m = 0.64
However, the next term in the expansion of(5.201)gives4.375cp2, which is too low. 'Here A = 0.68 for smooth spheres.
4 An average expe,-jmenlal lit gives
Ball and Richmond (1980) had a more r e fined argument which pointed out
that the increment dcp was rea!ly added to less than I - cp, due to a 'crowding' '1]/'''' = 1 + 2.5q, + 10.05q,2 + 0.00273 exp( 16.6q,)
 268 M ICROSTR UCTU RAL THEORIES 5.8 RIGID PARTICLE MICROSTRUCTURES 269

(dimensionless) gap between spheres is bl a - I, or (¢ml ¢) 1/3 - I. Thus the form • Einstein
+ Batchelo r and Green
(5.203) appears to have the correct asymptotic value as ¢ -> ¢m.x' This equation l .. Eqn (5.201 a)
does not agree with Einstein's result as 1> -> 0, and Metzner (1985) recommends o Frenkel and Acrivos

1)/ 1), r )( Eqn (5.204)

TJ/rts = [J - ¢I Ar 2
(5.204)
• Experiments

)
where A is to be found empirically. For uniform smooth spheres A = 0.680.
Again, some disagreement with the Ein s tein relation as ¢ -'> 0 is evident. Com­
parison of the various formu las (5.200 ) to (5. 204) 'with the exce ll en t e xperimenta l
"oj
d a ta of Thomas (1965) is shown in Table 5.2 and Fig. 5.24. An empirical fit was
made to the data (± around 5 per cent ex perimental sca tter) a nd t his is plotted as '00 1
the full line in Fig. 5.24. One sees:
60
(i) Up to about 4> =0.02 th e Einstein formula is adequate.
40
(ii) Up to about c,i>= 0.04 the Batchelor formula is adequate (see Table 5.2).
(iii) For c,i> > O. I up to ¢ = 0.5 (5.20I a ) or (5.204) may be used, but beyond
¢ = 0.6 results are not very accurate. 20
)
(iv) The empirical eq uation of Thoma s (1965) is given in T a ble 5.2.

-
One sh o uld note that more experimental sca tter than indicated by Thomas
(! 96 5) is USU~1! (Rutgers !9 (2).
While the above resu!rs arc ro r rnonGdi spc rsc sphere siz,es, it is possi ble to
redu ce the viscosity of suspens io ns C!t 2 given ~6, by hl1v!f!g a \v ide spectru:n of
10 ~

Il
I
~
....... sphere sizes (Metzner 1985; U track i 1988; Ba rnes er af. 1989) .
4
j
.... Variable viscosiiy and normal Sl!'ess ejlecis
......'
So far non-linear effec ts in suspensions have not been exa mined. Some non­ 2
•
(.:-"~ Newt onia n effects are noticeable wi th Newtonian solven ts at low Pecl et numbers;
... with non-Newtonian solvents shear-thinnin g behaviour is no surprise. When
Brow ni a n moti o n is import a nt . shear-thinning can occur. Curiou sly, and con­
--.. o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 rJ>
h. tra ry to the ideas set out in C hapter 3, since the entire Ouid/so lid sys tem is lin ear,
so are the no rmal stresses linear in shear rate. However , reversa l o f shear do es not Fig.5.24 Relative viscosit y vers us volume fraction (rJ» fo r smooth s phere suspens io ns. • Experi­
rcverse the normai stresses. One m ay refer to the paper of Nunan and Keller men ta l average; • Einstein formula; + 13atchelo r and Green; .... eqn ( 5.20 Ia); 0 Frenkel
(1984) to see thaI in an ideal cubic-lattice system the viscosity is constant and a nd Acrivos; x eqn (5. 204) .
normal stress differences are zero, as one wo uld expect in a lincar creeping now.
However, in real suspension s the configuration changes and particle migration
occu rs. SOllie iloii-r'~ e wtoni an effects in rnonodispecse sphericai parlicie/New­
toni an suspending Ouid have been found (Gadala-Maria and Acrivos 1980) . tested by Gadala-M a ria and Acrivos (! 980) . J o mha and R eynolds (1993) found
They showed a decline or relative viscosit y with lime at a constant shear ra te, shear-thinning, -thi ckening (Fig. 5.26), and normal stresses in several suspen­
slightly non-Newtonian behaviour a t higher ¢ values (Fig. 5.25) and some sions. The Peclet number was smaller in these experiments, O( I 0 3 ) . Barnes (1989)
'elastic' effects. The Peclet numbers [eqn. (5.190)] were in excess of 10 5 in these has surveyed some shear-thickening behaviour.
experiments. and so the effects were attributed to structural rearrangements as For smaller Peclet numbers Brownia n motion is clearly important, and shear­
shearing continued. For spherical particles no rmal stress differences a re low and thinning and normal stress effects have been predicted by Brady and Vicic
not easy to measure. Phan-Thien (1995) gives some data for NI - N2 for the nuid (1995) and Brady and Morris (1997). They find N 2 / N I = - 0.89 for very low
 270 MICROSTR UCTU RAL TH EORI ES 5.8 RIGID PARTICLE MICROSTRUCTURES 271

100 r
I )
(b) 10· f
t •
110
;
2

- - </>=0.55 ~~ , 10 3 f ---~.. .'

" /
10 0.50 \ . , . ' '"
~
~
;::­
M5
0.40 ~ 10 tt
~

:i:
2 t
~r lOiS
;:­

~
:>
10

ll
10-
--~
1
.. - --.-:-;-, . , .... ,'
10 102 103 104
O. I IL ------------L-__________ ~L_ ___________L__________~ Shear stress (Pa)
0.0 I O. I 10 100
Fig.5.26(b) N, - T data ror Superclay/ water s uspension at (+) 20°C, ( .... ) 27 °C and (T) 36°C.
shear rale (5- ')
The straight line ha s a slope of 2. The viscosity data (.) a l 20°C) are shown .
="1 Fig. S.25 O e per.clenC':f"" of lh(' ~sym ptot!c rd a!!\o"e s h ear V!SCO;,!t y on the she-ar f a!'! f0 f s!..!sP~!!S !C~S of
several concen tra tions. Polystyrene s ph e res, 40- 50 ~lm in diameter in a mixture of silicone oils.
Pedet numbers, N, ~ q}( Pe), and the viscosity ratio 7)/ 7)5 = I + 2.5¢ + 5.91 ¢l +
2
O[(Pe q/)]. Thus the Newtonian constitutive equation is not always appropriate
even for hard-sphere suspensions, although it is often assumed to be.
"".. (a) 100
The evolution of the microstructure can only be derived from a full solution of
the multibodied interaction problem . In the absence of this, we need to postulate
a reasonable evolution equation for R , the centre-to-centre vector between two
generic spheres. Based on some limited numerical data, Phan-Thien (1995) has
proposed the simple model
~

~ R= L · R + B(t), (5.205)
~
>.
where B(t) is the fluctuating component of the motion (in a Lagrangian sense); it
.~
10 is not Brownian motion, but rellect s the spatial Iluctuations being experienced by
:> the two generic particles. Here, L is the velocity gradient tensor. The simplest
statistical model of this fluctuation component is white noise; however, this
would require a vanishing time scale for the fluctuations compared with the time
scale of the average motion, and Phan-Thien (1995) repiaced this unrealistic
assumption with a diffusive process having a diffusivity dR, such that

dR = Ka 2'Y (5.206)
10- 2 10- 1 10 10 2 10 3
Shear ra te (s- ') where Kis a constant [O( J)] and 'Y is the generalized strain-rate. Phan-Thien finds
Fig.5.26(3) Vi scosi ty- shear rale d ata ro r (.) Superclay , (+) po lys tyrene latex and ( .... ) PVC
the particle stress r P to be
sus pensions. The a rro w indica tes the point at which polystyrene latex fract ured . Lines are drawn
through the data to guide the eye. r P = 7)( <t» {d: (uuuu )+ ~K'Y ( uu ) } (5.207)
 272 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES 5.8 RIGID PARTICLE MICROSTRUCTURES 273

) where d is th e rate-of-deformation tensor , and the unit vector u obeys the evo­ The predictions of the model in some simple flow field s have been given by
lution equation Phan-Thien (1995).

6.A + 2d 5.B.2 Effects of particle geometry

,\ { 6t : (uuuu) } I
+ A = }l (5 208)
So far only spherical particles have been discussed. For the case when the par­
ticles are non-spherica l but reasonably compact it has been found (Metzner
where 6./6.: is the upper convected derivative (4.24) and A is the a ver<lge of uu, 1985), for modest aspect ratios «30) that the relative viscosity can again be
(uu ). H ere the time constant ,\ = 2j3K-Y. The need for a closure approximation is described by (5.204) provided A is chosen appropriately. For uniform spheres
evident. Feng e: al. (1998) ha ve surveyed several possibilities for closure schemes, A = 0.68, as disc ussed above. For rough crystals A is around 0.44. For aspect
but Phan-Thien used the Hinch and Leal approximation (1976): ratios of short fibres varying from 6 to 27, o ne finds, approximately (Kitano et at.
1981) in the range of aspect ratio (AR) of 5 < AR < 30, that
d : (tI!.UH: ) · :5I (,6(uu)·

d . (t!u) -
2
d : ( ~:~ }( uu ) - 2(':Ui) : di
A = 0.55 - O.013(AR) (5.2 10)
+ 2(uu ) : dI ), (5.209)
When AR = I, this expression lies .between the smoo th sphere and rough crystal
values. Nevertheless, the expression needs to be used cautiously.
which is valid in both weak and strong nows.
If the front factor on the right-hand side of (5.207) is chosen empirically as Once one moves away from spherical particles there is an expectation of non­
Newtonian behaviour. Nguyen and Boger (1992) have measured typical vis­
¢ )-0­ , coelastic beh a viour in a fibre suspension.

.. -­ 17( ¢) "= 817, ( I - -

¢rn

thcn the viscosit y form (5.204) results in a simple shear n ow.

Given the complexity of the result for spheres, it is not surprising that results
fo r non-spherical p3.rticIes are mostly fOf diJute suspe nsions; in this case one can
also permit individual particles to defonn ill ihe flow (Scnowaiter 1971), p. 271).
Thc constitutive model ha s several features. some of which have been observed However, Batchelor (197 !) has computed the elongatioilai flow characteristics of
in concent rated sys tems:
.­

.
(i) An instantaneous response at the inception or the now .
a solution of parallel rods which interact significantly with o ne another, but the
corresponding problem for shear now is very difficult and hence no constitutive
-:;. equation is available yet for such a suspen sio n.

.:7
~...
:.. i\f
(ii) The Slresses instantaneously reduce to ze ro when th e now is stopped .
(iii) If th e now is restarted in the same direction, then the st resses will recover
their previous values instan taneously, wi th the period of rest being of no
Lea l and Hinch (1973) have made a va luable contribution, begi nning from
suspension theory, that bears some resemblance to the dilute solution theories we
~~~.' " have studiedabove. Since it can in some cases produce a constitutive equation, we
- .­ consequence. reproduce the conclusions here.
(iv) If the shear rate changes from the previous value, the stresseS instanta ­ For a dilute solution of sma ll rigid , axially symmetric ellipsoidal particles, the
: t. , neously attain the stead y sta te values corresponding to thi s new shea r unit vec tor directed a long the longest axis may be denoted by u, and it obeys an
'_ ... rate. evolution equation, in the absence of Brownian motion, of the Jeffrey (1922)
(v) If the now is restarted but in th e opposite direction, then the stresses only form
recover partially, and then rel ax to their steady-s tate values. (AR)2 - 1
u=w · u+ 2 (d·u - d:uuu ), (5.2 11 )
(vi) The stresses are linear in the strain ra te, which leads to a N ewto ni an (AR) + I
viscosity, and normal stress differences which are linear in the magnitude where AR is the aspect rati o of th e particle (length to diameter ratio), IV is the
of the shear rate, and the stress is anisotropic with respect to the strain vorticity tensor, and d is the rate of deform a tion tensor. The particle-contributed
rate tensor so that the flow resistance will depend on the nature of the stress may be shown to be
now fi eld .
(vii) A universal transient response is found when the stresses (reduced by q (P) = 217s¢{Ad : (UUUIl) + B(d . (uu) + (uu). d) + Cd + dRF(uu)}, (5.212)
17(CP)7) a re plotted against il; and also in oscillatory now. where the angu lar brackets denote the ensemble average with respect to the
(viii) the dependence of the stresses on the volume fraction is the same in a ll distribution function of u; A, B, C, and F are some shape factors, and d R is the
nows. rotational diffusivity. If the particles are large enough so that Brownian mo tion
)

)
 274 MICROSTR UCTU RAL THEORI ES 5.8 RIGID PARTICLE MICROSTRUCTURES 275

can be ignored, then the last term, as well as the anguiar brackets, can be omitted In the start-up of elongation the particle is quickly aligned with the flow in a
in the previous expression. The asymptotic values of the shape factors are given in time scale OCy-I). }\t a steady state, the reduced elongational viscosity (elon~~
Table 5.3. gation rate .!:) is
The rheological predictions of this constitutive equation have also been con­
sidered by Hinch and Leal (1972); the shear viscosity is shear-thinning, the first (AR)2
normal stress difference is positive while the second normal stress difference is
N, - 31]s.!: = 2(A
1]s i:¢
+ 2B + C) ;::::; In 2(AR) 1.5 (5.216)
negative, but of a smaller magnitude. The precise values depend on the aspect
ratio and the strength of the Brownian motion. The dilute solution assumption used here means that the vo1un1e fraction is 10v-I
When Brownian motion is absent. the complication due to the ensemble enough, so that a particle can rotate freely without any hindrance from its nearby
averages disappears because of the large size of the particles (Huilgol and Phan­ neighbours. The distance ~ between any two particles must therefore satisfy
Thien ! 997). One finds: I < ~, so that a volume of IJ contains only one particle, where I is the length of the
particle and d is its diameter. The volume fraction therefore satisfies
I. The reduced viscosity (where (Tj 2) is the average shear stress; see Hui!gol and
Phan-Thien 1997): cPt
¢~ ~3' or ¢(AR)2 < I.
(TI2)-1]si
.
_ 2A U 2I u 2
- 2
+ B( U2I + u 2)
2
+ C. (5.213)
1]s,¢ Thus, the reduced elongational viscosity is only 0(1) in the dilute limit, not
0(AR2) as suggested by the formula. As the concentration increases, we get
2. The reduced first normal stress difference:
subsequently into the semi-dilute regime, the isotropic concentrated solution,
2' and the iiquid crystaiiine regime. The reader is referred to Doi and Edwards
~r;'
-NI
-.- = ,2
/'Uj U 2\U j -
"
Ui), (5.214)
(1986) for more details. Here, we simply note that the concentration region
Tfs,¢
I < ¢(AR)2 < AR is called semi-concent;ated. Finally, suspensions with ¢AR > I ''\
and are called concentrated, where the average distance between fibres is less than a I

...... 3. The reduced second normal stress difference: fibre diameter and therefore fibres cannot rotate independently except around
their symmetry axes. Any motion of the fibre must necessarily involve a co­
N2 )
1]si¢ = 2AuIU2(Au~ + B). (5.215) operative motion of surrounding fibres.
II>

The particles tumble in the now and the viscosity is periodic in time; most of the 5.8.3 Fibre suspensions
tin1e they are aligned \vith the flo\v; iV I and iV2 arc also periodic, with the sarne As the volume concentration rises, the freedom of an individual fibre to move is
period as the viscosity. curtailed, until eventually only co-operative motion is allowed in concentrated
solutions. rvlicrostructural theories developed by various workers (see Huilgol
Table 5.3 Asymptotic values of the shape factors and Phan-Thien 1997) for the dilute case have forms similar to the early work of
Asymptotic AR-->oc A R = I + 0,0« I AR->O Ericksen (1960) and Hand (1962). These theories have an evolution equation and
limit (rod-like) (near-sphere) (disc-like) a stress calculator, similar to the work described in Section 5.5.2.
For non-dilute solutions, fibre-fibre interactions are paramount. Folgar and
(AR)2 395 2 _ 10_ -1 208 _ 2 Tucker (1984) have developed an evolution equation for concentrated fibre
A 0
2(ln 2AR - 1.5) 147 3.,.. AR 9.,..2 suspensions, where the fibre-fibre interactions are taken into account by adding a
B
61n2AR - II ~o _ 395 02 8
- - - +1-­
128 diffusion term to Jeffery's equation. Dinh and Armstrong (1984) discuss the
(AR)2 14 588 3.,..AR 9.,..2 dynamics of non-Brownian particles and derive a constitutive equation for semi­
C 2 -5 ( 1--0+-0
2
2
7 3
I 2) .8
3.,..AR
dilute suspensions; the model takes into account the fibre-fibre interaction and
uses a distribution function to describe the orientation state.
3(AR)2 12 In the Folgar and Tucker ~1984) model, the diffusivity is assumed to be of the
F 90
In2AR-I/2 .,..AR form C;i, where i = (2 tr d2 ) /2 is the generalized strain rate, and the aspect ratio
of the fibres is assumed infinite. The parameter C i is known as the interaction
 276 MICROSTR UCTU RA L THEORI ES 5 . 10 USE OF CONSTITUTIVE MODELS 277

coefficient, which has been experimentally determined to lie in the range of where here the O,s are the so-called Leslie coefficients. Parodi (1970), applying
10- 2 _ 10- 3 . Yamane el al. (1994) obtained the interaction coefficient in a Onsager relationships, showed that the constants can be related through
numerical simulation of semi-diiute suspensions of rod-iike particles in a shear 0.6 - 0.5 = 0.3 + a2· Suc h a special theory is still very much in vogue. There is no
flow. However, the predicted values of C i are about two orders of magnitude doubt that the initial motivation was pragmatic, given the obvious difficulties of
) attempting any level of generality. However, some of the implications of the
smailer than those suggested by experiment.
Fan el at. (1998) have computed the C i coefficient by direct numerical simu­ theory, like the scaling laws for simple shear and Poiseuille flow (see, for example,
lation and have found much larger values than previous analyses gave. It seems Leslie 1987), were shown to be in surprisingly good agreement with experiment,
) that this phenomenological constant must be a function of the volume fraction of and any further complication to the theory would be likely to destroy that
the fibres , and its aspect ratio; it may even be a tensorial quantity, reflecting the agreement. With hindsight, therefore, there was little merit in attempting a more
anisotropy of the fluid. A closure approximation relating (uuuu) to (uu) is again sophisticated theory. For this reason, the Leslie-Ericksen theory has been and
needed ; see Feng el at. (1998). continues to be a focal point in modern developments in liquid-crystal theory.
V;:ric:.:s o ther models have been proposed; see, Dinh and Arrn~lrong (984) For exampie, between 19615 and 1974, P. G. de Gennes and his group applied the
and Ph an-Thien and Graham (1991) . See also Huilgoi and Phan-Thien (1997); Leslie-Eri cksen theory to a number of experimental situations (see, for example,
they discuss particle migra tion in suspensions. de Gennes 1974) . We refer to the extensive literature on liquid crystals for
applica tions and further considerations (for example, Chandrasekhar 1980;
Larson 1999).
5_9 Anisotropic fluids
5_10 Use of constitutive models for engineering problems
Constitutive modelling for isotropic non-Newtonian fluids was dominant until
) the mid-1960s, but was also complemented by the study of anisotropic fluid s . The Except in the simplest continuum theories (elasticity, Newtonian fluids) it is
works of Ericksen (! 961) and Leslie (! 96R) a rc: impo rl2.!1l miles to nes in this sWdy . normal and necessary to utilize various s tages or approximation to real material
Work on anisoiropic fluid theory was given a boost by appiications to lIquid behaviour depending on th~ ~ ~s e in hand. For examr!e, in plasticity theory onc
crystai dispiays and sirniiar devices, and a funh er impetus was proviueJ by the might use clastic-plastic behaviour , work-hardening theory, or simply rigid­
L...... growth of iille, ",st ill iiy uiJ crysial p o lymers (LCPs) (fo r exam pie. Keviar) . plastic analysis depending on the problem being considered. The author believes
, Continuum theory for anisotropic fluids requires an additional variable ovcr that this must also be done in viscoelastic and non-Newtonian case studies, and
and above those employed in the isotropic theory. A unit vecto r field . here that it is wasteful and co unterproductive to always insist on using the most
::::.
denoted by Ui, is commonly referred to a s the director vector. Another added complex constitutive model for all purposes; it merely needs to be adequate for
" complica tion is that the question of the symmetry of th e s tress tcn so r necdcd to be the purpose in hand. When assessing adequacy, the experimental errors men­
'­
'"
,.I- •
~,;
examined c losely in these systems. tioned in Section 3.8.1 should be firmly in mind .
_.­
­
In view of these complications, it is not surprising that initial developments of One also needs to have, whenever possible, a model relevant to the range of
~
the theory were quite special and nothing like as ge neral a s, say, the simple fluid generalized shear rates in the flow process being investigated. Rates of defor­
...·ta" .... theory of Section 4.4, for isotropic fluids. We quote the immensely influential mation vary enormously; in the low range, from 10- 6 s - I to 10- 4 S-I for the
". Leslie (1968) /Ericksen (1961) theory , which is cven in Ui and linear in the rate of sedimentation of fine powders, and from 10- 3 to lOS-I in gravity-driven nows. In
strain d ik and Ui, where the medium range, I s- 1 to 10 3 S-I, lie many Common mixing, extrusion and pipe
) 4
flows. For the higher ranges, 10 - 10 7 S-I, found in brushing, lubrication, and
N coating flows, data may be hard to find. Generally it is not difficult to find an
) , -_Duj
Ot - w'pul"
(5 .217)
average shear rate for a given process. Fluid particles may also experience rates of
shear for several decades on either side of this average, and several relaxation
W,k being the vorticity tensor component and D / DI denoting the material time times will usually be necessary to cover the expected range properly . Aiiempts to
)
derivative. use a single relaxation time can give inaccurate results (Aziez el al. 1996).
Under these restrictive conditions, the extra stress tensor Til, can be written in There are a number of classes of now problems which arise in applications:
the form:
I . Small-strain behaviour.
Tik = al d;,UjUIUiUk + a2Niuk + aJNku i + aadik + 0' 5 d ijUj u k 2. Steady weak flows, of which simple shearing may be taken as an example.
+ a6 d kjuj U j , (5 .218) 3. Steady strong flows, including simple elongation as a prime example.

)
 -
"J.
f l
, ' 1'
~ ~ I"\
, _, ~
I" ..
f

Table 5.4 Various constitutive relations ior polymer nuids and their performance
Stead y
viscometric
Constitutive Small­ 7] tv, tv) Steady Start/slOp in Elongational Single Double-step Remark
model strai n elongation shearing flow start/recoil shear step shear
Newtonian, P M U U M P C U U Infinite stresses in step strains.
eqn (1.7)
Generalized P E U U M P L' U U Infinite stresses in ste p strains.
Newtonian ,
e.g. eqns (4.4, 4.11)
Reiner-Rivlin, P E U E E P C U U As above.
eqn (4 .1)
Second-order, P M M M U U L U U At high elongation rates 7]E
eqn (4.30e), becomes negative.
7], iii" ili 2 constant
Higher-order P M M M u-p U L' U U See Schowalter (1978)
fluid s for forms of equations.
Criminale, P E E E u-p U l U U Useful for viscometric t1ows.
Ericksen ,
Filbey,
eqn (4.32)
Linear viscoelastic, E M U U M M ivI M M No non-linear effects.
eqn (2.81)
Oldroyd, eqn (4.13) M M M M P !vi ivI M !vi Limited viscosity variation.
Green-Rivlin, E M M M P M ivI M M Double integral
eqn (4.42) is hard to use.

Lodge-Maxwell , E M M U P M M M M Useful for illustrative

(UCM) purposes.
egns (4.25, 5.150)
White-Metzner M E M U P M M P P See footnote I.
Co-rotational E E E M M P P U U Oscillation in start of shearing
See footnote 2.
Bird-Carreau, E E E G P M M P P See Bird el al. (1987a, b) and
Carreau Problem 5.9.
Phan-Thien-Tanner E E E G G G G M M Unsuitable for very large
(PIT) eqn (5.161 ) step strains, unless N2 = 0
Giesekus egn (5.111) E E E G-E G G G M M
Acierno el al., E E E G G G M M M Poor step strain response.
eqns (5.119-123)
KBKZ, eqn (4.54) E E G G G G M E G·M
KBKZ (Wagner) , E E G G G G G E G See footnote 3.
eqn (4.75)
Eqn (5.103) G G G U G G M U U Dilute solution theory: large
step strains, cannot be
applied.
Leonov E E G G !vi G M M M
Doi-Edwards M M M M M M M M M
'The White-Metzner model is of the form

).,( Il D)6.·C/.6. 1 + T = 27]( IID)d;

that is, it is a convected Maxwell model where the time constant and viscosity are allowed to va ry with the rate of shearing.

2An extensive discussion is given by Bird el al. (1977) in Chapter 8.

lThere is some lack of fit with this theory, but the qualitative response is very good overall.

280 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES REFERENCES 281

)
4. Weak nows with discontinuous velocity histories; this class includes stop­
ping and starting shearing flows.
)
5. Strong nows with discontinuous velocity histories.
6. Flows with single strain steps. (It is not necessary to distinguish between the
weak and strong cases here because a step-strain is necessarily finite).
) 7. Flows with multiple-strain jumps, especially jumps of varying sign.
These seven categories form a heirarchy of hurdles of increasing difficulty on
which constitutive equations can be tested. Results of calculations will sho"v
either
(a) No resull o. a physicaily impossibic I (;suit. (U)
(b) A possible result but not in good agreement with typical experimental
da tao (P)
(c) Moderate agreement with typical behaviour. (M)
) (d) Good agreement with experiments. (G)
(e) Exact agreement due to use of fitted data. (E)
These categ0ries 'vvill be denoted by the tetters U (unsuita hie ur useiess),? (poor
or possible), M (modest agreement meaning the sign and trend of the results are
<;orrect), G (good, meaning that the data are fitted within (say) ± 20 per cent in
most piaces) and E (exact or excellent, meaning that thc cia ta are, or can be, fitted
.......
References
within a few per cent). Table 5.4 shows the results of this exercise for polymer
melts and concentrated solutions. Other models are given in the books by Bird
et al. (19R7a), Larson (1988), and Hui!go! and Phan-Thien (!997).
lL
From Table 5.4 it will be clear that one should always a void the cases where aU
......:.:.: is indica ted for the class of response under consideration; genera!ly one should
also avoid the P cases. The equations are roughly in order of increasing com­
plexity as one goes down the table, and the overall results get, on average, better
For realistic modelling, mUltiple relaxation times are generally required. In
these cases the PIT model and its variants, and the Giesekus model, are useful.
The older models of White-Metzner and Tanner (1965) are not recommended
except for illustrative purposes. They show atypical behaviour in all flows except
nearly-viscometric cases. When the flow is viscometric, we have no real need of a
constitutive model as explained in Chapter 3.
For some materials (for example, polyvinylchloride) an elastic response
(Section 4.7) is sometimes useful. Phan-Thien e! af. (1997) have used an elastic
plus viscoelastic non-linear model for bread dough.
For dilute solutions equations (5.106) and the Chilcott-Rallison model (5. I 10)
avoid most of the obvious problems in this type of system. For suspensions and
iike systems there are relatively few constitutive equations; sec Section 5.8.1 for
an equation of Phan-Thien (Huilgol and Phan-Thien 1997) as an example. The
Leslie-Ericksen equations continue to be used for liquid crystals, and the Folgar­
Tucker (Section 5.8.3) equation and its variants for ftbre-filled melts. Pastes and
suspensions (Ben bow and Bridgwater 1993) are usually treated as a Bingham­
type inelastic model, and concentrated suspensions are often described by a
generalized Newtonian model.
Clearly, some judgement must be exercised in the choice of model for a par­
ticular situation, ane! exomp!es of this philosophy wiil be given in the foiiowing
chapters.
Acierno, D., La Mamia , F. P., Marrucci, G. , and Tilomanlio , G. (1976) . .J. Non­
Newtonian Fluid ~Mech., ! , 125.
Azaiez, J., GuenClte, R., and Ait-Kadi, A. (1996). J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech., 66,
271.
Baaijens, F. P. T., Selen, S. H. A., Baaijens, H. P. W., Peters, G. W. M., and
Meijer, H. E. H. (1997). J. Non-Newlonian Fluid Mech., 68, 173.
Ball, R. and Richmond, P. (1980). J. Phys. Chem. Liquids., 9, 99.

as one moves down. Nevertheless , one should not automatically choose the most Barnes, H. A. (1989). J. Rheoi., 33, 329.

complex type of equation, (for example, KBKZ) ifit is not required for accuracy. Barnes, H. A., Hutton, J. F., and Walters, K. (1989). An inlroduclion to rheology.

Clearly, if step-strains occur, then the choice is limited if a moderate or better
description is needed. None of the theories except Wagner's KBKZ variant,
) perhaps, handles double-step strains very accurately. For unsteady strong nows
the choice is also limited, but ot herwise a reasonable choice is availa ble, especially
if only illustrative problems are to be 'Norked OU!. Whe!"! the flow is steady but not
nearly-viscomelric, one should beware of problems near points where large
stresses occur (see Chapter 8) and it may still be necessary to control the large
)
tensile stresses that occur with the Lodge and related Maxwell models. Finally,
Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Batchelor, G . K. (1971). J. Fluid Mech., 6, 227.
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 282 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES REFERENCES 283

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)
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)
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 284 MICROSTRUCTURAL THEORIES PROBLEMS 285

Tanner, R. 1. and Walters, K . (1998). Rheology: an hiSlorical perspeclive, Elsevier, 8. DemonSlrale Ihat the flow .i n an eccentric disc visco meier [eqn (4.123)] is a weak flow .
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Press. presenl via the seco nd invariant of the rate of deformation tensor (dij). (Consider only a
Upadhyay , R . K., lsayev, A. I., and Shen, S. F. (1981). Rheol. Acta, 20, 443. single time cOnSlanl.) What is the response of this model in:
) Utracki, L. A. (1988). in Collyer, A . A., and Clegg, D. W . (ed.), Rheolog ical
measurements, p. 479, Elsevier, London. (i) a sleady elongationat flow
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(ii) a sinusoidal shear Slrain of sma ll amplitude £: and frequency w, where w is permilled 10
Npwloninn Fluid Mech . , 80, 155.
become large, so Ihal We is nOI negligible?
Wagner, M . H (1979). Rheol. AcLO, 18,681 .
Wagner, M . H ., Ehrecke, P ., Hachmann, P., ancl Meissn er, J. (1998). J. Rheo f. . 42 , 621. i o. You a re asked 10 choose a conslilulive model for some computalions in processing.
J Wagner, M. H., Raible, T., and Meissner, J. (1979). Rheol. Acta ., 18,427. Whal would you choose for Ihe following processes:
Warner, H . R. ( !972). Ind. Eng. Che:-n. Fund., n, 379.
Wasscrman , S. H. and Graessley , W. W. (1996). Polymer Eng. and Sci., 36,852 . (a) Modelling flow Ihrough a bed of spheres.
Wiesl , J. M . a nd Tann er, R . I. (1989). J . Rheol. 33, 28 1.
Yamakawa, H . {1971). Modern theory 0/ palymer solutions. Harper & Row. Ncw York. (b) Flow in a screw eXlruder.
Yamamoto, M . (1956). J. phys. Soc. Japan, 11,413. (c) A high-frequency damper (~ I kHz) consisling of a moving blade between two fixed
Yamamoto, M. (1957). J. phys. Soc. Japan , \2 , 1148. surfa ces parallel 10 Ihe blade .
Yamamolo, M. (1958). J. phys. Soc . .lapan, 13, 1200.
Yamane, Y., Kaneda, Y., and Doi , M . (1994) . J. Non-Ne ll'lon iall Fluid M ech ., 54, 405. (d) Spinning of a fibre.

.-
Zimm , B. H. (1956). J. chem. Phys., 24, 269.
(e) Expa nsion of a balloon by internal air pressure.
(I) An ec<:eulril: disc rheometer (Fig. 4.19) where one plale is suddenly starled up resuhing
ProblpllI$ in :{n :n:!ial difference in speed between the two piates. ­

i. UsiJlg ,ho:: Warne r spring {eqn (5.22)] derive ils potcnliai X and hcnce find Ih e (li 5 ­
) tribulion funclion ,</) for Ihi s molecular model in a fluid <It re~1.
2. Repea l Problem! when Ihe fluid is undergo ing a fl ow \" = (ix. t y. 0). Co mpul e the
stress difference ' xx - Tyy for large values of >.i:, where>. is an app ropriate time-constant.
l\.
(g) Turbulenl flows of dilule polymer Solulions.
I J. For a dilule Solulion of rigid dumbbells, Section 5.5.5 , compute the steady-stale
elongalional visco si l Yand verify I hat Ihe polymer contribulion is 67]0, where 7]0 is evalualed
at very small rales o f deformalion.

- ., 3. Consider a constitutive equalion of Ihe form

Tij(X.I ) = K / ' exp( _(I - 1')/ A)fIA{/') I iJx; ~L d/ '

...... - 00 arm 01"11

til .... ,

which is a generalization of eq n (5.58). The quantilY A ma y _be s lress- depcnd ~ nl (Kaye

model) , strain-rale dependenl (Carreau mod el) or s lrain-depc·lld e nl (K B KZ model) via Ihe
invarianls of T(t' ) , d(1 ') or C respeclively. Shown Ihallhe [irsllwo cases may be red uced lo
) a differenlial Iype of conslilulive equal ion but Ihat Ih e KflKZ cannol be so reduced .
4. Derive eqn . (5.102) and use illo show Ihal N2 is zero for a dilule so l ulioll of dumbbells
in a sleady shear flow , no mailer what Ihe spring law is.

5. Show Ihal N I rela xes slower than r for a Lodge mod el wilh Iwo relaxation limes .

6. Find the response oflhe convected Maxwell model to a suddenly slarted eiongalionai
flow."

7. Co nsid er the respo nse of Ihe conslilulive equal ion (5.106) al high shear-rales
(>'i» I). Show Ihalthe response for the viscosilY is 7] ~ -y- 2/3, Ihal for NI is ~ "1,2/3 and
thai N 2 = o.
)

)
 6.2 NEWTONIAN LUBRICATION THEORY 287

z,
6
LUBRICATION, CALENDARING, AND h(x) x
RELATED FLOWS

-
'0
6.1 Nearly viscometric flows. The lubrication approximation
L
THE processes described in thi s chapter a re examples of nearl y-visco met ric nows . Fig. 6.1 Axes for general two-d imensio nal lubrication problem. Fluid is contained between the Zo

A typical (two-dimensional) problem is shown in Fig. 6.1. where the space and Z, moving surfaces.

between two surfa ces in relative motion is filled with nuid . In such problems the
characteristic length L in the x-direction (and y-direction if relevant) is much
'greater than th e characteristic le ngth h in the z-direction , and the rel ative slope pressurep is large [O(L / h») compared with r x z , a nd (6.4) reduces to the simple
of the surfaces (dll/dx) is also assumed to be small , of o rd er (h/ L). We shall form
consequently assume that the x-co mponent of velocity (/./) is much greater than
the z-co mponent. Formally , considering the ma ss conservation eq uation and [)p = 0, or p = p(x ) . (6.6)
[)z
the order of magnitude of the terms, we have
This iaiter reduction wiii a iso be invaiid if r zz is of order (L / h)r.n .. hence we
au [),v
require that both of the normal stresses < xx and r z, be much less than O[(Lj h)rxzl
" , +[)- =0
uX z (6.1 ) in magnitude for validity of the theory; with this requirement the d{fJeren ces
(z)G)· of normal stresses are also of the same order o f magnitude relative to the shear
stress.
But u is O(U) where U is a characteristic speed on the bounda ry, and hence Accepting these restrictions on normal stress magnitudes for the moment , we
can integrate (6.5) to give
W= O(~U) (6.2)
dp
- '1>
rxz = z-d
x
+ .C(x). (6.7)
N~ "
Now consider the equations of motion (neglecting body forces)

[)p [)rxx [)r Ou Also, from mass conservation, the mass nux through the gap is constant at all
xz
--+--+ - - = p- (6 .3) x-values, and hence, ignoring terms of order (h / L)2
,-. Dx Dx Dz 01'
[)p
[)z
[)r xz
- - +- - +-
[)x
[)r z ,
[)z
where rl} is the ex tra-s tress tenso r.
Dw
= p-
Df '
(6 .4)
1." 20 U dz = q (constant). (6.8)

To begin with we shall neglect inertia force s (negligible Reynolds numbers) . The equation (6.7) thus holds, within the given restrictions on normal stress
This is usual in lubrication studies; when we consider large inertia fo rces we magnitudes and (h/ L) ratios, for both Newtonian and viscoeiastic systems.
have boundary-layer n ows, to be considered later (Section 6.8). We suppose
for the moment that the Stresses r xx , r H , a nd T,z a re comparabie in magnitude . 6.2 Newtonian and generalized Newtonian lubrication theory
Tben order of magnitude arguments reduce (6.3) to
In the Newtonian case we have from the constitutive law
_ [)p + [) r xz
I + 0 (~) } = O. (6.5)
~~ (I + 0(1:))
{
[)x [)z L ( 6.9)
r xz = ry
If, contrary to our hypothesis, (h/ L)r.u happen s to be comparable to r xz , th en
this is not expected to be a va lid approximation. By a similar argument , the and the direct stresses are of order (h / L) times the shear stress, as required above.
)
 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING, AND RELATED FLOWS 6.2 NEWTONIAN LUBRICATION THEORY 289
288

Substituting (6.9) in (6.7) and integrating again with respect to z, we have

/
/
" "\. p
I \ ressure curve
dp CZ2 (6.10)
u = - -+ - z+D. / \

27] dx 7] I \

I
I \
It is now usual to use as reference one of the surfaces (the O-subscript surface I \
)
in Fig. 6.1), so that this is the surface z =O, and the other surface (I-subscript) is
then the surface z = h. Tf, following Fig. 6.1 , the speeds of the 0 and I surfaces Lubricant
are Uo and U, respectively, lhen C and D can be determined . h
We have D = V a, C = 7]( V I - Vo) / h - ! h(dp/dx), and hence the complete "0 Mo ving plane
) velocity field is x
u
z
u=Vo+(V,-Vo)--
h
(I)
-
27]
dp
-(17 - z)z.
dx
(6. I J)
L
Fig. 6.2 Two-djme ns jon~J IhruSl bearing .
The Reynolds equation for the pressure is found by using (6. 8)

I From (6 . 12) and (6. J 4), noting that h' = -2q/ V , we see that when h = h' (dp / dx)
= 2( Vo + VI)h _ ~
3
q dp (6.12) is zero; this shows that h* is the point of maximum pressure. This result con­
127] dx'
cerning the signifi cance of .f?" is genera!.
The pressure is a humped distribution (Fig. 6.2) . All other quantities can he
Since q is an (ullknown) con~tant, and integration of(6 . i 2) to iind p introduces
found whell P i~ known. The total load capacity W ( W = J~ pdx) and friction
"Ilothe! t.:o n ~ lanl , it is necessary to know p at two pi a ces to complet e the problem
a nd evaluate p explicitly . In the pre~enl approximation , jJ ~ -O"X ai ihe ends of
fcrcc F {F ~ f;
(xz i,=oux} can be evaiuated as (all forces per unit width)
'_ .
~
the fluid film, and hence we require knowl edge of th e component 0-"" at the film
cnds .
W:o: 2
67]UL [(hi + h o ) In
(17; - h~ ) (hi ­ h o ) ho
(hi) _2] (6.15)

6 .2. / Th e plane slider bearing case and

-"' ~
Consider the thrust bearing s ketched in Fig. 6.2 . Its invention by A .G .M. Michell
enabled the prope ller thrus t of large ships to be taken lip by a much smaller F= 47]VL [In(h )_3(h -h
i o)J . i
(6.16)
bearing area than was possible previously. For the present we shall assume the (hi - h o) ho + 2(hi h o)
' -'- .. flow is in the x-z plane. Tn this case the gap g eometry is
I· · ~ .....
Thus, the friction coefficient F / W is oforder hoi L. The shear stress varies linearl y
x (6. 13) across the gap :
h = ho + (hi - ho) L
_ 1)V _~dp(h_2 z). (6. 17)
and, recalling a xx ~ -p, we set p = 0 at x = 0, L. The Newtonian solution is "[xz - h 2 dx
well known.

We find, defining h' = - 2q/ U

See Table 6.1 for the factors Wh~ /7]UL2 and Fho/'TJUL for this geometry. We shall
now examine some non-Newtonian cases.
_ 67]UL [ (hi + h o) hiho] (6.14)
p - (11; - h~) - I -I h - ---,;2 6.2.2 Inelaslic fluids
It is not difficult to see how to generalize the Newtonian solution to inelastic fluid
and models . Returning to (6.7) if we can express ou/oz(>:::5ou/ oz + ow/ox) as a
(6.14a) function of "[xz, then we can find ou/oz as a (complicated) function of z. In
17" = 2h i h o /(hi + ho )· other words, we can often make progress if the fluidity function OU / oz = "[¢ ("[) is

)
 290 LUBRiCATiON, CALENDARING, AND RELATED FLOWS 6.2 NEWTONIAN LUBRiCATION THEORY 291

Table 6.1 Diinensionless factors for the Newtonian plane slider and ihe term a--?
is small compared with unity, we can recast (6.22) in the form
11;/110 Kp(= Wh~/'7UL2) K;(=. Fh,,/rJUL) of a stress-dependent fluidity
1.2 0.0755 0.9192 1 I
1.5 0.1312 0.8437 :;:; = -TJo [I + /3,2xz 1+ 0(/32,4xz ) '
'f
(6.23)
2.0 0.1589 0.7726
3.0 0.1479 0.6972
where /3 = a/TJ5 and the error is supposed small in the whole now fieid.
4.0 0.1242 06484
There are many plane perturbation analyses for various luhrication problems,
often beginning from elaborate constitutive equations, but after noting that the
known; see Chapter 3. The integration can then sometimes be completed ana­ now is steady, and after neglecting the normal stress contributions as discussed
lytically as in the Newtonian case. For example, in the case of the power-law nuid above, they all must reduce to the constitutive assumption (6.23) above. Hence
[eqn 0.10)] we wiii have approximately there is no loss in generality in using that constitutive model for illustrative
calculations.
A perturbation calculation will now be made for the plane slider (Fig. 6.2).
aul"-I (au) We take
laz az'
'xz = k (6. I 8)

From eqn (6.7) we find an equation for au/az: az = ~

au TJo
{I + /3,;z}'xz, (6 .24)

I(')U 1fl - 1 18!!\ dp where /3 > 0 for a shear-thinning l1uid.

kl-I
18z1
(-)=z-+c
\Dz dx'
(6.19) If we trea t the case /3,;z
« I, then we can replace this term by the Newtonian
value /3,~; in the perturbation analysis .
The results are cumbersome, and for the case when hi = 217 0 , we find
...­ Care must be taken when taking the roots of the left-hand side to get the sign of
au faz correct:
.~

h' = ~3 + ~
ho 300
/3 (TJO U)
ho
2
(6.25)

au = ± 1~dP +~II /". (6.20)

1('
az
~., kdx Ie
Wh
TfoUl 2
2
= 0.159 I
r ~ 1.76/3(TJ?V)2l (6.26)
Integrating eqn (6.20), one finds 1~ ,1 0 J
-. , /~ " [~dP + ~] 1/ ,,+1
0.828/3(TJ~:rl
" '-;;'

u =± ,. , . (6.21 ) Fh [
kdx Ie +D. TJorlL = 0.773 I - (6.27)

Insertion of the boundary velocities V o, VI at z=O, h and elimination of the Hence the friction coefficient for this case is
constant D gives a complex connection between c, (dp/dx) and the boundary
speeds which makes it difficult to continue the general analysis.
Exceptionally, when we know the shear stress on a plane z = constant the JL = ~ = 4.86(~) [I + 0.93/3(TJ~ovr]. (6.28)
anaiysis becomes lraclabie because the constant c can be eliminated. Fortunately,
the squeeze film, roiier lubrication and some calendaring problems fail into this Clearly, the friction coefficient is higher for the non-Newtonian case. See also
category. These will be discussed later (Section 6.4). the work of Milne (1957) who considered the slider bearing problem for a
For the easier case of a slightly non-Newtonian nuid where Bingham body.
The conclusion from many calculations using a small perturbation of the
TJ = TJo( I ~ a·y2) (6.22) Newtonian viscosity in the form (6.22) seems to be that both the load capacity and
 292 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING , AND RELATED FLOWS 6.3 LUBRICATION WITH VISCOELASTIC FLUIDS 293
),

the friction are reduced for shear-thinning fluids, but the former more so than the where pO is the Newtonian press ure and WI is the first normal stress coefficient.
latter, so that an increase in friction coefficient occurs with these non-Newtonian Computing the normal load per unit width, - .coo
(J zz dx, and noting that the
iubricanls, at ieasl in the isothermal case. Newtonian pressure and the shear rate ou/oz
are zero outside the bearing
} For the case where the angle of the slider is so small that the deviation from length in the lubrication approximation, we have
a paraiiel shear flow can be neglected, the friction force is just that due to shear
flow, so F=TJUL/h, where the viscosity "I
is evaluated at the s hear rate U/h
(= "Yo). It is s traightforward to show that the load for this case, for any inelastic W = -
1 00

. -00
O"zzdx =- Io°·L
.
O"zzdx= lL° W
pOdx+-;f [L (a--.!!. )2 dx.
. 0 az (6.31 )
fluid with a viscosity function TJ(7), is given by
The dpo / dx term does not contribute to the load, since po is zero at the bear­
ing ends; the first term on the right··hand side of (6.30) is the Newtonian load
( d In
W=WNV+dln7io
"II ) (6.29) (per unit width), W N say .
Thus

where W N is the Newtonian load. This result follows from the work of Davies
and Walters (1973). Thus, for shear-thinning fluids , W< W N , and the friction
is essentially unchanged, so the friction coefficient is increased.
W - WN = 41 (oz)
WI L AU
210 dx (6.32)

and W > W N, if WI > O. The expression for u, (6.18) may be used to evaluate
6.3 Lubrication with viscoelastic Ouids the integral in (6.41), giving the result (Tanner 1969) for a straight slider,
)
.....
Mos t of the difficulties in the previous sec tion were due to integration problems
h I he v8.ri ~ ble viscosity cases. Clc3rly any 3tteinpt to include norn1ai-stresS
'A/if
w , . w! U (I
I -t- - - - - - --
+ m + 1112)
--'­
((d3)
effec1.s as werI 2S vC!f!(lb!c visco s ity effects \'J:!! cert(1ir;!y restrict us tv perturbation W" TJ '·Kp( l 1,·n) (2+ rn)2'
c~!Cu!~ti 0ns ::-1:- force t:$ ~o usc nu n!e r~ca! (f!ethoas. \Ve fi:"st !Oo k:.::l th~ second-
..... order fluid as a lubricant, thereby avoiding variable viscosity . where m == (hi - ho)/ho and Kp values (= Wh~hUL2) are given in Table 6.1.
When m = I (inlet film thickness hi is [wicc outlet thickness 17 0 ) (6.33) becomes

.....
6.3.1 The second-order jluid
Becausc of difficulties with boundary conditions (see Section 6.3.3) which tend to
-.....
~-
obscure the significance of many of the perturbation results in the literature we
begin with an exact treatment ba sed 011 the second-order fluid theory . Since
lubrication flows have been shown above to be nearly viscometric, we believe the
.... second-order model is a useful one for this type of problem. We suppose that the
flow is planc and ineriia-Iess. To make the boundary conditions definite, we also
suppose that the fluid before and after the slider (Fig. 6.2) is very deep, so that
velocity boundary conditions may properly be applied. Using the theorem dis­
cussed in Section 4.1 1.1, we can assert that the velocity field will be the same as
that for the Newtonian case . From this , using eqns (4.87) and (4.95) we can
compute the difference between th~ stress on the moving plane with and with­
out the non-Newtonian terms.
The re su lt for O"zz on the moving piane z = 0 may be shown to be, from
')
eqn (4.87)
-W =1+1.05 - . (IJiJU) (6.34)
WN "IL
These results are valid for arbitrarily large normal stress differences . The
fractional increase in load in (6.34) is seen to be oforder (h/ L)N I / r where N J and r
are represe ntative normal and shear stress magnitudes. Due to the small size of
the factor (h / L) it is clear tha t th e extra positive lift due to the normal stresses is
small, and OCcurs by dircct normal force action. This is in contrast to the wedge
action of the shear forces, which is much more effective. Because the velocity field
is unchanged , it is easy to show that the friction force is unchanged from the
viscous case. Unlike the wedge action, the normal force action occurs even with a
parallel slider. In this case the shear rate under the slider is cons tant, with a value
U / h o , and the load capacity is just 0.25w I U 2 L/ h~, or N 1L/4.
The general conclusion from the previous sections is tha t the combined
effects of perturbations in varia ble viscosity and normal s tresses give rise to load
variations of the form

O"zz = _ po _ WI U dpo _.!!. (au) 2\ (6.30 ) W = WN[I_af3(710U)2+bho (WIU)],

2"1 dx 4 oz z=o ' ho L TJoho (6.35)

")
,
J
 294 LUBRiCATION , CALENDARiNG , A ND RELATED FLOWS 6 . 3 LUBRiCA liON WiTH ViSCOELASTIC FLUIDS 295

where all constants are positive and a, b are of order unity. If we wish to apply
the formula (6. 35) to practical cases then one can set !3 = I?O).. 2 and also b'J!! /7)0 ~
-i ~ cc
...---r-r---..
)

b ' ).., where A is a time constant. Then (6.35) becomes

WIWN = I - a()"Ul ho)2 + b'(hoIL)(AUl h o) + .. (6.36) o

Shan
rotation
Now b ' is also of order unity, and hence there is an initial very smail rise in
y
capacity up to a small Weissenberg number of order (h o / L) and then the shear
thinning effect becomes dominant and reduces W.
)
6.3.2 Plane journal bearings
The geometry of the journal bearing is shown in Fig. 6.3. The difference between )
the radii of the shaft and journal is e, and the inner surface turns at a speed!/. The Fig. 6.3 Bearing geometry .
offset along the y-axis is £e where £ is the eccentricity ratio. The quantities of
interest are the torque to turn the inner cylinder and the x and y components
of the resultant load generated by the motion . y-direction is elastic. For the case of a purely viscou s fluid, and 10 --> 0, they gave
Davies and Walters (I973) have analysed the problem for the second- and the result
third-order fluid s for arbitrary £ values when no cavitation occurs. It should 27rr J
be emphasized in passing ihat this is generaiiy an unreaiistic assumption, and M = -.-UTI{i + O(£)}, (6.40)
--... consequently applications of this and similar a nalyses should be restricted
L

to cases where the negative pressures arc small compared with atmospheric ~
6m" ( . 01)"
WX= -~2-- !/£ 71+I'd..y) +0(10)
2
pressure. It is supposed tha tell"« I, the usua l case. Their results in the second­ (6.41 )
order fluid case, fo r the torque M and the load compo nents respcctively, are
....
2" 3
471 r !/7r( I + 2£ 2)
1 W y = 0, (6.42)
:;, M = rr2 d B = (6.37)
o e( 1 _£ 2) 1/2(2+£2) '
where the viscosity function 71(..y) is evaluated at..yo = !/rl e. Combining Wxabove
._"1; •.
~ -.:. ... and Wy from.(6.39) gives a rough estimate of load for small eccentricity. Davies
"':' ~

. ...
~-

I . ' - .... ;
Wx -1
=
2" i 2 r3 !/71 7r£
prcosB dB = - ("2(1 _ 102)1 /2( 2 + £2)' (6.38)
and Walters also presented a numerical analysis for a special Oldroyd fluid and
£ --> 0 and large Weissenberg numbers (A..y) up to 1000 .
For the case of small eccentricity, it is interesting to solve the uncavitated
journal problem for the general viscometric equ a tion (4.32). The main results
Wy = _ Jo( 21T prsin BdB = 3 2
\[Ilr n E7r( 8 - £2 + 2£4) (6.39)
have been discussed by Phan-Thien and Tanner (1981) . A straight-forward
extension of Davies and Walters's (1973) work shows tha t
o c2 (I - £2)9/2(2 + £2)2 '

where 71 is the (consta nt) fluid viscosity and \[II is the first normal-stress difference ~. = / { .r(1Nlc
,.. + n) ,m} =/{<I>,m}, (6.43 )
coefficient [eqn (3.18)].
Note that the x-component of load is solely due to viscous action and the
y-component is due to normal-stress effects . The cou ple M has the Newtonian where]; is the shear stress at the shear rate ..yo, (where..yo = !/r I c), n is the viscosity
value. The results a re therefore similar to the slider-bearing results. They also slope function d In "lId In..y, evaluated at ..yo, NI is the first normal stress differ­
analysed the third-order fluid , where the vi scosity function has the form ence, and m is the normal stress slope function d log \[Il l d log..y, evaluated at ..yo.
710 ( I - A2 -i), but the normal s tress differences are still quadratic in shear The previous results given in this section are special cases of (6.43). )
rate , as in the second-order fluid. Results were given for a range of eccentricity The results of this analysis may be compared with those of D avies and Walters
ratios 0-0.7 . Ba sica lly , the load in the x-direction is still viscous, and that in the (1973) for the Oldroyd fluid; they give good results only when the transit time
 296 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING, AND RELATED FLOWS 6.3 LUBRICATION WITH VISCOELASTIC FLUIDS 297

of a particle around the bearing is less than the fluid characteristic time. Results One can also consider the 'strength' oflu brication flows (see Section 5.4). From
for several constitutive models are given by Beris et al. (1983); the point about the flow field (6.11) and the continuity eqn (6.1) one can find that for the plane
the transit time/characteristic time is emphasized there. slider bearing the flow will be strong along the mid-plane z = h/2 if
3 h*

6.3.3 Normal stresses in lubrication -)"Uh'I-2> 1. (6.44)

) 2 1­
In the previous section, it was shown tha t the increase in load (per unit width) due
to 'normal stress' effects is proportional to LN I; the load due to viscous effects is On tbe solid surface the now is always weak.
of order L2r / 11, and hence improvements in load capacity are of order For the straight slider, 17' = mho/ L, and the least value of (6.44) is at the inlet
(h/ L)(N1/r). Usually h/ Lis of order 1O~3 for typical machine bearings, so NI has plane, where h = 17 00 + m), thus the flow is strong all along the plane z = h/2 if
to be of order 10 3 times the shear stress for this mechanism to be effective.
Measurements (Fig. 6.4) available up to a shear rate of 5 x 10 6 S~I show Ndr of 3)"Um 2 (h*) > 1.
2L(J + m) \ho/
(6.45)
order 10 (Williamson eE af. ! 997). Nevertheless these authors invoke normal
stresses to explain the behaviour of journal bearings at very high eccentricity
(~0.99). In this careful set of experiments Newtonian and non-Newtonian
Typically, m ~ 1 (h;/ ho ~ 2), and h* / 170 is given in (6. J4a). Using m = I, we find
lu bricants are subjected to very high shear rates (about 10 6 s~ 1or greater) in very the flow is strong on the plane y = h /2 if
narrow' gaps (I micron) and some improved ioad carrying capacity was noticed )"U
with the polymeric (non-Newtonian) oils but only at very high c (>0.95). This is ->2 (6.46)
L
) hard to explain using the classical viscoelastic theory of hydrodynamic lubrica­
tion discussed here. Since the nominal gap and the surface roughness of the but that the flow is always weak at the solid boundaries.
lubrlCuicd surfaces arc no\v of the same order of magnitude, loc(11 shear rates can The Weissenberg number IS clearly of order All/he;, <'lnd the Deborah number
be expected w"hich will be much larger than the nominal rates (10 6 ) quoted <i.bovc.
of order AU/ L.
.'~:s.o, tht.: u::.u;:.:: hyurodyn2.rn:c (curltinu:Jm) "theory of h.lorication is no ~or.:ger Now one can assess the now dynamics. !!~ an elong8ti,,:-:,;l fl0W particles
) .. ~ expected to be valid, because the thinnest gaps will only be of molecular
dimensions. it is possible that in these ex tremely thin, rapidly sheared lu brica tiOIl
separate exponentially, and a large extension of the structure in a simple elonga­
tion will only occur if the product of au/ax and the residence time lr exceeds
sit uations the explanation of enhanced load capacity lies in the molecular domain unity. To secure a relative elongation of (say) 100, it is necessary that tr(au/ax) ~
(J a bbarzadeh el af. (1998): Granick el af. (1994); Gunsel el af. (1998)). loge 100 = 4.6. It seems impossible to achieve this with the bearing analysed
See also Chapter 8. because the product of effective elongation rate and lro from the arguments just
~ ~
,-; .:,"
.. giver;, is about unity 011 the plane z = h/2 and less near the solid boundaries. Thus
100
it is not expected that the structure will be much disturbed from the equilibrium
I configuration at least in most of the flow field. This, in turn, implies that the non­

~.C)
-....
viscometric terms will not be very important in this flow. This conclusion does
10 + not seem to be very sensitive to the exact flow field post ulated; the mean residence
time is not expected to change much from the magnitude calculated above, and,
similarly, the rate of stretching is always of order U/ L. Hence, no great structural
) -;0 I changes are to be expected. Consequently, non-viscometric effects will generally
~ 1
~<,-,.C)
not be pronounced in the slider bearing. For a journal bearing where fluid
~
0.1
particles can recirculate, we can turn to the anaiysis of Beris el al. (1983). These
) authors consider a two-dimensional journal bearing with small eccentricity.
) A lubricant model of the second-order kind used above does not show memory,
0.01 I and so Beris et al. (1983) used the UCM model (see Section 4.3.1) which can
0.1 10 100 'remember' stress states at a particle as it cycles through the bearing. The results
Shear stress (kPa) were presented for various comparatively large gaps. If the inner shaft radius is
Fig.6.4 Representative viscomelric data for an oil using Weissenberg Rheogoniometer (W.R.) and r, and the outer radius is r + c, then the ratio c/r was taken as 0.1 (compared to
Lodge stress meter (LSM) (from Williamson el al. 1997). the usual value of JO~3 for practical bearings). Figure 6.5 shows a comparison
 298 LUBR1CATlON, CALENDARING, AND RELATED FLOWS 6.3 LUBR!CATION WITH VISCOELASTIC FLUIDS 299

'0'[;
(a) The second normal stress difference is irrelevant in this plane flow. Results in
+ -
+
Fig. 6.5(a) show considerahle differences in load carrying behaviour between
the two models, although the phase angles [Fig. 6.5(b)] (¢=arctan(W~ / Wx))
+ are similar. Normal stress effects can be expected to be significant if (N1/r)( c/r)
is greater than about one. If c/r = 10, then Ndr= 2(De) for both models, for
(De)::::: 2 one expects normal stress effects to be important here (see Section 6.3.1).

~"'~!
However, the second-order model gives load vaiues W about twice that for thc
UCM model. To explain this one can follow a particle on the rotating shaft and

~
it is clearly subject to a pulsating flow of frequency f2. Fluid particles on the
stationary bearing do not undergo pulsation. The second-order model does not
.....l
consider these effects, but the UCM model does. If the entire UCM lubricant
film were pulsated at f2, then one might expect the load capacity to be reduced, by

~
a factor IC'i / 7]f2, approximately. For a Maxwell model [egn (2.94)] shows

10' I I IC' I/7]f2 = {I + (f2,\)2}-'/2. (6.47)

0 20 40 60 80 100
De=.-If! As a simple approach one can expect an effective 'softening' of the film by this
Fig. 6.5(.) Load-Debora h number curves ror a wide-gap (cjri = O.l) low eccenlricily (0= 0.1) amount for particles near the shaft, without a corresponding softening at the
pl:l.ne-Oow bearing. Here W ,/Wl
= y ;<: + W2.:) +- Second-order modd; 0 Huan g/!/" al. (Compula{;on), bearing. Very roughly, one can correct the second-order results by taking
-

UeM model; - Seri s ef al. (1983) Compulalion; ... Seris ef al. (1983) Perlurbalion sol,"ion. the average of these two extremes, multiplying (6.3~ and 6.39) by ~ [i +
(I --I-' De 2)-1 /2J. The results mrrect the load fairly well, and the angle- 4> is

; 'l:·~
unch~U1eed (Fig. 6.5).

~
The UCM model also shows a thin stress boundary layer (Beris et al. 1983)
"'­.. for roo, in contrast to the second-order case (Huang et al. 1996 did not fmd this
layer due to the coarse mesh they used ; however, reference to Fig. 6.5 shows that
their load results were not significa ntly affected by this omission).
~

~
-0

r::t-"'t
II<
-...
~;.-
~ .,.,. 6.3.4 Boundary conditions in lubrication
One of the most difficult problems to discuss in this area is the question of proper
boundary conditions in viscoelastic lubrication flows. Consider the situation in
.- ...
~
Fig. 6.2 . What should be the correct boundary conditions at inlet and outlet to the

~
.3 bearing? With the Newtonian case the lubrication flow will not be fully developed
near the ends; roughly we expect disturbances to penetrate about one film
-IW I
o 20 40 60 80 100 thickness (h o ) into the bearing. Nevertheless, the relative error in neglecting this
De = .-If! zone is not serious with the Newtonian case; it will be some mUltiple of hoi Lin
Fig. 6.5(b) Phase-angle vs Debo rah number curves. Same silua lion s as in Fig. 6.5(a) . fact. For very high N,/r values we can expect the disturbance to be of order
hoN, / rL, which is larger. Unless one is prepared to solve the entire flow external
to the bearing as part of the problem, it is not clear that in highly viscoelastic cases
of the second-order theory (6.38-6.39) where W is the total load, and the results of [that is, when (hN,)/(Lr) is of order unity or more} that an especially simple
a perturbation theory for the UCM model and two sets of computations for this 'Iubrication theory exists.
model, one by Beris el al. (1983) and another by Huang et al. (1996). The Deborah To clarify this point consider again the parallel slider (m = 0) of Section 6.3.1,
number (De) here is '\f2, where f2 is the shaft speed in radians /second and the where the normal stresses contributed a load (per unit width) of NIL / 4 when the
Weissenberg num ber is '\f2r/ c. Ifwe take A = 'IJ 1/27] for the second-order model , inlet and outlet regions were deeply immersed in fluid. A plausible bounda ry
then both models behave identically in a shear flow, with a constant viscosity. condition when the ends are not deeply immersed would be to set the average
 300 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING, AND RELATED FLOWS 6.3 LUBRICATION WITH VISCOELASTIC FLUIDS
) 301

) axial stress to zero at inlet and outlet, i.e., to set

rh(Jxx dz=O at x=O , L. (6.48)

./0
) ]n the case of a parallel slider, we have a simple shearing flow so that (Jzz =
a xx - NJ, and hence (Jz z = - N, everywhere. Thus in this calculation the total
lift is N,L, four times the previous result. Becau se of this disagreement the fol­
lowing calculations have been made with more reali stic boundary conditions.
The parallel slider geometry is shown in Fig. 6.6, only the trailing edge or exit
region is considered, and it is clear that on the scale shown the non-pa ralleli sm o f
the planes is inconsequential. T:1e inclina tion does, howcvc r, affect the pressure
gradient and the velocity profile of the fluid reaching the trailing edge . In Fig. 6.6
we show the case where there is no upstream pressure gradjent, and the upstream
velocity profile is linear (sh ea r case). The curved meniscus shape is shown; it was
computed using a finite element program for both Newtonian a nd second-order
) fluid s ignoring surface tension and inertia. Two other cases were also treated; one
corresponding to the Newtonian case where hj ho = 2 (111 = I) the upstream
-0.5
ve locity profile ha ving the dimensionless form u = 1- (zlhf; and in the other
...... oniy the fluid Inoves; both pianes are stationary and the in let velocit y profile
is parabolic; both planes end at the exit here (Poiseuille case).
I nail cascs computed the free-surface shape changed littie up to a vaiue of N, I r
l.-- -- N~'.~,'!.O!1i<!n
I
I
N~O

'
.. ~~r
(evaluated at the upper surface) of about I. The pressure increase due to exit
effccts far inside a given bea rin g therefore depends o nly on the ratio (N J r;)w.
Figure 6.7 shows a plot for the three ca ses considered : here 6p is the increa se
-I)

in 'pressure ' (-(Jzz) a t the walJ far upstream due to exit effects. Note th a t normal
""......... .
stress effects tend to increase the loa d capacity by an amount roughly propor­
tional to N, L, as found above. The increases (a bove the mentioned case) are,
re spectivel y O.7 8N, L, O.39N,L, and O.2SN,L for the shear, intermediate, and
P o ise uille cases. These increases are larger than eqn (6.32) but not as large as -15
the result from (6.48). Upstrea m effects ha ve not been considered here, but it is
clea r that there are substantial probiem s in extending the classica l theory of
lubrication to find the terms of order (hoi L)()"U/h o) occurring in (6.36). Simpl y Fig. 6.7 Boundary condJlions in lubrica ti o n. Plotled is increased load capacity 6p due 10 no n­
New tonian effects al exil. The labels Poi se uille, inlermediate a nd shear refer to the exit velocily pro­
FIXED SURFA CE file s shown in Fig. 6.6. (N,/y)w = 0 is Ihe Newlonian case . Yw is the shear stress on the lowe r plane

e'· !~!"tUZI!!7[d~/
~e" y Ih _
FREESURFi\CE
. ..-- - - - - - - - ­
far "PSIream.

perturbing the Newtonian flow within the bearing without careful considerati o n
Mov ING SURFACE·UNIT SPEED
. of the boundary conditions will no t be exact, but it can be a guide to trend s; when
normal stress effects are very large, so that (Nlh) / (TL)>> I, it will be necessary to
-2 - I 4 zlh solve the entire flow field , including that external to the bearing, without any
Fig.6.6 Bo undary condiliol1s in lubricati o n al film exil. The exil profile shown is for Ih e shenring special simplification.
case. The free surface shape was computed using a finite clemen I program. For (11' , / ylw < 1.0 all See Phan-Thien el at. (1989) for further discussion of the effects of inlet and exit
surface profile s are nearly Ihe same. flow s on load and friction.

)
 LUBKICATiON, CALENDARiNG, AND RELATED FLOWS 6.4 CALENDARING At':D RELATED PROBLEt,,1 S 303
3U2

The problems are more difficult when there is no well-defined separation
poinL This is the c<lse in calendaring (Fig. 6,8) and roller and joumaJ bearing
lubrication,
The separation problem here falls into two classes:
(a) Cases such as calendaring where the sheet fails to adhere to the rolls at a
certain point (Fig. 6.8(a)) . Soon after the separation point the stresses decay to
zero and the sheet moves as a rigid body.
Here we usually assume that (J xx = 0 at the separation point; for all inelastic
models this also implies (Jzz = 0 and p = 0 at this point, since TJou/ox and TJow/oz
are neglected in the theory. The shear stress (J xz wi!! also vanish if we make
op/ox = P = 0, at the separation point. Hence the Swift condition, dp/dx = p = 0
at separation, is found. To get some idea of the error we note that in a Newtonian
creeping flow it takes about one film thickness for an initial stress field (between
parallel plates) with a mettn value of zero to decay to less than I per cent of its
initial amplitude; thus the error due to this approximation is often small.
.~1 _211°1=
,h. ~._ X/
---
'---- II
....
~ at the point when p = dp/dx = 0 (Swift condition). When this is done, solution
u of the problem in tenns of a perturbation series about the Newtonian case is
~
'* .:.~ .
(b) In bearing lubrication the film could split as in Fig. 6.8(b). In this case
surface t.ension forces \vill not permit Vxx to vanish at the end of the cavity.
Alternatively, a wavy instability may set in, with 'fingering' of the lubricant in
a three-dimensional pattern. Savage (1977) discusses the manifold possibil­
ities occurring with lightly loaded bearings. Ruschak (1982) shows that op/ox
is not exactly zero at the interface in the Newtonian case, but depends on
the capillary number TJU /(J; here (J is the surface tension coefficient. Carvalho
and Scriven (1996) have given a survey of boundary conditions for lightly
loaded deformable rollers with Newtonian fluids, with applications to printing
press problems.
For heavily-loaded bearings, where maximum pressures are many atmos­
pheres, the situation is simpler. Floberg (1957) has shown that it is adequate in
ax
this case to let P = -Pm, op / = 0 at the separation point. Here the quantity Pm
is the amount of subatmospheric pressure which is needed to vaporize the
lubricant (or to cause air to burst out of the lubricant). Hence in this case the Swift
condition is also a reasonable approximation if Pm is negligible compared to other
pressures of interest in the system. Some numerical results for similar Newtonian
problems have been given by Kist!er and Scriven (!983).
!n the case of inelastic non-Newtonian flows the si!u?!.ion is similar, hut with
viscoelastic flows t.he correct conditions are more complex and, due to memory
,
effects, caution should be observed. For the second-order and other inelastic
models, application of the above arguments again finds the Swift condition.
We now consider the cttse shown in Fig. 6.8(b), assuming separation occurs
possible (Tanner 1960). The reduction in load capacity shown in this solution is
mainiy due to shear-thinning (see Section 6.2). The smaii shift in the separation

point is also due to this cause. Since shear-thinning is so important, we now

<L
consider this effect in detail for some specific cases. We shali not consider the )
plane journal bearing with the Swift condition because it neglects side leakage.
.­
- ,~

For details of the Newtonian calculations see Pinkus and Sternlicht (1961) .
See also Section 9.2.1 for a further discussion on cavitation.
)

I
x'i Cavity
6.4 Calendaring and related problems )
I
~
x Calendaring is a process whereby a molten material is formed into a sheet by )
being passed through a pair of rollers [Fig. 6.8(a)]. Control of the exit thickness
and finish of the sheet are important. In the present investigation we shall not be
able to connect the variables in the problem to the surface finish, but we shall
be able to discuss the control of thickness through the nip force, which pushes )
the rollers together, the speed, and the material properties.
The problem will be approached as a lubrication analysis problem. Assuming
(b)
that both rollers have the same speed and radius, then if we take advantage of the
Fig. 6.8 Ideal exit nuid behaviour in (a) calendaring; (b) lubrication and coating. symmetry of the problem by placing the x-axis at the centre of the nip, we find )

)
 304 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING, AND RELATED FLOWS 6.4 CALENDARING AND RELATED PROBLEMS 305
(

that the shear stress IXL in the f1uid has the simplified form It is convenient to define dimensionless variables

dp x . u

,_-
-
T." -
Z-.
dx (6.49) x' = J2Rh o
'
u - U

I Z I pho
(Note that the film thickness is 2h in thi s problem.) We can conveniently analyse Z ho; P = 77 U ' (6 .56)
the power-jaw fluid in this case; returning to eqn (6.20) and setting c = 0, we ha ve,
for z > 0, Then eqn (6.51) may be written as

au
az [~ d]
k dx
(d)
..J!.. II " sgr...J!..
dx
(6.50) u' = I + (h;[ZI2 _ (I
V8R
+ X'2)2] dp'
dx'
. (6.57)
<. and the region s where dp/dx is greater and less than zero have to be trea ted We may find an expression for the pressure gradient by using a mass balance
separately. Integrating, we find, after using th e velocity boundary condition
that u = U at z = h, that
[2h3
u= U + - I rId
-;-..J!.. ] l i n sgn (d)
-!!- {z" - hi'} (6.51 )
q= 2
1
o
J,
u dz = 2hU - - -d p ] .
377 dx
(6.58)

~L LK dx \dX We may solve for dp/dx and find, in dimen sio nless form,

whereM=(1 +n)/n.
In the N ewtonian case, 11 = I, Ihis reduces to thc known form dp' = JI8R x·
x'2 -
2
(6.5 9)
dx' ho ( I + x'2)3'
( u = U...L., _ I .._
dp
_ ,_2
2TJ dx \~ -
,2
Ii ). (6.52 )
\vhere x'" is th~ (din1ensionless) coo rdinate ~{t \vhich in our prev;ous t~rmjnology
h-h'" ,,!~d dpjd.-t' =0 .
in!egrating fron, z = () to z = h, 2nd leuing the total nip n o',-'.! be (j \ve have From the definition of x", we see that (h-/h o ) = I +x· 2 where x' is also
dimensionless. We assume that right at separation, the Swift condition p =

1" I (d) [ + °
; .
q=2 211
udz=2Uh + - _ cP 11 111 sgn..J!.. hid
- - I - h l' + 1]
(6.53 )
(dp/dx) = holds. Thus, the separation point is at x* (Fig. 6.8). From the
. 0 /1 k dx dx M I boundary condition and (6.55) and (6.58) we find that the sheet leaves the roll
at speed U and that q = 2 Uh*. ]t also follows that
from which an equation for the pressure can be found. If we define q = 2 Uh'; then

[I. dP ]1 /" (ddX)P\

kdx sgn = -(M+ I )( h' -h)Uh-li,+I) (6.54)
x' = J;:- I. (6.60)

When the gap exceeds h'. dp/dx is p ositive; as x -> 00, dp/dx --> O. It is now
necessar y to specify h as a function of x. It ;s usual to r!"!3ke a parabolic
approximation to the circular roll form and set
I Thus, if h' is measured, x· may be found .
Equation (6.59) may be integrated with respect to x', and if the boundary
conditions are imposed the solution for p'(x') is found to be

x2) , ~R rx'2( 1 - 3x· 2 ) - 1 - 5x· 2 I

h ~ ho ( I + 2hoR, . (6.55) P = 32hol (, +x,2\2 x

. . L \. 1 )

1 +- 3x' 2 1
Before proceeding with the case of the gene ral powel'-law fluid it is useful to +(1 - 3x"2)(tan- 1 x' - tan-: x")
study the Newtonian case, n = I .
+ J'
1+ x· 2 X· (6.61)
 306 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING , AND RELATED FLOWS 6.4 CALENDARING AND RELATED PROBLEMS
t.
307

'p Within the lubrication approximation we ignore the viscous contribution to -CTzz

and simply equate -CTzz to p. Then we calculate the force from

w= jX'
-00
p(x) dx = 7)U f2!jx, p'dx'
Vh; -00
(6.67) (

x
with the result
x 'cr.~,,'"

Fig. 6.9 Pressure dis tribution in calendaring and roll lu brication. w= 7)UR G(x')
(6.68)
ho

Figure 6.9 shows ~he shape of the pressure distribution. The maximum pres­ where G(x*) is a com plica ted function whose value, for the expected case of
sure occurs just upstream of the nip at x' = - x' and has the value x· = 0.475 , is 1.22. Thus we have (

w=
p~"X = 3~ ~
1.22 'f }UR
(6.62) ho
(6.69)

wh ere The drag force on one roll is calculated from

+ . 2) I ,
rx '

... C =
I
I
3x,2,
+x· 2
(
x - I - 3x tan- x . (6.63) F= )-00 oxzlz=h(x)dx. (6.70)

Thu s, there are several extrema: At x' = x' the vanishing gradient occurs at The result for x' = 0.475 is
pi == 0; BI x' = - x'" the nlaximum pressure occurs. The thirCl value of x' at which
th e gn~d;ent va nishes js seen {froiD cgn (n. ')9)] to be at x' == - e x ) . The pressure r: ~ TI /2R '.<1 .•"\
\~,
~.h c_::e js cb!~jr1ed upon se!! !ng x' = - ' X ) if! eqn (6,61). One find s that J - JVT}0Y h" JYl ), (6.7 i)

0::, •• '
p'(x' ---> - (0) = -9R
-
32h o
[I ++
I
2
3x· x • -
x· 2
( (1f + tan- t.)]
I - 3x . 2 ) -
2
x (6.64)
where

M(x') = (I - x· 2 )(tan- 1 x' +i) - x'. (6.72)

Iran external pressure were imposed far upstream of the nip, then one could (
obtain x· in terms of that pressure from eqn (6.64). One does not normally For x· = 0.475, Mis 1.08 and
impose such a pressure on a calendm. The most reasonable assumption would
be that p '(x ' -" - (0) = 0, from which it follows that x' has a speciftc va lue,
F = 4.5SUTJoG,. (6.73)
namely , x' = 0.475.
From eqn (6.55), knowing x', we see that
The friction coefficient FI W = 3.75 J ho i R from which the power dissipation
[.,'
" .. 2 2 UF can be found . This completes the Newtonian case.
ho = I + x = 1.2 26, (6.65)
Returning to the power-law fluid, we may use the preceding dimensionless
varia bles provided we generalize the definition of p' to read p' = p(hol Uri k. It
and so the sheet thickness depends oniy on h o . is then straightforward to show that
The roU-separating force can be calculated from
(". , = (2n + 1,\ n, fiR t' Ix· 2
- x'2I n - 1
(x· 2 - x'2) dx'
" - J ,-
!lV- I
- 00
1 (J 'rI~
ZZ )\...I.A·
(6.66) P \\ 'n } \/~J
V " 0 . x' ("I -r x ,")
­ 2n+ i ' (6.74)
 308 LUBRICATlON, CALENDARIN G, AND RELATED FLOWS 6 .4 C ALENDARING AND RELATED PROBLEMS 309
l...
where the Swift boundary condition at x = x' has been used. Numerica l solution (a)

~
may be used to complete the problem.
The complet e rcsults as a function of n for the load s and fricti on are given in
the form x* "'f
0.50
" ~ j'' f
k(~rRw*(n),
0

w= (6.75 )
0.48

F=k ho (V)"J Rh oF*(I1 ), ' - - ' - -,

0.8 06
1/
0.4 0. 2
I 1.20
0.0

where W' and F* are given in Fig. 6.10. The thickness function h*/ho is given in Fig. 6.II (a) Calendared thickness in lerms of x' o r h'/h o as a function o f th e power· law
paramel er n (from Middlema n 1977).
Fig. 6.ll(a). We see that a shear-thinning fluid gives ri se to a thicker shee t. In
the model s con sidered abo ve it was assumed that the calendar was fed with a (b)
m ass of fluid so large that an infinite reservoir of f1uid existed up-strea m from

~ r~
0.5
the nip. It is possible, of course, to feed the calendar with a sheet of nuid of
known width, as sugges ted in Fig. 6.8(a). In thi s case a new boundary condition
l
"-,.,.,.
x*
pi = 0 at x' = -· x~ must be introduced, and the lower limit in the problem 0.4
" "... 1

becomes - x~.
The thickness o f the feedstock enters through the defi nition
'"
0.3 I ,11.09
~. 1 10 102 loJ
x~ = (hr _ ,,\ 1( 2 (6.76)
hr/il o

I
, \ho ) . Fig.6. II(b) C" lcndared lhickness in le rm s o f x' o r h" / h o a s a function o f h r/ho fo r Ihe p owe r-law
... perarnd e, n~ i.O unci 0.25 . N Ole h"jho = j + x- 2 (fro m Middlema n IY77 ) .
• Equation (6. 74) ma y be solved for x' as a fun c tion ofn and hr/ho, and the resul!s
a re shown in Fig. 6.11 (b) . Severa l points are of int erest. I
Fir s l~we ~ce , as expec ted, that the ca !end2red thickD ess is reduced somcv/ hat if I
,. f1uid , a much large r value, say hr/ho=200, is required for a f1uid with n = O.25
-.. ,.
. :....
hr/ ho is finite, for all values o fn. Next, we see tha t while hr/ho = 20 is large enough to be near its infinite thickness separation point.
that the separa tion point is practically eq ual to x ' for the ca se of the Newtonian Overall , it is appa rent that a s far as sheet thickness is concerned, there is not
much variability with changes in n , or with reasonable variations in hr/ h o . There

'~i~
are, ho wever, considerable va riati o ns in the forces, so that calendaring with a

I
fixed nip force, roll speed , and ro ll radius, will yield sheet s of variable thickness
as the material changes.
It is clear that the present analyticai technique is difficult to apply to more
complex cases a nd numerica l m ethods are necessary for practical appiications.
As an example, Kiparissides and Vlac hopoulos (1976) have shown how to use
2~ W' _
finite elemen t method s fo r the analysis of inelastic non-New tonian calendaring
probiems.

:!~~
Zheng and Tanner (1988) used perturba tion and num erical methods to study
calendaring. They used the modified PTT model (see Section 5.6.7) o f the affine
fonn
<J V.L VA 0.6 0.8 1.0
I:
(
Fig. 6.10 Calenda ri ng of power-law fluids; n is the index and F" and W· are the di men sio nless .A -6. + '( J + E --.A tr. ) .. = 21)0 (', + 2~\2 ·2 \ .>
C/\ 'Y JU, (5 . i63a)
friction and lo"d forces respectively (from Middleman 1977). 61 " 1)0
 (
310 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING , AND RELATED FLOWS 6.5 COA TlNG FLOWS 31 I

with E = 0.0 I. Perturba tion solutions were used for Wi( ~)..U / h) less than one . (oj

Numerical simulations up to a Weissenberg num ber (Wi) of 3 were· made (h o is (

~W cb
half the minimum gap size), and in all cases the upstream feed sheet was 20 times
the nip size. The separation criterion used was that of zero tangential traction. In
these calculations a trial and error procedure was used to locate the separation
point, where the tangen tial traction just upstream of the separa tion point is zero.
In all cases the separation point (x") was found to be about 0.47, as in the
Newtonian case. The normal traction just at the separation point was found to
be tensile, so that the sheet was 'peeled' off the rolls ; no attempt to set the normal
stresses at peel-off was made, although tha t would have been possible.
Unlike the inelastic case, the sheet was found to thicken after leaving the nip (bj~wCb
(similar to die-swell) so that at (Wi) = 3 the ultimate thickness of the sheet
was about 5 per cent greater than the Newtonian case . Some changes of up to
10 per cent in the roll -separating force were also found·.

6.4.1 Connection with roller and balliubricarion

Because of the small-slope approximation used previously, the calendaring
a nalysis is applicable to the lubrication problem between two cylindcrs of any (oj
radius provided the two surfaces move at the same speed U. If the cylinders have
radius Ro and R J respectively, then the (total) gap 217 is (
flul(J

2h = 2ho + -x
2
2
{ I RoI} .
- +-
RJ
(6.77)
F!g.. e.!2 Three types of cc~tin g [1o..·.'s. (0) RoB conter. (b) Kiss coater. (c) Curtain coatef. (
Hence. by placing the surface z = 0 at the centre of the gap , the problem is reduced
to the previous equal cylinder case calendaring by using. the equivalent radius
2/ (1! R 1 + ! / Ro) instead of 11... !n pa rt;cultir) if Ro is iilfin; tc~ then the plO biem of in some applications, the nip separation is controlled; in others the nip pressure
a.·"
a cylinder rolling over a plane is solved. is controlled.
The separation at the exit from the nip is not envisaged as shown in Fig. 6.8(a), Similar to the roll coater is the 'kiss' coater, shown in Fig. 6.12(b) in which the
but rather·as in Fig. 6.-8(b), where the emergent film is split between the rollers, web is run over the roll without any backup roll on the other side. The amount of
often with a ribbed cavitation region between. As mentioned previously , the wrap around the roll, the tension in the web, and fluid properties control the
Swift condition is not exact but it is the most often used condition in lubrication amount of coating applied to the web. (
problems . When it is used , the results are identical to the calendaring problem. Various other arrangements have been discussed by Middleman (1977). They
For a further discussion of high-pressure rheo logy and ball and roller lubri­ are weak or lubrication type flows which can be analysed by the method s given
cation, see Jacobson (199!). above. Wirecoating is discussed by Binding el al. (1976).

6.5 Coating flows 6.5.1 Roll coaling

Coaling i~ a process in which a iiquid is appiied continuously to a movmg sheet
in order to produce a uniform application of the f1uid onto and/or within
the sheet .
Figure 6.12(a) shows, schematically, a roll coater. The lower roll picks up liquid
[rom a bath and delivers it to a second ron, or directly to the moving web. The web
is 'squeezed' between two foils, and the amount of coa ting applied depends
upon fluid properties, roil spacing and speed.
A roll-coating process is similar to calendaring, but with a split film in the exit (
region as shown in Fig. 6.8(b).
The boundary condition at the nip-exit must be considered. Generaily in
coating flows the pressures are low and hence cavitation may not occur abruptly
as in lubrication where the (potentiaily) very iow minimum pressure ensures
cavitation. Middle man (1977) uses the (approximate) condition in the cavitation
region that the speed and the pressure are zero simultaneously. Again, we
 312 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING, AND RELATED FLOWS 6.6 THREE-DIMENSIONAL LUBRICATION THEORY 313
(
( reiterate that the true separation condition is complex, see Savage (1977), and in the Newtonian case one finds
Ruschak (1982) and Carvalho and Scriven (1996).
In the case where the sheet has thc same velocity as the peripheral roll-speed z z ap
u = Vo + (VI - Vo)- - - - (h - z) (6.81 )
and moves in the same direction, the solution is very similar to that for calen­ h 2TJ ax
daring and lubrication discussed previou sly. See Middleman (1977) for details.
Differential speeds, or reverse coating (where the roll motion is opposite that of z z op
the sheet), are other commonly encountered cases in coating. v= VO+(V 1 - Vo)--- - (h-z). (6.82)
h 2TJay

6.5.2 Free-surface CO(/[ ing In place of(6.8) the avera ged continuity equation becomes
In this case t he surfa ce to be coated is withdrawn from a ba th ofnuid. Gra vity a nd ah a a
surface tension a re both expected to be important in these low-stress conditions. -+ - (uh) +-(iih) = 0, (6.83)
at ax ax
Gravity causes the fluid to tend to drain off the sheet.
Two of the simplest free-coa ting problems arise when the object to be coated where tim e variations in the film thickness a re permitted , and the mean velocities
is either a continuous web or beit of material (such as in film coating) or a ii, ii, are given by
cylindrical filament (such as in fibre coa ting). The principal complicating feature

ItIt'
of these problems is the strong role played by the fr ee surface with its at tendant
(u, iJ) = Jo (u, v) dz. (6.84)
surfa ce ten sion force s in controlling the coa ting dynamics in the region where the
object lea ves the surface of the l1uid . The Newtonian case is complex (Scriven and
Kistler 1982; Kistler and Scriven i 98 3) and there does not appear to be any simple After forming (u, iJ) and substituting in (6.83) we obtain the Reynolds equation
( non-Newtonian model for these processes (see Middleman 1977). These nows for the press ure
1
arc not nearly-viscometric flows; in the bath rcgion thcre is considerable elonga­
tion <lnd this has to be taken into account in a proper theory. We shaJl not -a -- (hJ
ap\
) + -a (hJ ap)
--;:;- a
= 6 -;:;- (h( VI + Uo)) + ah
12-:::-. (6 .8 5)
I herefo re d!scu ss thl s type o f pro blein here . ax \ ;7 ox) By \'1 uy ox Cit

l...
G.,u IT:n.~~-rliraeiis;oilaj iuuricfHj OIl theory
In mo s t practical bearings the two-dimensional cases described previously give
( :?
correc t qu a litative predictions, but are not adequate for quantitative predictions.
Thi s is because in a bea ring of finite width (y-direction) there is a large pressure
gradient ap /ay at right angles to the main motion in the x -direction, since the
pressure falls to zero at the ends of the bearing. This press ure gradient gi ves rise
to a leakage flow and a consequent loss of pressure (and hence load capacity)
in the bea ring. Thus we now turn to three-dim e nsi ona l lub ri cati o n the ory.
It is not difficult to generalize the inelastic iv brication lheory to the general case
when the flow is three-dimensional and is confined between two rigid surfaces in
relative motion. One obtains the result s
p = p(x,y), (6.78)
Bounda ry CGriditio;15 on the pressure field cornpie(c the specification of probjenl .
The solution of the R eynolds equation is nOD-trivial in most cases (Pinkus
and Sternlicht 1961) even for the steady-l1ow Newtonian case.
For the non-Newtonian case, the 110w is still regarded as nearly-viscometric;
locally itis a skew flow (Section 3.2.2). For the generalized N ew tonian fluid,
we now have the coupling between the x- and y-motions through the viscosity
function, since in this case the shear rate is given by
..;,2 = (3u) 2 (au) 2
-l-
(6.86)
, \8z}' az}'
In most cases it is necessary to resort to numerical methods to solve the non­
Ne\vtor;ian casco A useful exception is discussed next.

ap 6.6.1 Newtonian short-bearing theory

'xz = z ax + C1(x,y), (6.79)
We consider an approximate theory valid for complete journal bearings whose
length/diameter ra tio is small (Fig 6.13) . In such cases the fluid 'leaks' rapidly out
fJp of the sides of th e bearing and the pressure developed in the fluid is fairly small
'.v z = z ay + C2( X,y), ( 6.80)
compared with the two-dimensional case. Since D » L, b y hypothesis, we expect,
 314 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING, AND RELATED FLOWS 6.6 THREE-DIMENSIONAL LUBRICATION THEORY 315

where (J is the angular position, (Fig. 6.13), and we consider the clearance h of
x-RO the form (Pinkus and Sternlicht 1961)

----1-- - --I- - --~ h = ho(I + c: cos (J), (6.91 )

~
where c: is the eccentricity ratio (e / ho), then we find a simple equation for 02p / O/:
I
'I I' - I----+--- - 6 I ~ y
:~ = -617wh~2c: sin (J /( I + c: cos (J)3 . (6.92)
)

= ±L/2 (Fig. 6.13),

~----t----~
Hence , using the boundary condition p = Oat y

p = 3'fJWh~2c: (~2 - i) sin(J/(1 + c:cOS(J)3. (6.93)

L L
2" 2" Further integra tion gives the total load components as
Fig. 6.13 SharI-bearing geame lry . Clearance is grca lly cxaggeraled; usually ho/R is O(lO--J).
Radius R = fD . L/ 2 r~ . ( TJWRL3) c: 2
Wh = j '- pRcos(Jd(Jdy =
- L/2 JO
- 1,-2 -
" 0
-1'-
,.-c:2 )

?,

on average , that
( TJW RL 3
)
8p ap
Wv = j L/2 1~'
pRsm(Jd(Jdy= -h-z- 4--Z)""
-L / Z 0 (J - c: 0
71' £
(6.94)
,, - « a-' (6.87)
ux y
and
We now m a ke the assl,mption that op/ ox may be completely negiecied. Then , at

.. ~.
least in the steady Newtonian case, the circumferential /low is everywhere a W= jWl+ W;
steady shearing, locally wR/17 in magnitude. If we let VI =0, Vo=wR, VI =
Vo=O ; then .. and the friction moment as (includi~g th~ drag of the cavitated region 271' > (J > ~)

u =wR(I - D; u = ~wR (6 .88) M = j-L/2

L/ 21h
0
TR z d(Jdy =
2
7rTJW
110
R3
(1 _ £2) -1 / 2. (6.95)

up Here we assume that the pressure is zero, due to cavitation, over the segment
z /7 2 up
,) = - ­ (17 - z)-' v = ­ T2r]8y (6.89) 7r < (J < 27r. This boundary condition is compatible with the short bearing theory.
217 oy '
It is found that this formula represents quite well the behaviour of bearings
S!.!bstituting in (6.83) we find even when L / D:::: I, which is close to common cases of practical interest and
Barweii (i 956) made the soiutions (6.94) and (6.95) lhe basis of a design method.
~
8y l
f h 3 8P } = 6rJWR oh.
oy 'ox
(6.90) Subsequently, Raimondi and Boyd (1958) solved the full Reynolds equation
by computer methods to produce design charts which are an improvement (
over the short-bearing design method for the Newtonian case. However, it is not
If we now ' unwrap' the bearing, so that clear that this is a feasible strategy for every non-Newtonian case, and thus it is
of interest to try and generalize the simple short-bearing solution to inelastic
x = RB, non-Newtonian iluids.
 (

316 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING, AND RELATED FLOWS 6.6 THREE-DIMENSIONAL LUBRICATION THEORY 3t7

6.6.2 Inelastic short-bearing theory

From (6.89) and (6.90) we can see that the shear rat e ov/oz is of order wL/h,
whereas the shear rate ou/oz is of order wR/ h. This suggests that when
2
R2» L we may assume that the circumferential shearing is dominant, and then
we have V>
I
oj
Q..,

. OU .,..
~

00 0174 }
I '" OZ = wR / h. (6.96) 1: .78.5 "350 y (S-I)
-.,.
The inelastic problem is then straightforward, since the viscosity is constant .~
o
across the film at any angular position, (but varies with e) and so the sideways ~

-: ;~~
~
.;;:
now has a parabolic profile. Hence the solution (6.93) for p still applies, it being ()

= ~----
.~
understood that TJ is now a function of e,
through .-y. The load capacity and
c
frictional torque may be computed. The results for a family of power-law fluid s >-
Cl
are given in Fig. 6.14. One sees that for any given eccentricity, speed. load and
bearing geometry the power-la w fluid displays a higher friction coefficient than y{ 78.5 174 350
a Newtonian fluid, as in the simpler cases discllssed above. More details are o.li ! I ...

given by Tanner (1963) . I 10 10 2 103

Shear rate Y(S-I) or frequency(rad/s)
6.6.3 Viscoeiaslic shorl-Dearing Iheory Fig.6.15 Dynamic viscosity or 4.4 per cent polyisobutylene (Mw ~ 106 ) in celane solutio n at 25°C.
'~} If one is prepared to accept the above restricti o ns on the analysis, then it is Sample is subjected to sinusoidal shearing at fr equency wand steady shearing at a rat e i' simul­
taneou sly: axes of shearing are orthogonal. NOl e th~1 7]'(0, -V) = 1)(-i-) .
possible 10 ex~end the ab0ve short bC;Jr~ilg theory to jjilstea dy ;oHds wjih vi:;co­

I
£ elastic fluids, at least when the eccentricity is low, that is when the circumferential
( ....
now remains an aimost constant simple shear flow with a shear rate wR/ ho .
( The basic problem in this unsteady skew flow is to finn Ihe "'~ spO!1se in the
.(' y-dircction vv'hen ~hc flow is disturbed so as to pro dltce a (sitady ur uns teady)
'"
,~ 20
cross-shear ov/oz. There are limited experimental data which are relevant
'0. 1 (Tanner and Williams 1971) to this problem. In these experiments a simple
10 0 .2 shearing flow (-Y) was disturbed by a small sinusoidal (in time) cross-flow and the
~~
0.3 linear response functions G'(i ,w) , G"b', w) were measured. The results of
o

'"'" Williams are shown in Fig. 6. I 5. We see that the fluid response is essentially
~ Newtonian at a reduced viscosity 71h) when w « -y, and the response is the same
....:
"­ as the un sheared fluid when w» -y. Thu s fo r low-frequency d isturbances the
response is Newtonian with a viscosity TJ(i) and the theory of(6.6. i) is applicabie.
1)8

05~ ~ /e
For high-frequency disturbances the problem is reduced to a linear viscoeiastic

°2~I Newt
L 0
09 J problem with a modified spectrum. However, the latter limit is somewhat aca­
demic because in order to reach this high-frequency range the frequency of
I' ,08 ~"
G.. I application must be greater than wR / h o, or of order 10 3 times the rotation fre­
0.01 0.Q2 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 10 quency. Hence it will not be explored further here. Further problems of the type
'laO) (~) 2 discussed in Section 6.3.3 (stress boundary layers) may also arise with some
Pa 2h. models .
Fig. 6.14 Friction and Sommerreld number ror po wer-law Ouid is short-bearing theory. In this The solutions discussed here are clearly only relevant in certain ranges
dirnensionless piot Po = W/2RL; 1)(/ is the vi scosily at the mea n shear rat e wR.,Ih o : and /.L = nlfnin g (short bearings , low eccentricity and frequency) and more remains to be
moment M/WR. done.
 ...
318 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING, AND RELATED FLOWS 6.6 THREE-DIMENSIONAL LUBRICATION THEORY 319
(
6.6.4 Viscosity a known junction oj position and the F-functions are evaluated at z = h. Solution of (6.102) can be carried (
When the viscosity function TJ is a known function of x, y, and z, then the out numerically as a routine operation.
lubrication problem may be formally solved in the following way. Define Some analytical progress can sometimes be made if TJ can be expressed in
terms of stresses; see Section 6.6.5.
Z \.
f' dz . zdz 2
These results provide a method of solving non-Newtonian lubrication prob­
Fo(z) =
io 7]' F,(z) = t
in TJ
and F2 =
1
o
z dz
7] .
( 6.97) lems by an iterative process. By solving (6 .102) using an initial guess for the
viscosity distribution and appropriate boundary conditions we can find the
Then if we take the equations governing lubrication and write them as pressure, and hence the velocity gradients, from (6.100) . These can be used to
recalculate the viscosity function. Hence a new, more accurate, distribution of (
ou z op c ,
- =- - + ­ (6.98) viscosity can be found. Then the iteration cycle can be repeated until convergence
oz 7] ox TJ occurs . Note that the temperature variation of viscosity can also be included in
this scheme. Dowson (I 962) gives an even more gen~ral formulation for the case
ov z op , Cz
-= - -'--, (6.99) when the density of the fluid is a llowed to vary. The advantage of the proposed
oz 7] oy TJ
method of integration is that it reduces a complex three-dimensional flow to a
where TJ is a known function, then we can integrate to find simple two-dimensional problem , with advantages in computing speed. Such a
numerical approach makes the solution of inelastic non-Newtonian lubrication­
op ( op) Fo(z) type flows possible. The necessary boundary conditions, as always, need careful
u = Vo + F,(z) ox + \ V, - Uo - F, (h) ox Fo(h) consideration.
(6.100)
op ( Op) Fo(z ) 6.6.5 Hele-Shaw flow and die filling
1) = Vo + F, (z) oy + V, - Vo - F, (h) oy Fo(h) '
Many die-filling flows use narrow channels where the flow is approximately two­
Since the viscosity is supposed to be a known function ofposifion, fhe runctions dimensional. For stationary walls one can use eqn (6.85) with U"V o, and oh/or
0" F!, and F2 can be found numerically . equai to zero, in the Newtonian case. This is then a two-dimensional flow, and
By in'ep,rarine (A 100) we finn is readiiy soived. In ihe non-Newionian case the probit:rn is ulOfe complex, but
the approach of Section 6.6.4 is applicable. Generaiiy, it is necessary tv also solve
fir op for the temperature field, and this usually will need a fully three-dimensional
.., ,, - hft =./0 u dz = Voh + ox (hF, (h) - F2(h» temperature computation (Chapter 9) .
(
When a fluidity ¢ ( == I /TJ, a function of the second invariant of stress) can be
written, considerable progress ca n be made, as seen in the example following. For
+ [(V, _ Vo) _ F,(h) op] [hFo(h) - F,(h)] (6.10 I) further applications to injection moulding see Kennedy (1995) .
... .,. .
ox Fo(h)

and a similar exp ression for hv . These results can be substituted into the Example: Power-law H ele- Shaw flow

continuity equation (6.85) to find a generalized Reynolds equation If one rewri tes the power-law fluid (3.63) in terms of a fluidity C/!, one finds that,

in this form of flow,

-o h + V . {' ( h - - F') V, + -F,Fo Vo + (F2

---.!. - F2 ) V P }' = 0, (6 .102)
Ot Fo Fo <!> = 7]_f = k - '/ n(r2
'yz
+ r2
xz
)('-n)/2"
.
where
But in the Hele--Shaw flow where z is measured from the midplane, we ha ve, from
V, = V,i + Vd, (6.79) and (6.80)
a nd
op op
= oy' rxz -_. Zox
-.
Vo = Voi + Voj, (6.103) ryz Z
 320 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING , AND RELATED FLOWS 6.7 UNSTEADY FLOW S: THE SQU EEZ E FILM PROBLEM 321
(

Hence (z > 0) 6.7.1 The Newtonian solution

We can with advantage take the origin of coordinates at the centre of the gap
~ == ~ = k - l / n z ( l-n )/ 1I ( (~~r+ (~~r) ( i - II )/2"
so that the problem is symmetrical and each plate approaches the o rigin at a
speed - h/2 while supportin g a load W. The conservation of ma ss equation is

ow
r,
From (6.102), when the walls a re station a ry and the now is stea d y, we have
the equ a ti o n ---
r or
+-=0.
18(ru )
oz
(6. 105)

V '{(;~-F2) VP} = 0. (6. I 02a) We can integra te from z = - h/ 2 to h/2 to find

But in this case one find s, fr o m (6 .97) dh _ -~..<!.(ruh ), (6.106)

dt - ,.dr
Fa =
l " -.:.
. a TJ
d = l"
.a
~dz = _ nk - t/ "I Vpl ll-n) / 2n h2+ I/ n
where th e avcrage rad ial velocity ii is defi ned by

a nd similar expressions for FI(h) and F2(h). Hence Ihe eq ua tio n for the press ure "/2
becomes

V· {li+ I / II !V p!(I -n)/II Vp } = 0

uh = 2
1
. 0
u(z,r)dz . (6.107)

'­
....
,

w hich may be solved wilh app ropriat e bOllndary co nditi o ns o n press ure.
(6. 104)
From (6 . I 05) it is clea r th a t fi is much grea ter in m a gnitude th an the speed dh / d I ;
in fact u = O(Rh/ h),
( Abu , :;ince ii is supposed R >:> h, then we may aga in make the iu b rication
( '., I
• 6.7 U /lsteady flows: the squeeze film problem ap proxima tion . When inerti a, body forces, and normal stresses a re ignored .
In the previoll s sec tion we have ma inl y in ves ti ga ted Eulerian stead y fl ows where we find

"
l. .;
norma l s tress effects were overshadowed by shea r-thinnin g, so th at the cla ssica l
w edge m ech anism oflond gcne r ~tjon d ornin;.:t ed ove r the direct or norm al-stress
mechanism of loa d generation . Consid e r now the squeezing of lluid between two
dp 8 8 2u
dr (r , I) = {)z (a rz ) ~ TJ 8z2 ' (6. 108)

approaching parallel plates (Fig . 6 . I 6). These a re sh ow n as circular, radiu s R , bllt

a two-dimen sional versio n of thi s problem is possible . The Iluid is bein g forced where u is a function of r, z, and l.

~
from the space betwee n the pla tes and it s resi stance ge ne ra tes the squ eeze-film
load W. ' Normal stress effects ' a re also possible, as will be d e mon stra ted. The
Integra ting an d using the boundary condition s u = 0 on z = ± h/ 2, finds

probl em is to predict Wgiven R, h(/ ) a nd the Iluid proper ti es, a nd the interest lies
in the fac t th a t the fluid fl ow is an unst ea d y Ellierian n ow a nd one the refore
u= ~ { z2 .. ~2 ~ dp . (6 . 109)
21/ 4 j dr
expec ts viscoelas ticity to be impor tan I .
To find the pressure, we average (6.! 09) over the gap a nd use (6. 107), hence

rt

z ~~
rdr
{r ddrP } = 121] dh.
h 3 dt
(6. 1 10)

'~?w~"'

(
Integrating, no ting tha t dp / dr is zero at r = 0 and that p = 0 at I' = R, we find

3TJ dh {r2 _ R2}, (6. II I )

Fig.6. i6 Squeeze·lilln geome lry. Hat ched a rea is nuid . P = h3 dt
 (

322 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING, AND RELATED FLOWS 6.7 UNSTEADY FLOWS: THE SQUEEZE FILM PROBLEM 323
(
and hence the force W required to maintain the plate motion is An exact treatment has been presented (Phan-Thien and Tanner 1983), and a {
stress-dependent viscosity ignoring normal stresses was used by Tanner (1965).
(R 37r 4' , The squeeze-film flow is not a ' steady flow and this new element in the
W = - Jo 27r1pdr = 2"lR h/h · . (6.112)
analysis must be investigated. We consider a linear viscoelastic problem where (
the plates are initially at rest and then begin to move towards each other at a
When the plates approach, h is negative, and so is W. constant speed V, so that
The solution for W can be found in a similar manner taking a small amount
of inertia into account; if p is the fluid density, one finds to the first order in p I, = - VH(I), and h(O) = ho, (6.115)
(Birdela/.1977): (
where H(!) is the Heaviside step function. It is convenient to use the linear
37r"lR4 I, [ phI, . .. ·2 ] viscoelastic law in the form (2.70) so that
W =~ I - 0.1786 --:ry {I - 0.56hh/h } . (6.112a)

Henceforth we shall usually ignore inertia in our calculations while noting that
it must often be used when comparing experimental results with theory.
T: rt =
l' -00
G( I - t ') -
oz
') ,
ou(t- dt . (6.116)

Laplace transforming this equation and the equation T: rz = Zp', we find

6.7.2 Ine/aslic f7uids
ou
Under the lubrication approximation, for an inela stic fluid we have T:rz ' " oz = zp'/{;, (6.117)
"l(l chl/OZI)(ou/oz), and also T:, = = z(dp/dr) for all fluids. When it is possible to find
a fluidity ¢( T:) and solve for ou/oz one can integrate to find u, apply the boundary where C) denotes 'Laplace transform of ( )'. Inverting, integrating and then
conditions as given <I.bove and solve for the pressure and load by integration. putting in the spatial boundary conditions on u, we find
C1eariy shear-thInning WIll reduce the load capacity relative to the Newtonian
case; for the constitutive model (6.22) we find II U =
I 2
z /.,2\
( --;;- - ~ ) C I {P' / G}, (6.118)
\'" 8;
f W/ WN = 1- 3.6c/l/R 2/ h4 , ( 6.113) III
I~
where W N is t he Newtonian val ue (6. I 12). where L -I { } denotes 'inverse transform of { }'. \
For the power-law fluid, a similar analysis lcads to Scott's result Integration with respect to z then gives
i !'";

h3 _

. W = 27r(2 + I /n)" k sgn(h)lhl"h-(2n+l) Rn+3 (6.114) iih = -12CI{p' /G}, (6.119)

., ~
(n + 3)
-....
which has been carefully compared with experiment (Grimm 1978). where pi = dp / dr.
~
For materials with a yield stress, where the possibility of unyieided regions This cumbersome procedure is used because h is a function of t.
exists, see Sections 4.2.1 and 4.2.2 for a discussion of squeeze flows. One has, by considering overall mass conservation out to a radius r, iih = (
-rh/2, for any h. This can be used to eliminate iih from (6.119), finding, after
6.7.3 Viscoe/aslic ejjecls integrating with respect to r and inserting the boundary condition p = 0 at r = R,
The squeeze-film action generates pressures of order (R/h) times the shear
stresses, while the normal stresses are, as for the second order fluid, of the order of 3(,2 - R2)h/h 3 = CI{P/G}, (6.120)
the square of the shear stresses, and they act directly , so that the situation is
similar to the steady-flow bearing problems discussed previously. Therefore, the Taking Laplace transforms again, and integrating to find the load, one finds
normal-stress effects connected with the predominantly shearing Ilow will be
ignored; an approxiD1ate treatment of normal -stress effects has been given by w= 37rR
4
r
~(I- t ' h- 3dh dt'- )£ 1 (6 . i 21)

McClelland and Finlayson (1983). 2 )0 '-' \ , l dt J "

 (

324 LUBRICATION , CALENDARING, AND RELATED FLOWS 6.7 UNSTEADY FLOWS : THE SQUEEZE FILM PROBLEM 325
(.

Alterna tively, one can assume u is of the form rg(/) (Z2 - h2I 4), find g = 3h I 17 3
from mass-conservation, then use (6.116) to produce a result for p'; integra tion
with respect to r then finds (6.120-6 . J 2 J)
If one uses a Maxwell form (2.94) for G(t) , it is easy to show that the initial
force is zero; only if a Newtonian component TJoo6(f) is present in G will the
force be non-zero. Thus one concludes that, compared to a Newtonian film of
viscosity TJo, the vi scoelastic film is 'softer' or less resistant to deformation.
These conciusions also arise from the 'exact' solution for a non-linear Maxwell
model (Phan-Thien and Tanner J 983), in which normal stress effects are included.
6. 7. 4 Experimental evidence
Tichy and Winer (1978) have studied the squeeze film problem experimentally
and have shown that the load capacity, corrected for inertia , sometimes is less
than and sometimes exceeds the Newtonian value. Fig. 6.17 shows their results:
the error ranges should be noted . Grimm (J 978) did some careful experiments
with various nuids using a constant load technique. He showed that some of the
<.. vi scoelastic nuids were 'stiffer' than an inela stic nuid with the same viscosity
function. Note that the Deborah numhcr (De) is in his cilse defined as th e riltio
AI tl, where {~is the time required to reduce the gap to ha!fits initial value, whereas
the Deborah number of Tichy and Winer, with a uniform speed of gap closure V,
is defined as AVI h. Thus there appears to he no question thill increascd resistance
to rleformation C3D arise from visco<':i<l,iic effects , and we now iook at several
( possihle explaniltions .
6.7.5 Pure squeezing action
It has been argued that the elongational aspects of the squeeze-film should not
be ignored. As a simplified model of this action we can suppose tha t a shear-less
flow occurs between the platens , so that slip at the boundaries must occur. The
flow is then easily shown to be a simple elongational now with a stretching rate
([}wl oz) of hlh, which is usually negative. The particles spend a variable time
under the squeezing action , depending on their initia I loca tion in the gap. If we
denote the original radial location of a particle by ro, when the gap is ho, then one
can show by considering mass conservation that the gap thickness when the
particle initially at ro reaches the exit or platen radius R is just ho(rol R)2, and
thereafter the particle is 'free' . Therefore, if the platens approach one another
at a constant speed - h, the residence time of a particle initially at ro is just
h o { I - (rol R) 2} Ilh\ , and the product of residence time and rate of stretching is
(hoi h){ I - (1'01 R2)}. This can be of any magnitude which contrasts with the slider
bearing problem where it is difficult to keep nuid in the bearing zone long enough
to stretch the structure much.
]n the case where the plates approach at a uniform speed the rate of squeezing
increases with time, and the load at any given t·ime depends on the history of
the squeeze rate. To an order of magnitude, if we <Ire given the Trouton viscos­
ity 77E (Section 3.7) at the current squ eeze rate 1';l/h, then one expects that this
will give an o verestimate of the stress. Then the squee ze load capacity Ws will
be bounded by
I

I 'V-
r s <
,,) ";' I l1)h'
"/fUnl
,,!';I (6.122)
t: I 7r J\

~I I
,. II where the equality sign will hold for inelastic fluids. The ratio of Ws to W N , the
.-- 'i Newtonian load capacity [eqn (6.112)] is then
"'~ I
>,

.~
Q.

tl !IO
Ws
WN
<: ~
3
('IJE)
TJ
(12)2,
R
(6.12 3)

~ 1Ii.2 I
">
-+ +8 19
so tha t the elongational contribution will normally be insignificant compa red
/ J...L
;;
<3
ex:
Erro/7~7+f4' with the viscous component when (hi R) is of order 10- 2 or less, even if allowance
is made for the reduction of 1] with shear rate. Therefore we shall ignore this
~ Range Mean

component in our future calculations.

oU\, , 'lid

0.01 I 'r 111'11

0. 1 I
I 11!l1 j
I II II
10 6.7.6 Unsteady overshoot action
"v
h The above discussion does not explain the several observations that viscoelastic
squeeze films are stiffer than equivalent inelastic films. In numerical calculations

I
Fig.6. 17 Load ca pacity o f squeeze film relalive 10 Newl o nian case sho wing lo ad enhancement for
polym er soluti o ns: 0 NewlOnian petroleum oil , nuids 1,20.5 < ( Re) < 25; • Silicones 0 .5 < ( R e) < 25.
with a squeeze-film now of a non-linear convected Maxwell fluid [eqn (5.57)) a
nuid s 3,4; 6 Oii-poiymc r solution s 0 .5 < (Re) < 25, nuids 5-7; 0 Waler-glycerol-polyme r Solulions decrease in load capacity relative to the Newtonian case was found (Phan- Thien
(Re) ~ 20. flui ds 8-- iO. The ve nical ba rs are errOr bars on lhe loads. 'I he horizo ntal bars show Ihe range and Tanner 1983). Ail of the effects mentioned abo ve are modelled in this
o ,We'sse .. bc.g numbe, .\ Vih . The Reynolds number (Re) = p Vh/Tlo (from Tichy and Win e r 1977). calculation , including normal-stress effects and boundary condition changes.
 326 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING, AND RELATED FLOWS
We now consider the remainIng factor in the problem, which is that the
shearing action in the fluid is unsteady and therefore the 'overshoot phenom­
enon' [Fig. 3.8(b)] must be considered.
To begin, consider the kinematics of the flow field. It will be similar to the
Newtonian field, and we will use this flow to illustrate the main points. The
radial velocity (u) is much greater than the axial (w) velocity and the field can
be written as
u= 3 hr [(~) 2 _ ~] (6.124)
h II 4
w = - 2h(D [Gf-~]· (6.125)
Now it appears that a sharp peak occurs in a suddenly started shear flow only
when the product of the characteristic time), and the imposed shear rate (--Y)
exceeds unity by a considerable margin. Examples of solutions given by Bird
et al. (1977) show that overshoots of 50 per cent or so in stress occur when ),i
is about 10-100, and for ),i of about 1000 overshoots up to 200 per cent have
been observed. Low density polyethylene (Fig. 3.18) shows a similar behaviour.
The maximum shear rate in the gap is, from 6.124, of order 3RV/h 2 and thus
we need
3),RV/ h 2 » J (6.126)
to begin observing overshoot effects. In terms of lhe Deborah number
? (De) = A V! Ii , \ve expect (De»> h i I? before effects ~ !e v i~ i b !e !~ the exper;merHs
~ quoted a bove, Tichy and Winer (1978) seem to have observed viscoelastic effects
~..~ ; when their Deborah number was in the range 0.5-1.0 and their R/h ratios were in
-i
~'.
1
the range 17- J 00. Grimm (1978) used (slightly differently defined) Deborah
numbers from less than 0.5 up to 1000, with R / h > 50 and found increased
stiffness only when his Deborah number exceeded unity. Since his Deborah
...... -. number is about twice that of Tichy and Winer, the results are consistent, and if
we take the truly relevant speed VR / h, then the criterion for increa sed stiffness
seems (0 be approximately
)"VR/h 2 :> 100. (6 . 127)
Thus the 'overshoot' explanation of increased load capacity presented here is
plausible.
To illustra te this hypothesis, Phan-Thien el at. (1987) considered the response
of a modified PTT model [see eqn (5.174)] in a squeezing flow. In order to obtain
a n overshoot it is necessary to set the parameter ~ (eqn 5.162) to be non-zero. The
first peak in the shear stress following a suddenly started shear flow occurs
(roughly) at Ip = 7r/2-yVF, (2 - O. As -y and I; increase (I; < 1) the time to the first
maximum decreases; the magnitude of the overshoot, defined as r(tp)/ r(oo)
6.8 BOUNDARY-LAYER FLOWS 327
(
is given by (
r(tp)/r(oo) = I +exp(-2tp/),). (6.128)
In tills modified PTT model the effects of overshoot and shear thinning can
therefore be studied separately. Results were calculated for n = 0.56, I; = 0.4,
[=0, and f= 11.1), [eqns (5.174) and (5 .162)] for several Weissenberg numbers
and are compared with inelastic models ()" = 0) of the Carreau and power-law
types in Fig. 6.18; here (Wi) = - )'h o / h o .
From the results we conclude: (
J. There is a load enhancement which increases with (Wi) when E, # 0, over and
above the load of an inelastic fluid of comparable consistency.
2. There is an overshoot in the load capacity which increases with (Wi) and 1;.
3. At a fixed (Wi) and at long times where the initial dynamic effects are no longer
important, the load appears to be independent of I;, but there is still some load
enhancement.
Finally, we compare the results for a constant load squeezing with the experiments
of Leider (1974). In Fig. 6.19 we plot the dimensionless film thickness versus r-
dimensionless time. I n this figure the dimensioniess quantities are tl/nr (abscissa)
and k(7fR2m/WRn)l / n (R/ho)(n+I)/n (ordinate), to compare with 'Leider (1974) .
The agreement is seen to be qllile good ; especially as one expects N2 / N! =
-1;/2 = - 0.1 and their computed results are for I; = 0.2.
The overshoot ineclianisJ11 SeenlS to be the only ODe arnong those considered
Vv'hich is a plausible explanation of observed !030 enhancement. Considering a
CODstant rate squeeze situatior: , ;'j/C h2'IC tl = -ho /2!~o , urld Crle expects signi­ I.
ficant overshoot if)" > t.!,2 or (Wi) > 0.5, so that there is a persistence of memory
l
during the squeeze . This agrees with the data of Leider (1984) shown above,
although the squeeze rate varied in those experiments.
For further computations on combined squeezing and sliding, see Phan-Thien
et al. (1989), and for the question of film compressibility in ultrafast impacts, see
Hirst and Lewis (1973) .
6.8 Boundary-layer flows
In classical fluid mechanics where inertia forces in the fluid arc, on average, large
compared with viscous forces (high Reynolds number), the flow near solid sur­
faces often forms a (velocity) boundary layer, in which the fluid speed rapidly
changes from the free stream speed to that of a solid surface. In the boundary
layer the flow is nearly parallel to the wall, and has much in common with the
iubrication flows discussed above .
In viscoelastic problems it is also possible to have stress boundary layers near
surfaces, as in the bearing soiution ofBeris et al. (1983) described in Section 6.6.3,
without a velocity boundary layer developing. See also Chapter 8 for another (
instance in connection with singularities in the now of the upper convected
(
 (a) w 1 6 .8 BOUNDARY-LAYER FLOWS 329

l
100
I)
10)
/
/'
102
f
./
~ .:7
I 10
~
10
~
Q)
>
e.
o
o. I 0.2 0 .3 0.4 0.5 10- 2
hl/ho
Fig. 6.18(a) Dimen s ionk s~ IOrtd IV versus dime:ls ion!ess ::me fo r !he l\1PTT rnodcl where n = 0 .56.
.... ~ = OA, F: = 0, r = I I . I >.. The Wcissenberg number is defined as - >.1,,,/ h" . x Carrenu model whe re
(Wi)= I; -I- Newlonian model ; 0 (Wi)~ I; 0 (Wi) ~ 2: [), (Wi) ~ :l. The solid line marked Pi s Ihe
( powe r-law prediclion regn (6 . 114)] . The dim e ') s!o n1css 10act i, W/("7)! /;W"/ dh J ) .

'b l
, J H" I
,
" /2/nr
j
t
:. 100 1
F:g. G.t? A \.:u u:pur isun bt::twet:n numcric3i rcs uits and lhe expcrime ntai data of Leide r (1 1;)74) .
These data we re collecled wilh four different Ouids and are displa yed as the hatched region in the
figure. The inverse force is normalized to agree with the SCOI! result (6.114), and r is the time
. .. \
-. i constant defined .in (5. I 74). With tllis scaling the Seoll model plot s as the line [ordinate = "/2/nr].
I

Maxwell modeL For these stress boundary layers to develop , it is not necessary to
have any inertia contributions.
]n problems where elasticity and inertia are both important , one also has the
possibility of generating a nd propagating waves (Joseph J 990). We now consider
variations on classical boundary layer theory , where inertia is important.
Non-Newtonian materials often exhibit very high viscosities and hence the
iO effective Reynolds number is frequently low. Thus the importance of boundary
layer nows is not quite as great as in the Newtonian case. We begin with the c:sua!
steady two-dimensional equations of motion, in the absence of gravitational
( effects, and the continuity equation

( au . au) . aP. arxx . arxz

o.! 0.2 V.J 0.4 0.5 PVi ax T W az) - - ax T ax T Tz ' (6.129)
I;I/h o

/'ig.6.18(b) Same as Fig . 6. 18(a) bul for (Wi) = 3 and differenl values of (. x Carreall mode l OW
P( u-+w­
ow) -- - -apaz+ -arxz or"
--'--­
ax' az . (6 . 130)
where (W,) = I; -I- Newlonian model; 0 ~= 0 . 2; 0 (=0.3; [), ~ = OA. \ ax az
330 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING , AND RELATED FLOWS 6.8 BOUNDARY-LAYER FLOWS 331

In the case of the flat pla te where the pressure is constant, we are left with
(6.133) and the continuity equation to satisfy.Hwe introduce the stream function
X IF, , ~~:id 1j; so tha t

a1j;
1/= 8z' (6.134)
Fig , 6.20 Co-ordinates for two-dimensio nal boundary la yers.
31j;
w= - ox' (6.(35)
The same order of magnitude arguments applied in lubrication flows will be valid
here, so that u » w.
then the equation of continuity (6.1) is satisfied.
W e ass umc that far from th c surface of the body in question, the flow in the
For the power-law fluid in a unidirectional shear flo w (8u / oz > 0) we have
x-direction is described by the equa tion of motion for an inviscid fluid. This leads
to the co nclusion that the streamwise pressure gradient in the boundary' layer can
be found from so lution of the invi scid equation of motion along th e bod y surface.
exz =
2
k( a 1j;/ az
2
r· (6.136)

Thus if U(x ) den o tes the x -component o f velocity found from the inviscid We now follow the Newtonian theory (Schlichting 1977) and let a dimensionless
equ a tio n of motion for x ;::' 0 , Z = 0, we have dependent variable "I be defined as
dU I dp
V-
dx
= -- -
p dx
(6. 131 ) "I = z/ ax N , (6.137)

with respect to the coordinate system shown in Fig. 6.20. Since the boundary where a = «n + I )k/ V 2-"p)N and N = 1/ (1 + n).
layer is assumed thin relative to the rad ius of curva ture of the body , the coord­ In the N ewtonian casek/ p = v, the kinematic viscosity, n = I and N = !we ha ve
inate system of Fig. 6.20 can be trea ted as if it were rectangular Cartesian. the familiar result (Schlichting 1977) 7) = z/ -}2vx / V. We also define the stream
F~educt!0!1 to d!!!lens!of!~ess form. 3!1d app!iC" f!!!o f! of an orn er-of- m ;.te ni1ucle function win term s of TJ as
argument lead to th e app ro priate non-Newtonian Rcynolds number (RI!) a nd the
(
fOf rn of the i\vo-dirn ens.ional bou ndary-la yer equatio ns. !/.y(n-l..l)\N
1j; = V( .... ". ,
, ,,{ (2 - ."
'J) F(rt). (6.138)
, I"~

" 0
lJ.O . J
, Th e ii/e/astic case
Substituting (6.136) into (6.133), setting 8p/ox ~ 0, and usi ng the definitions
For the generalized Newtonian fluid , resu lts can be obtained in some simplc
(6.137) and (6.138) we arrive at a single ordinary differential eq'lla tion
cases. In particul a r, for the power-law fluid, in practically all the cases where a
similarity solution exis ts for the Newtonian case one can construct (h e corres­ nF'II + F(F") 2- n = O. (6.139)
ponding non-Newtoni a n so luti o n. By a similarity solution we mea n here one in
whi ch th e equations of motion and continuity a re reduced to a single ordinary Boundary conditions for this equation are u = w = 0 o n the plane z = 0 (x > 0) and
differential eq uation. Scho walter (1978) gives det ails for the general case in which > 00. In terms of the variables F and 7), we have
u -+ Vas z -
there is a pressure gradient (ap/ax) in the free stream olltside the boundary layer . (
To illustrate th e method we shall consider only the case of a flat plate at zero u = UF'(rt), HI = N.U((n + I )k/pV2 - n t X
N
-
1
(71FT - F),
incidence where the external stream ha s a constant speed V a nd ap/ox is zero
[eqn (6. j 31)]. Using the order of magnitu de a rgument s used in lubr ica ti o n theory and therefore the boundary condition s for (6.139) are
(with the small bound ary-layer thickness f; in place of h) we can reduce eqns
(6 . 129) and (6.! 30) to their app roximate bound ary la yer forms F'(O ) = 0, F '(oo) = I, F(O) = O. (6.140)
ap = 0 (6 .132 ) , The solution of (6.139) must be found numerically. Solutions for velocity
oz profiles and drag coefficients have been tabulated by Acrivos a nd co-workers
(1960) over a fange of n between 0.1 and 5.0. The details are simiiar to the
(au au) ap fhxz Newtonian case and will not be exhibi tcd; the solutions show the diffusion of I.
p ~ u ox + w oz) = - ox + Tz . (6.133)
vorticity into the fluid from the fixed surfaces. At the leading ed ge of the plate, the

\'
 332 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING, AND RELATED FLOWS 6.8 BOUNDARY-LAYER FLOWS 333

analysis shows that the boundary-layer thickness 0 -+ 0, and that very high rates
of strain occur. In such a region one cannot expect that the inelastic theory
presented here is a useful approximation for viscoelastic fiuids.
Care must be taken when attempting to compute a perturbation series solu­
tion for small elasticity. Serth (1973) discusses these problems. It is not clear that
this approach yields a realistic solution near the leading edge of a flat plate .
Various other problems may be solved (Schowalter 1978). A problem which
has attracted the co ntinuing interest of workers in Newtonian fluid mechanics
is the manne r in which a laminar flow velocit y profile is developed as the fluid
enters a conduit from a reservoir. There ha s been a parallel development of the
sa me class of problems for entry flow of non-Newtonian fluids , beginl1ing with
b<;>undary-Ia ye r analyses of power-law fluids in two-dimensional channels and
circular conduits. Experimental data are available which indicate that if the
Reynolds num ber is sufficiently high so that there is negligible upstream diffu sio n
of vorticity, and ir the fluids are not appreciably ebstic, then the inelastic ana­
lysis is lIseful. In Fig . 6.21 the theoretical prediction s (Schowalter 1978) are
( shown for entry lengths of pseudo-plastic power-law fluids in tubes along with
experimcntal resu lts. Entry length Xe is defined as the iength required for the
centreline velocity to reach 98 per cent o f its full y developed value, and Rey no lds
number is ba sed on the pipe diameter.
Analyses of turbule nt boundary layers are necessarily more empirical than
those or ille laminar counterpart. The situation with non-Newtonian Iluid s is
similar. Wilkin so n (1960) ha s developed correlations for turbulent bound a ry
la yers of power-law fluid s flowing over fl a t rlatcs Adaption for flow through
tubes shows good ag reement with data . (See C hapt er 10.) We now con sider
,( viscoelnstic effe cts.
3 ---- Viscoelastic
6.8.2 Results Jor viscoelaslic fluids
ElasticciTects can have a profound influence on fluid response in a region where a
~
material element is undergoing a rapid change in deformation with time, such a s
~ o
f ~c
near the leading edge of a flat plate or other body. Hermes and Fredrickson (1967)
have studied the flow of several aqueous solutions of carboxymethylcelJulose
(CMC) in an approximation to uniform now past a semi-infinite flat plate. Their
results show that fluid elasticity does have a substantial effect on the velocity
profile in the boundary layer (Fig. 6.22). Their work also casts doubt upon the
validity of analyses which do not allow for important memory effects near the
leading edge of the pla te . Unfortunately, the data of Hermes and Fredrickson
(1967) cannot be compared directly with theories because the elastic parameters
of the CMC solutions were not measured.
Joseph (1990) has discussed these experiments in the light of his di scussion
on waves in viscoela stic nuids. He shows that there is a 'change of type' in the set
of equations, from elliptic to hyperbolic, when the nuid speed exceeds a certain
wave speed (M ach number > I). When inertia effects are omitted, or a 'solvent'
viscosity acts as well as the Maxwell component, there is, strictly speaking, no
change of type.
Because of the difficult analysis required, the pipe-entry problem, well-treated
for Newtonian nuids, has not been su bjected to a comparable amount of analysis
for viscoelastic fluids; see Eggieton el al. (1996).
Most of the interest in turbulent boundary layers of viscoelastic fluids has
centred on the phenomenon of drag reduction . We treat this to pic separately
in Chapter 10. Some insight into the behaviour of viscoelastic fluids can be
obtained by studying a simpler problem, the Rayleigh problem , which we
now consider.
- - Newtonian
u'"
~ Z,
'v
o
1?
\'- , zJ
,\
I
, ~I

.: "~~~
J,
~vl~ ULf
1
~ 1
g
E
8,
.
\ \ \.:
I!
~
\_,
zl

'<
I 1- Zt

Olt
I I I ,
J ,'J
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 l.0 o
Distance down plale x .
Fig. 6.21 Enil()nc..:c iengl h 'X·c as a fum.: li on of flow behnv:our index for po\vcr-Iaw nuids. Solid Fig.6.22 Sketch of velocity pro liies at various heighls above a fi a t piale z; here Z4> Z3 > Zl > z,.
line is theory, o pe n circles a re dala. (Re) is based o n the diameter 20 and is defined as In Ihe Newt onia n profiles the decay from the free-stream speed U oo is m ono Ionic 3S a panicle
(Re) = (2a)"p"ll - nl /k where ii is the mean speed in the tube a nd k is the consis tency (from moves 2W3Y from lhc lead:i1g edge of i.he plate . Over- and undershoots arc: observed in the visco­
Schowalter 1978) . elastic case.
 334 LUBRICATION, CALENDARING, AND RELATED FLOWS 6.8 BO U NDARY - LAYER FLOWS 335
(
1.0r
6.8.3 The Rayleigh problem u" ,~O.5

Vi scoelastic boundary-layer theory contains problems similar to those already ·EO.S

a
encountered in lubrication. For the flat plate one can introduce an inertia factor , ~
or an Oseen factor, pcUoc (8u I 8x), instead of the full term shown in eqn (6.133). ~ 0.6
Here c is a constant chosen so th a t the average speed cUoo represents the inertia c"
.~ 0.4
terms as well as possible; c ~ 0.4 is found to be appropriate in the Newtonian case.
Then the non-linear Newtonian boundary layer problem for the flat plate can be E
Ci 0.2
replaced by the linear problem
0.0 1 I I I I
0.1 25 0.25 0.5 I
ou o' n (6.141 )
Dimensionless time
pcU oo ox = 7fZ' Fig. 6.23 Rayleigh problem for Maxwell Ouid s howing shear wave propagation. Dimensionless
time is I/A , dimensionless distance r is z(pITtA)'''; U is the plate speed.
at least when the normal stress e ffects are neglected. as we do here.
If we consider, after Rayleigh, the one-dimensional problem where u = u(z , I),
where
V = w = 0, then the only non-trivial equation of motion is

ou o'xz r = ZJ(pITJA) a nd I' = II A

P7il = oz . (6.142)
are dimensio nless variables and II is the modified Bessel function of order one.
Hence, the steady boundary-layer dynamics may be studied approximately via The soiution is plotted in Fig. 6.23 . The damped transverse wav e progresses (
this problem by replacing xl cUOCo b y I, as originally suggested by Rayleigh for into the static fluid at a speed VTJ I pA. E vidence of such waves were found in
the New·toni a n CCiSC. P,. similarit y SO !litiorl for ~he pov'/er-l ~!'N c~{se is poss!b!e the solution of the sq ueeze-film problem by Phan-Thien a nd Tanne r (1983). and
(Bird el 01. 1977), but we s hall only consider the viscoelastic case. In solving
(6 . 14 2) we shaii need a co ns titutive modei ; specificaiiy ihe non-iinear convcl:ico I
one expects that the solution of the boundary layer problem will also show wave
phenomena as in the experime nta l data of Fig. 6.22. Tanner (1962) also con­
jvi ax weii mod ej (5.57) wiii be useu. Olle fijj(.b 1'1 OlD the cOjlstitutive modci th a t
provided r yy = r zz = T z ), == T zx = 0 ai some time then aii these va: iab: ~s fen1a in Zero
as tim e progresses. An equation containing ' x z only emerges:
I

I
sidered the case \~.' here the constitutive equ a tion "vas of the Oldroyd type
(eq ~ d . l 3). T hese resl!!ts a mount to increasing th e shea r stress in (6.143 ) by the
a ddition of a viscous term TJoo(au loz ). Lel the shea r stress resuiting from the
\,

l
1·1
~:
O' XI
A7i/ + ' xz
au
c= TJ az' (6. 143)
Maxwell model (6.143) be ' Xl = 'm' Then the Oldroyd shear stress is '0 = 'm +
TJoo(8u l oz). Su bstituting 'm = '0 - TJco( aul az) into (6.143) one finds a n equation
for '0:
~I
Elimination of ' Xl from (6.142) and (6.143) yields the equation 0'0 {au, 02u ~
A -+ '0 = TJo -+A - - , (6.146)
01 ~ oz azOI ~
au ;Yu TJ a 2 u

- +A - = - - (6.144)
01 012 P 8z 2 . where ''10 = TJ + TJoo and A' = ATJ=ITJo·
Elimination of the shear s tress using (6. 142) gives a diffusion equation and (
This equation exhibits damped wave solutions. If one ha s a boundar y plane steep-fronted waves are not propagated. For details of the solution see Tanner
z = 0 suddenly set in ii1 0 ,ioD w"ith a speed U at time zero, the fluid in the half­ (1962).
space z> 0 being otherwi se at rest , then it can be shown (Tanner 1962) that In summary, study of the Rayleigh problem gives useful insight into the
the so lution for u is development of viscoelastic boundary layers. However, it is not a complete
model, since the boundary layer equations are non-linear; also, the lack of stress (
.,' -,/2 2\
+ -2r JoII V~
e I (1 V {2 _ r I overshoot in the Maxwell and Oldroyd models must not be forgotten . See Joseph
-U = exp ('/2)H(/
u -/ ' - r)' 12 _ r4 I 2
(\990) for fu rther examples . For a di scussion of stress boundary layers, see (
x H(i - r)di, (6 145) Chapter 8.
 JJ6 LUBRICATION, C ALENDARING , AND RELATED FLOW S PROBLEMS 337

References Scriven, L. E . and K is tler, S. F . (198 2). In Fini/e element fl ow analysis (ed. T. Kaw a i),
p. 503, University of T o kyo Press.
Acri vos, A. , Sha h, M . J. and Petersen, E. E. (1960). Am. 1ns/ . chem . Engrs 1. , 6,312.
Serth. R . W. (1973). Am . 1ns/. chern. Engrs. 1., 19. 1089, 1275.
Ba rwelJ, F . T . (!956). Lubrication oj beuriflgs. Bullerworths, London.
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Beris, A. N., Annstrong, R. C and Brown, R. A . ( 1983). J. N on-NewlOnian Fluid M ech.,
T a nner, R. I. (1962). Z. angew. Math . Phys" 13, 573.
13, 109. Tanner, R. J. (1963). Ausl. 1. A pplied S Ci., 14, 129.
Binding, D. M. , Blythe, A . R ., Gunte r, S., Mo squ era, A. A ., T ow nsend P ., and Webster, Tanner, R. I. (1 965 ). ASLE Tram., 8 , 179.
M . F . (1996). 1. Non- New ton ian Fluid M eeh ., 64, 191. T a nner, R . 1. (1969). J app l. Mech ., 36, 634.
Bird , R. B., Armstrong, R . C , a nd H as sager, O. (1977). Dynamics oj p olymeric liquids, Tanner, R. 1. and Williams G. (1 971 ). Rheol. Acta, 10 , 528.
Vol. I , Fluid mechanics. Wiley , New York . Tichy, J. A . and Winer, W . O . (1 97 8) . 1. Lubric. Te chnol. (Am. Soc. M ec h . Engrs),
( Carva lho, M . S. and Sc ri ve n, L. E. (1 996). J. Trib ology, ll8, 872. 100, 56.
D avies, M. J. a nd Walt ers, K. ( 1973). In T. C D av enport (ed .) Rheology oj lubrical1lS. Wilkins o n, W. L. ( 1960). N on-Ne w/ onian fluids. Per gamo n Press, Oxford.
Applied Scie nce Publications, London . William son, B . P., W a lters, K ., Ba tes , T. W., Coy, R . C , and Milton , A . L. (1997) .
Dowson , D . (1 962). In/ . J. mech . S ci., 4, 159 . .I. Non-New/onian Fluid M ech ., 73, 11 5.
Egglet o n , C D ., Pulli a m , T. H., and Ferziger, J . H . (1 996) . 1. NOIl·New/ onian Fluid Zheng, R . and T a nner , R. I. (1988), J N on-New tonian Fluid M edl., 28,149 .
M eeh ., 64, 269.
Floberg, L. (19 57). Trans. Chalmers Unjv. Tech . N o. 189.
Granic k , S., We Hu , 1-:1., a nd Carso n , A . (1994) L angmuir, 10, 38 57. Problems
G rimm, R. J. (1 97 8) . Am. In s /. chem . Eng rs J. , 24, 427.
Gunsel , S .. Smeeth, M., a nd Spikes, H . (1 998) . S.A .£' Techn ical Paper 982579, I. U se lubricati o n theory to so lve the stepped slid er pr o blem (Fig. 6.24) for a N e wt o nian
Warrendale , Pennsylvania . Ouid when h;/ ho = 2 and Yo = 1.

,
Hermes , R . A. a nd Fredrick son, 1\ . G. (196 7). A m . 1nsl. chem. £ngrs 1. , 13,253.
IW
Hirst, W. a nd Lewi s, M. G. (1 973 ). Proc. Roy. Soc ., A334 , I .
..
HU<1ng, X ., Phan·Thie n, N., a nd Tanner R . I. (1996) . .1. N on -N ewlOn ian Fluid Mech .. !
---- ---~

64, 7 1.
Jilbbarza deh , 1\., A tkin son. J . D ., an d T ,lnn er R . I. ( 1998). J. NO Il -Newtonilln Flu id
1 I ,

1 hill
- -,
.'vice". , 77 , 53.
I t I, I
J acobso n. 13 . O . ( 1991). Rheo logy ami e laslOhy drodyn amic lubrica / ion. El se,·ie r.
A rns£el da m .
U 'o _ , _u II
J ()s ~rh > D . 1) . ( ! 990) . Flu id dYii l7iii ics oj"vi.·;cueiaslic iiquitis , Sprin ger- Ve rl ag , Ne w York.
' - -- - I -- I
t Kcnn ed y ~ P . ( 199S) Flo lV analy sis af :";-;j::-..:rt" cn n"io!ds , l Ia nser, iV1u li it: n" L xL I -1
~ Kij)ari ssides, C. 'l~d Vla chopo ulos, j . ( j 976). Poiy m er Eng. S ci., 16, 712.

,·1 t,
Kistler, S. F, a nd Scriven, L. E. (1983). In C omputa/ional analy sis oj polymer pro cessing
(ed. J . R . A. Pea rs on a nd S. M . Richardson) , p . 243. Appli ed Science Publi ca ti o ns,
London .
Fig. 6.24 Stepped slid er. P ro ble m s 1-2 .

'(,
Leider, P. M . (1 974). 1. and EC. Fllndamel1l als , 13, 342 . Not e : the pressure and the !lux ofOui d must be co ntinu o us at the step. Find the load and
M cClelland , M . A. a nd Finlayso n, B. A. (1983) . 1. Non -Newton ian Fluid M eeh., 13, 18 1. the fricti o n forces.
l Middl em a n, S. (1 977). Fundamencals oj polymer processing . McGra w-Hili, N ew York.
Milne, A . A . (1 957 ). Proc . C oni Lubric. alld Wear . Insl. M ech . En grs (Lond .), paper 2. Ray lei gh showed that a mo ng a ll film shapes h(x ) the stepped bea rin g gave th e hi g hest
102. load capacity for a fi xed speed. iength and outict film thickne ss. C ho ose 17;/170 a nd K. fo r
Pilan -Thien, N. and Tanne r, K. I. (1 981). J. No n-Newtonian Fluid M eeh, 9, 107. optimal loa d capacity ill th e Newt o nian ca se.
Phan·Thien , N. a nd Tanner, R . I. (1983). J . Fluid J"'Jech ., i29, 265.
Ph a n-Thien, N ., jin, H ., a nd T a nner, R. I. (1 989) . W ear, 133,3 23 . 3. Show from dimensi o na i con sider ati o ns th a t for a journa l bearing one ca n write a
Phan-Thien. N., Sugeng, F., a nd Tanner, R . I. (1987). 1. N on-New/onion Fluid Mech ., rela tionship of the fonn
24, 97.
Pinkus, o . a nd Sternlic ht, B. (19 6 1). Th eory oj hy drodynamie lubricOIion. M cGra w- Hili,
New Y o rk . hmln = j (S , L / D )
Raimondi, A. A . and Boyd, J. (19 58). Trans. Am. S oc. L ubric. Ellg rs , 1, 159.
C
Ru scha k, K. J . ( 98 2). J. Fluid M ech. , 119, 107.

Sa vage, M. D . (1 977). J . Fluid M ech., 80, 743.

where
Schiichting, H. (1977). Boundary -lay er Iheory, 7th ed n. M cG raw-Hill, New York.

Schowa lt e r, W. R . (19 78 ). M echan.ics oj non-Ne w/ on.ian flu ids. Perga m o n Press, Oxford.
hmin = C(I - E) .
 338 L U BRI C ATI O N , CA L E ND A RI NG, AND REL A T ED F L O W S PROBLEMS 339

C is the clea ra nce, a nd S is th e dimensio nless Somm erfeld nu m be r 'T/( N ! P)(R / C)2 w he re
N is the speed o f the bear in g (in revs/s) a nd P is th e mean loa d , ( W/ L D ). T hi s rela ­
tion ship ca n be co nvenieml y prese med o n a si ngle gra ph.
4 . R e pea t Q ues ti on 3 for a power-law /luid a nd fo r a M a xwell fl uid .
5. C onsider the /low of a sli ghtl y com pressibl e flow in a circul a r tube. Let p =
Po ( J + p / K ), whe re p is the pressu re. Find a n ex pression fo r th e p ressu re loss in a tube o f
leng th L , radi us R w hen the to ta l mass fl ow ra te is In. S uppose the viscosi ty 'T/ is co nSl<l nl.
12. A 1 pe r cen t aqueo us solutio n o f ca rboxym eth ylcellulose (CMC) /lo ws past a /lat
p ia te at zero incidence. T he pla te is 6 mm lo n g (tha t is, a lo n g the d irecti o n o f flow) , a nd the
to tal fo rce measured per un it width o f one side of the plate is 1.26 N / m. Approach velocit y
Uoo o f the C MC (p~ 1000 kg/ m 3) is 1.1 m/ s. A rheo gra m of the CMC solutio n is
approxim a ted by th e p ower- law co ns tants n = 0.5 a nd k = 2 .5( kg/ m (S)2-") (d a ta ad apted
from Hennes a nd Fredrickson 1967 ).
For a p ower-la w fluid , ass ume the follow ing ex pressio n for th e d rag fo rce pe r unit area
' wa t a distance x fro m the leadi ng edge o f the pla te:

6. Sol ve the Ray leig h (s udde nl y sta rt ed r o bl em fo r a Newtonian fl uid by p' w

00 = c(n)I(Re) I- I/Hn
lf2
introducing a d im en sio nless va ria ble ( = z (p / 4TJI) a nd hence red uc in g the pa ni a l d if­
ferential equa ti o n fo r v to a n o rdi na ry d ifferent i<l l equ a ti o n for </1 = v/ U. fi nd ing
where c(0.5) = 0.58 a nd ( Re) = pu~ n x" /(k). Compa re the m eas ured dra g with the
<ll ' + 2(</1' = O. inelas tic predic tio n . Wh a t is your conclusio n?

Th e so luti o n fo r II is the n 1./ = U(I - erf G.

7. G e nera lize thi s resu lt to a powe r-l aw fluid a nd lind a co rrespo ndi ng o rdin a ry d if­
ferential eq u<l tion. Ca n thi s be int egra ted ana lyti ca ll y?

8. Find a n ex press io n fo r the ve locit y in a film ofa power-l aw fluid fl o wing d ow n a pl a ne

13
surface m a king a n <I ngle w ith the ho ri zont a l.

9. T wo pl ates , ve ry long a nd wide in the x a nd y di recti ons a re sepa ra ted by a gap o f

width 2h in th e z-d irec tion . A sm a ll sin usoida l press ure gr<l di ent - p'e'WI ac ts in th e
x -directi o n.

": ~.I " .

Find an ex press io n for th e mo tio n when the /luid is a M ax well ma te ri al. Show thill the
Il o w rate is give n by (a t Jow freque ncy) th e re~ J p a rt o f

Q = , -
f2p' hJ(, It.-"
L JTJ'
- . I -f· / -r-
( . 'T

(j
:. ' , 1
· · · or..}) )i
, 'J J
I
I
(

~ .* where w is the pulsa ti on freq ue ncy a nd G, '7 are fl u id pa rame ters. (

10. Flu id is fed int o th e ce n tre of the space be twee n two pa ra ll el di scs . Ass um e the ra di a l
i~ velocit y u = f(z)/ r (is thi s exac t?) a nd the o ther ve locit y co mp o nents a re ze ro .
.....,
(a) Fi nd th e rad ia ll ocation o f a fl uid pa nicJea t time t' lh il t will bea t loca ti o n ra t time /.
Ca lcula te the C rz componen t o f the st ra in tensor.

( b) Solve the problem fo r a New to nia n ll11i d.

t I . Consider the cale nda ri ng of a Newto nia n s heel fed wi th s:ock of thickness H f . Le t
)..2 = (H / h o) - I . S how lh a t th e so lutio n fo r th e ca le nd a red th ick ness H o beys the rela ti o n

2( J + )..2)(3 _ ( I _ 3)..2) [(::)13 + la n - I ( ( ::) 2(3)]

= -~
1 +)..2
1- (I - 3)..2)(_ ).. _ + la n
1+ )..2
1)..)\

w he re (3 = ,j( Hr/ ho - 1)/( H r/ ho )2. T a bul a te so luti o ns o f Hr/h o as a functi o n o f H / ho.

 7.1 ALMOST·ELONGATlONAL FLOWS 341

7 0,0=0
FIBRE SPINNING AND FILM BLOWING
.--l"-o
7.1 Almosl-elongationaJ flows

THE processes in thi s chapter are basically shea r-free processes, in direct contrast
to those di sc ussed pre viously. We discuss fibre spinning and film blowing as
( examples. Constant strain rate e!ongational Oows were discussed in Chapter 3.
Much usc ful background information on these elongational flows can be found
in Petrie's (1979) monograph. The s teady, uniform ra te almost-elongational
theory corresponding to the a lmost-viscometric theory of Crimina le, Ericksen,
ilnd Filbey is the Reiner- Rivlin theory (see Section 4.1). Many nearly-elonga ­
( tional flows are unsteady from the Lagrangian or particle-following viewpoint,
however, and so the Re iner-Rivlin model is not very useful. A more elaborate
theory has been discussed by Huilgol (Sectio!l 4.10) which contains five unknown Vig.7 . 1 Sink flow inwards to o rigin . A zero-tract!on boundary condi tion is applied a t r = Ro.
kernels. These are difficult to find experimentally , and thus the use of some other
definite constitutive model is usually necessa ry . The basic difference in thc phil. For the second-order fluid [eqn (4.30c)] the res ponse is easily found to be
osophy or appro~:ch to s trong anJ weak flows iies in kinematics: it is easy to
arrange that ,1 particle in a viscometric flow spends a long time in th e sa llle _ 77q
G rr -
{I - -;:2I} .
R2
,T. (q \
1,,27r)
2 {I I')f'
R4 - ~ (7.2)

I
-;:- T ""I
kinematic environment, because the slip pl anes can be replaced by unstretched o ~ /
l I so iid surfaces (see Chapter 3) and so the steady Crimina Ie, Ericksen. and Filbey
equation (4_32) is useruL By co ntras t, Si!11p!e elongati on?! f1 0\VS generally need where the radial stress a u is set eq ua! to zero e n r = ...R. o; this sho\.vs a sharp
~
10 be bounded by fr ee surfaces to avoid shearing. It is practicaJly difficult increase as r diminishes . it follows directly that
:>
'.. • \ to devise a very long period of dwell in such a Oow. Hence il is more important to
t. consider (Lagrangian) unsteadiness in this case, and so the Reiner-Rivlin theory Goo = T/q
-rr
[.J.. +~] + IJ! (3...)
R~ r2
1
2-rr
r.J.. + 2.]
2
LR~ r4 '
(7 .3)
~ is not very use ful. Before beginning on the case of fibre spinning, we first discuss
~ some exact solutions which are useful for iJlustrating boundary condition
problem s. and azz = -p , a ,·, = aro . au, = O.
The pressure is given by

7.1.1 Source and sink flows T/q '!I, ( q \ 2

f}= - - - - - I +( i{I! + 4W2 ) ( - q \I 2 r -4 . (7.4)
We cite these simple flow s (Fig . 7. I) to show that the development of infinite - -rrR~ R~ 2-rr) 2n)
stresses does not necessari ly follow the a pplica tion oflarge strain rates. even with
Ihe MaxweJllluid model. We can consider either a point source or a line source. The flow is plane (and also potential) so the pressure modification theorems
Deta iled ca lculations wi ll be ma de for the line source or sink, where the sym­ (4.86) and (4.9 1) are applicable here. No extra boundary conditions beyond the
metrical velocity field has a radial component u = q/2-rr1', and the other compon­ Newtonian case (velocity components set on r = R j , the inner radius, tractions set
ents are zero. For sink (inward ) flow , q is negative. The single momentum equal to zero On R o) are needed for the complete solution, and no stresses
equation has the form (no body forces or accelerations are assumed) approach inllnite values unless R j approaches zero.
For the convected Maxwell fluid , eqn (5 .57), we note the absence of shearing
oa"r + IJrr - aoo = O. and set all shear stresses to zero. The velocity gradient tensor L is diagonal, with
(7 . I )
dr I'
 342 FIBRE SPINNING AND FILM BLOWING 7.1 ALMOST-ELONGATIONAL FLOWS 343

components (u', - u' , 0) where u' = - q/2nr 2 Thus, the constitutive equations Figure 7. 2 shows a graph of rrr and Toe together with corresponding results for
(5 .57) reduce to the second-order fluid . At large values of y (small Weissenberg numbers) the
expressions are identical up to terms in y - 2; they differ markedly for small y,
dr" ,rTf 2TJ f except for rrT, where they are identical (and also equal to the Newtonian result).
u-- -2 r u +-=-u
dr A A rr Note that when y < 2 that roo is of opposi te sign to the strain-rate (ulr) for the
droo , Teo 2TJ f second-order fluid; when y < I the local rate of dissipation of energy for this fluid
u- - + 2roou +- = - ­ u (7.5) is nega tive. By contrast, the more realistic Maxwell model is always well-behaved.
dr A A
The pressure curves (not shown) can be found in both cases by dividing the results
dT zz r zz
u - + - = 0. for T OO by -2y.
dr A
(
The solutions of (7.5) are found 10 be

Trr = - !!!L r2 ex p (_ nr2)

n,.2 -+ C, Aq (7.6)

roo = _2TJ ,.2 exp (nr2)

A
-- dr (nr2)
-exp ­ J
A q , .3 Aq
+ Cor 2 exp ( -nr2)
-
Aq
(7.7)

r zz = C, exp
m.2) .
(- ):;j (7.8)
If

For a sink flow , where q is nega tive, let y = -nr 2 / Aq, so y is posilive. Then (7.7) 1L I {
ca n be wri tlen as
-I \
~ TOO == C~yc y - [1 - ye Y E: (y)), (7.9) I \
TJ .:."" I \
""' I \
1
where E,(y) = J;o(e- I/ l ) dl (see Abramowitz and Stegun 1965, p. 228) and Co
is a dimensionless constant.
In terms of thi s variable (7.6) and (7.8) become
t
'1(

~ ~rrr = C;e Y /y + y-' (7. 10)

TJ
r\
A
- Tn
TJ
C1e Y
z · (7.1 I) i
\

The pressure can aiso be found from (7.1): 0t I ~

'io " " 4.Q 9.0
j -Y (
~ 3 ~
Y
(e
C' -+Ei(y) Y
e /" 'Ji;

A
p - =-.!:.
)
- -Co eY+---Edy)+C',
J
(7. 12)
TJ 2 Y 2 2y 2 "

where Ei(y) is the principa l value of J~co dl e l / 1 (A bramowit z and Stegun ) 965, -IL
p. 228) and C;
is a constant. \Vhen we set in bou nu ary cond itions at r -.. 00 Fig.7.2 Results for si nk flow stresses. F low is fully deveio ped here; that is. stresses are zero a t a
(y --> 00) such th at the fluid is 'relaxed' there, meanin g that a ll stresses rij are very large va lue of r. Solid line, Maxwell model. Dashed line, second -o rd"r flow; in this case W, = 0, {
zero, we lind th at aii Ihe co nstants in (7 .9)-(7. i 2) are ze ro . >-. = w./2rro.

(
 344 FIBRE SPINNING AND FILM DLOWING 7.2 FIBRE SPINNING 345

This flow could be useful for calibrating computer programmes. For this
purpose , and also to show the effects of boundary conditions, we show the results
in Fig. 7.3 for the case where the fluid is 'relaxed' (th3t is, r:ij = 0) at r= 5, wi ih
q = - 27r, ry = I and A taking values of 0.1, 1, 10, and 100 respectively. Flow
continues down to r = I. The condition (:/rr = 0 at r= 5 is also imposed . Only
the results for Tn are shown; the other variables show a similar behaviour.
( Note that for low Weissenberg numbers (small A) the inlet ' boundary-layer'
is small ; it becomes dominant for A » I. F o r large A the results are nearly
The results presented here show the need for extra bOlllldary conditions (above
the Newtonian and second-order cases) for elastic liquids . Note that the use of the
integrai form of the Maxweii modei [eqn (5.62)] does not avoid this problem; one
still has to put into the problem the value of the particle stress (or integral of
strain) at entry to the flow region.
For the half-space (x > 0) with a wall (x = 0) and a line sink at the origin, Hull
(J 98 I) has solved the problem of the flow of a Max well fluid exactly.

I n~ ~ {(~.o r- I} (7.13)
7.2 Fibre spinning
The continuous stretching of viscous liquids to form fibres is a primary manu­
facturing process for textiles and glass fibres (Ziabicki 1976). The melt spinning
process for the manufacture of fibres is s hown schematically in Fig. 7.4. Molten
provided rrr 2/ Alql « I.
material is extruded through a small hole into cross-flowing ambient air at a
temperature below the solidification temperature of the material. The solidified
polymer or glass is wound up (taken up) on a reel moving at a higher speed than
the mean extrusion velocity , resulting in thinning or drawing of the filament. The
1" steady- state ratio of extrusion to take-up a rea is known as the draw ratio (DR):
the draw ratio fo r incompressible fluids is a lso equal to the steady-state ratio
of take-up to extrusion velocity. Typical processing varia bles for the manufacture
of poly(ethylene terephthala te) (PET) fibre are given by Denn (J 980) . From a

(
~
spinneret (die) with holes of diameter 0 .75-0 5 mm the !l\.l!d undergoes 2 dn!w
ratio of about 200 before being taken up at 15-60 m/s in a solid amorphous

{'
"-
ti ~-j

\..
1t
i;
~
'<
-r'o , ',' , "e<' Wo

(
(
I I I
U:::--_1 So lidifi cation point
",-DR Wo ~
Tk / S Pinlin e force F

Fig.7.3 Ini et boundary laye rs in s ink now pro blem for Maxwell nui d; the s tress componen t ! " is
s h ow n. The solid line is fully.developed as ;n f'i g. 7. 2. The dashed lines correspo nd ;0 the var ious
~
lime cons tan ts .x s ho wn with nuid relaxed at r = 5. Here /.I = - I for,. = I and '7 ~ I . Fig. 7.4 Sketch o f spinning process.
 1
(
346 FIBRE SPINNING AND FILM BLOWING 7.2 FIBRE SPINNING 347

0.4 " - - - - - - , - - - - - - - ,
state. The solidified filament is typically subjected to further downstream pro­ (
cessing for property development. A single spinneret, or spinning head, contains
many holes, and the individual solidified filaments from each head are taken E
up together to form a yarn. S
OJ)
The primary goals of a rheological ana lysis are to be a ble to compu te the stress ., 0.2
and to define regions of instability where large diameter and property nuctu­ g
o
ations might occur.
r'dti'rltl\:5'dG,.
There is no mass transfer between the filament and the surroundings in the melt
drawing process. Other fibre formation processes (wet spinning, dry spinning)
require mass transfer to remove a solvent or to enable a chemical reaction to o
Distance along filament (m)
occur. We shall not pursue these problems here.
For other aspects of fibre formation, see the review of Denn (1980) and the Fig. 7.6 Dia,meter varia lions in a drawn filamenl of poly(elhyIene lerephthaIate).
volume on high-speed spinning of Ziabicki and Kawai (1985).
that of the corn syrup, but it has measurable viscoelastic properties. The two
7.2.1 Experimental observations liquids were drawn isothermally at the same extrusion velocity and filament or
Certain general qualitative experimental observations about continuous drawing spinline lengths. The force required to draw the viscoelastic liquid is nearly two
of filaments can be made. The most significant is that the stress and rate of orders of magnitude greater than the force to draw the Newtonian liquid of equal
diameter attenuation depend strongly on the rhcological properties of the liquid viscosity at the same draw ratio. (The draw ratio, DR, is defined in terms of
being drawn . Figure 7.5 shows results of laboratory experiments using a New­ spinneret area by some authors, and in terms of the maximum area by others. We
tonian corn syrup (1/ = 25 Pa-s) and a dilute solution of polyacrylamide in corn use the latter definition throughout this chapter; see Chapter 8 for a discussion of
syrup (Denn 1980). The polymer solution has a nearly constant viscosity equallo swelling of extrudates). Similar large takeup forces have been recorded for
!3bciatory exper:i:ierlts 0:-1 :3 v3riety of polymer melts of cO!TI:nerci~1 interest .
I

I
(Petrie 1979), but direct comparison with a compara ble Newtonian liquid is not
0.5,
~
~'
Ii' i •
. possibie because of the more compiex meit rheoiogy. We note that most
t~ I­

6
&~~
jlireaK-UP
'
-I
i~
laboratory spinning experiments have been carried out at take-up speeds that are
'wveU bc.;jo'vv \.,:urnJnen.:iai \.,:OiH..iiLiun::;.
Sustained oscillations in drawn filament diameter and take-up force are

t,
"k
f
j sometimes observed when the drawing zone is maintained close to the extrusion
temperature, followed by rapid cooling ifsolidification is to take place . Diameter
',­
~~ ; "1 1 nuctuations observed by Ishihara and Kase (1976) in a PET filament are shown
in Fig. 7.6. This phenomenon, known as draw resonance, is not exclusively asso­
ciated with viscoelasticity; sustained oscillations are observed in the continu­
(

C ,00'1 000 OCODQ;n....-...

Break-up

I
ous drawing of Newtonian nuids (Denn 1980), corresponding to the filled data
points in Fig. 7.5. This phenomenon is considered later (Chapter 10).
00 0 0 U v--.-",- • • X

.J ____~~~-L~.~,~l~,il___
10
Draw ralio DR
" '" I 100
7.2.2 Steady-state isothermal theory for inelastic fluids
We have already discussed e1ongationai flows in Section 3.7, and some insight
into fibre-spinning -can be obtained from these studies. Figure 3.14 snc\vs the
increasing stiITness as elongation increases with time, and the high stress in the
ultimate steady state. These features are important in spinning.
.Fig. 7.STOlal filamenl force F as a funclion 01' draw ralio DR for a Newloni an Iluid (circles, It is usuai to base spinning analyses on average values of the velocity IV and
bOllom) and a non-Newlonian fluid (triangles, rop) of almos! equal viscosi ty. Filled circles indicale stresses (o-7.7.'O"xx) over the fibre cross-section, which varies in the spinning (z) (
oscillations are laking place. direction. The resulting steady-state momentum equation is (referring to Fig, 7.4)
 348 FlBRE SPlNNlNG AND FlLM OLOWING 7.2 FIBRE SP INNING 349

easily shown to be From (7.19), (7. I 6), and (7.15) we find

d. 2)] 2 dw 2 dR dw F'
-[rrR (a zz = p-rrR W - +2rrR-rf-rrR pg-2rra- ' (7.14) a zz = 3." dz = rrR2 ' (7.20)
dz dz dz

where z is the vertical drawing direction and R is the loca l filament radius; w is where w, the average velocity, is not a function of r. Mass conservation is
understood to be the average value ofvelocily over the filament section. The la st imposed on average, so that we have
three terms in eqn (7.14) represe nt air drag on the surface, gravity and surface
tension, the first is the inertia term. We assume here and in the calculation of 2
q = rrR w . (7.21)
s tresses from the cons titutive equation that we can ignore variations in axial
velocity over the cross-section (and hence the velocity components u and v will Eliminating R between (7 .20) and (7.21) gives
also be assumed to be sma ll); the 'smallness' of d R/dz has not been made
explicit. Air drag can be important but we shall not include it to begin with. The dw Fw
(7.22)
surface-tension and gravity terms are often not important in polymer melt dz' = 3qry
drawing and will be ignored ; thermai considerations wili be postponed until
Chapter 9. Inert ia effel:ts can be imporla nt; see Problem 7.3 and also Middleman Integrating and app lying the boundary condition that w = Wo at z = 0 gives
(1977).
( w
Equation (7.14) together with the steady-state equation of conservation of Wo = exp (zFI3.,.,q), (7.23)
mass , p-rrR2 w = constant and an appropriate constitutive model , define the
spinning problem. In most situations the now rate wili be specified at the
beginning of the spinline and the take-up velocity at the end; the tak e-up force when z L, w/ W o equals DR, the draw ratio. Hence FL /3.,.,q = InDR and
cannot be specified indcpcndently unless the tak e-up velocity or filam ent length (7.23) can be wril!en
is left unspecified . w
When ?a! ! of the ter!":~s on the right-h£1nd side of cqn (7 . 14 ) are neglected, one ex .... ( !.. In D ~ 'I (7.24)
Wo . ". \L"· K) '
r.nd~ the fes ull
'f­ and
'~ F == 7iO z ; J? 2 - constant, (7. I 5)

.' i
. l
and if the constitutive model is Newtonian: :0 =exP( - 2ZLlnDR) ' (7.25)

OW
i:
....:
azz .= - p + 2ry az ' (7,16) This completes the iso th ermal Newtonian solution. Inelastic solutions can easil y
be generated , and will not be detailed. For the power-law fluid we find (Petrie
a,.,. = -p -I- 27, -
au . (7 . 17) 1979)
ar
\,Ve assume that the loca l s tate of now is a simple elongation, so that Wo
IV
= [I + (DR - l)±] I/m (7.26)

au LI low where m = I - I I n, Observations on spinning lines show that an extensional­

or = ;: = - 2" (}z . (7.18)
thickening index (n > I) would be needed to make theory and experiment agree
This is compatible with the assumption of a uniform stress state in the cross­ even in materia ls which thin in shear (n < I).
The proper initial conditions for the problem have, not been definitely estab­
sec tion. Ignoring the slope of the surface, on the free surface we have a,r ~ 0, and
hence lished, since the averaged one-dimensional equations given above are not
applicabie at the spinneret, but it has been assumed tha t the asymptotic equations
au cJw apply from that point. A detailed study of the approach to the asymptotic
p :::::: 2." or : : : - ry az . (7.19) equations starting from the spinneret has been made by Fisher et al. (1980) for
 (
350 FIBRE SPINNING AND FILM BLOWING 7.2 FIBRE SPINNING 351

isothermal drawing of a Newtonian liquid under conditions in which inertia, air
drag, gravity, and surface tension can be neglected. The solution to the averaged
equations in that case is given by eqn (7.24). The mean velocity (flow rate/ area)
obtained by a finite-element solution of the Navier-Stokes equations is shown in
Fig. 7.7 for doF/37]Q ranging from 0.22 to 1.0. The point of rna xi mum extrudate
swell is always located less than one radius from the spinneret, and the asymptotic
solution is reached within slightiy more than one radius. Negligible stress vari­
ation over the cross-section also occurs at this distance from the die . Extrudate
swell ranges from zero to six per cent for these calculations, compared with ~
free jet swell in the absence of drawing of 13 per cent (see Chapter 8) and the
amount of swell decreases with applied force. It is likely that use of spinneret
conditions as initial conditions for the asymptotic equations wiJl cause little
error under conditions of processing interest, where the length of the melt zone
is very long relative to the spinneret diameter.
Agreement between theory and experiment is good in the Newtonian case:
see Denn (1980).
7.2.3 Spinning of viscoelastic fluids (
The failure of the inelastic model to be realistic in describing spinning suggests
that more complex rheological constitutive models must be used in this essen­
tially strong flow. As a particle traverses the fibre, it undergoes increasing stress
and elongation rate, and hence the flow is unsteady in the Lagrangian sense. In
the Newtonian velocity field eqn (7.24) the rate of elongation dw/dz is wIn DR/ L,
and a Weissenberg number of the form)' dw /dz will often be very large.
A particle is in the fibre for a time L( 1 - DRl) / Wo In DR and hence the average
Deborah number is, for DR » I, about (), W o/ L) In DR.
The strain of a small fibre lying parallel to the axis of stretching is just DR,
which is usually large. Hence we can expect considerable elongation of the
macroscopic network structure and relevant constitutive models must behave
correctly under these conditions.
One of the first non-linear viscoelastic models (0 be used was the convected
Maxwell model, eqn (5.57) (see Denn 1980), and we now examine its response.
The calcula tion of the average stresses in terms of the gradient of mean velocity
dw/dz requires the averaging of non-linear terms for any non-Newtonian fluid.
The assumption has been made by most investigators that averages of products
can be replaced by products of averages and the order of the errors so in troduced
is small. The Maxwell model, eqn (5.57) then becomes (

;,'IFI
I
dW'1 ow
I -l
Ozz +), W Y z - 20"
d,,, dz = 27]~, (7.27)
I

, I / ~/ P (
\ I d
+ ), llVYz +
r dr rr GVt',l
dz J =
d~,tJ
- 7]~. (7.28)
~,. 'rr Orr

'" It ? The equilibrium condition (7.15) may be rewritten (

l
\ E
F
7rR2 = Ozz = -p + Ozz· (7.29)

Similarly, from radial equilibrium Orr is zero, and hence

(
p = frr, (7.30)
-0.1

o zldo
I which :nay be used to eliminate p from (7.29). !t is cODvenient to make the

problem dimensionless In terms of the variables

Fig. 7.7 Mean velocity profile development for low-speed isothermal spinning of a Newtonian
liquid. The points are a finite·elemenl solution and the slraight lines are asympiotic Solui1ons valld v= w/ W o, Y = z/ L, T = 7rT z z R;/ F, P = 7fT rr R~/ F, obtaining
for large zldo. Values of parameter do F /3,}Q for the various curv es are 0 0.22 6, 0.28 0 0.33
o i.OO. T-.P==v, (7.31)
 352 FIBRE SPINNING AND FILM BLOWING 7.2 FIBRE SPINNING 353

T + (WI). [dT
V- -
dV]
2T - = 2£ -dv , (7.32)
The outer solutions (7.38) and (7.39) are valid as (Wi) --> 0 with a fixed y> O. To
dy dy dy
generate the 'inner' solution valid near an end we must involve the derivative
term in (7.36). To do this we can use Y = (Inv)/(Wi) as a stretched variable.
P+(Wi) [ v -
dP
+P -
dV] dv

= - e:-, (7.33) Then (7.36) becomes

dy dy dy
whcre the Weissenberg number (Wi) = A Wo/ L , and e: is the force ratio l)q / FL. :; + 3e:pexp[- Y( Wi)] -= I + (Wi)p + O( Wi)2 (7 AO)
The dimensionless upstream boundary condition is v(O) = I, and other bound ­
ary conditions will be needed. By using (7.31) in (7.33) we can eliminate P Letting (Wi) --> 0 we find
( finding, with the he lp of(7.31)
1 Bo
p = -+-exp(-3cY), (7.41 )
v + v'(Wi)(2v- 3T) = 3£v ' , (7 .34) 3e: 3e:
where Vi = dv/dy. where Bo is a constant of integration. In terms of the original variables,
Eliminating T from (7.32) by using (7.34) gives a single eq uation for v:
dv I Bo .. (3< / Wi)
-=-+ -v (7.42 )
vv" + 2( Wi)d} - 11'2 - 1)' / ( Wi) + 3e:v'2 / v( Wi) = 0, (7.35) dy 3e: 3e:

which evidently needs two boundary conditions. ]n the limit (Wi) --> 0, the
equation reduces to a first-order equation and only one boundary condition is
needed; the soluti on is dimensionless terms is the Newtonian solution v =
Cexp(y/3e:). In the Maxwell case it will be necessary to specify v'(O) (or ,
perhaps , T(O)l
At the beginning of the fibre, V = L and thereafter it increases. Hence
(I + Bo)/3e: is the initial value ofdv/dy for the system which may be prescribed
as v'(O). To the lowest order, we can replace v in (7.42) by the Newtonian value ,
integrate and find

I
Evidently , when (Wi) -) 0 one has a singular perturbation problem , as the 11" v = I +y/ 3e: +(Wi){v'(O)-Ij3e:}{I-exp[-y/(Wi)]}. (7.43)
(
tCiffi va nishes.
" Tu de:.!: '.vith this problem one can usc the iTIcthod of iTIalChcd asynlptotic
This solution hilS the properties th at v(O) = I (V'(O) is a frce purumeter) and that
I it is part of the Newtoni a n expansion when (W i) = O. As y increases, th e expo­
exp~nsioris (l'~<:lyfch 1973). F~rst ;;ve rcwri i.e (7.35) in ,errns of p == 0 ' as dependent
nential term dies ~')J~y f3f)idly and the ou ~cr solUtion beconles reieva nt. A
l varia ble, and vas independent variable, so that the phasc-plane trajector y equa­
composite expansion can be formed which contains both (7.38) and (7.43) in
tion is (if p =J 0)
the appropriate regions.

(Wi)V~~ + 3£p/v- (Wi)p+ 2(Wllp2 = I. (7.36)

v= [ I + (Wi)(VI(O) _~) + (Wi2
2
)]e YfJ <
l The 'outer' solution is gene rated by expanding p in a series in (Wi):
3£ 9e:

P= Po + (Wi)PI + (Wi)2 P2 + O( Wi ». (7.37) 9e: 2

2
_ (Wi )e Y /< _ (Wi) ( v'(O) --i-)e-·
Je:
Y / Wi (7.44 )

The first term gives the Newto nian result Po = v/3<:; P I is zero, and P2 is easily When y is of moderate size and (Wi) --> 0, we recover (7.38); when y/e: --> 0
shown to be -2~ /27e: 3 Integrating p to find v(y) gives and (Wi) --> 0 we find (7.43). This composite expansion is identical to that of
Petrie (1979). To verify this note that the initial value of T(= To) appears in
<. (Wi)2 A 3 Petrie's work a nd we have the connection
V = Aoexp(y/3e:) - fLO °exp(y/£) + O(Wi»). (7.38)

From (7.32) it follow s that To = ~ - 'We: \ (]e:v'(O) - I) + O( Wi). (7.45)

\ 1}

2(W)
T= ~Ao exp(y/3e:) + - 9e: ~ A~ e)',p(2yjJe:) + O( Wi 2 ). (7.]9) Therefore the order of the equa lions in (Wi) appears to change depending on
the variables used ; in term s of To (7.44) is complete to O( Wi 2).
 (

354 FIBRE SPINNING AND FILM BLOWING 7.2 FIBRE SPINNING 355

There seems to be no obvious way of completing the one-dimensional calcu­
lation without taking some more or less arbitrary value for To or v'(O). Con­
sidering the discussion of Section 7.1.1 (sink f1ow) one notes that the situa tion
there is very similar to the present case; there we found that at low Weissenberg
numbers the boundary layer at inlet died awa y very quickly and that the stress
component TOO was always much smaller than Trr at high Weissenberg numbers.
Hence at low (Wi) the choice of boundary condition is not critical, while at high
(Wi) the stress orthogonal to the main stretching is small.
The value of v'(O), or, equivalently To , that should be taken is therefore
not immediately clear. One suggestion is to ta ke the radial slress P(O) to be zero;
then, from (7.31) one has To= I. However, (7.33) is not satisfied in this case.
Beris and Liu (1988) have suggested taking
is found from the condition on v'(O), eqn (7.46), (corresponding to P=O at
y = 0) and the constant c is to be found by setting v(O) = I. Using these results
and expanding in terms of f: / (Wi), we find , as (Wi) --> 00,
v = I + y( WITIII - 3f:/ ( Wi)] + O( Wi)-2. (7.51 )
Thus for very la rge Weissenberg numbers the filament speed changes linearly
along the threadline (Denn et al. 1975). We may also note from (7.51) that for
large forces (E --> 0) the draw ratio approaches a limiting value of I + (Wi) - I.
7.2.5 Numerical res~/ls and comparison with experiments

(
~) = (Wi)(DR - I) - I Equation (7.35) can be integrated by numerical methods, using as given initial
(7.46)
T 0 2+ (Wi)(DR - I) conditions v(O) and v ' (O) , as a given boundary condition v( I), and either (Wi) or E
being given. Figure 7.8(a) shows some results for a draw ratio of20. In this case
In this expression, for (Wi) equal to zero, the correct Newtonian value of the ratio one has boundary conditions on velocity a t both ends of the spinline, and an
(-0.5) is found, while when (Wi) - ) 00 , since DR --> I + 1/( Wi) in this case, P --> 0 iterative search using a Runge-Kutta-Gill integration method was applied
is the relevant boundary condition. (We discuss the high Weissenberg number (Denn el al. 1975). Figure 7.8(b) shows the relation found between f: and (Wi)
limit in Section 7.2.4). Given the value of (P/ T)o , one can then complete the for this particular draw ratio. (Note : T(O) is I for all curves in Fig. 7.8(a) except (
calculation. For example, if one takes P = 0 and y = 0, then To = I , and . from for the Newtonian curve where it necessarily has the value 2/\as demonstrated
(7.34), v'(0)=[(Wi)+3cr I.
(
llbcve}. The 3symp~ c ~ic so luti o ns fer sma!! (H/i) llDd smtiH c/(H/i) llre shc;vn iD
Inserting in (7.44) we get, to O( Wi)2
Fig . 7.8(b).
To compare wiih experiment we consider the work of Phan-Thien (i 978) who
( W·)
I 2
v = e y ! 3, -i- - -- ' {expl - y / (YVi)] - ex!-,(y / c) } t " ".-, \ I solved the proble111 for a tv1axwell Diodel and tht P'TT illOdel with u"Iultiplr.:
9E 2
\1 ... , )
I, n;iax<lliun limcs is!;;c cYIl:; ( 5. j 63--4)]. in ihis cast: tht: cOi1~tilutive cyuations were
which completes the soiu tion to O( Wi) 2 fitted to data for low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and polystyrene and com­
pared with spinning experiments. The results are shown in Fig. 7.9 and demon­
7. 2.4 Results for large Weissenberg numbers strate that the PIT model is adequate for this flow; the major omission is the
t> effect of temperature (Chapter 9). (
~ The previous resuits were for small viscoelastic p a rameter values. When the force
~ is large, so thatE -+ 0, and ( Wi) is large we look for asymptotic results. I n this case, It should perhaps be emphasized that the problem of initial conditions in the
assuming E/( Wi) -+ 0 as (Wi) becomes very large , we see from (7.35) that threadline was solved here by setting the radial stress for each relaxa tion time
v --> constant. if we retain the next terms in the exp a n~ion, so that (7.35) becomes (eight were used) to zero. Care must be taken because the differentia! equations
can become 'stiff' when a wide range of relaxation time are present.
vv" + 2( Wi)v,3 - V'2 - (~i) = 0, (7.48) Further discussion of the mathematical formulation is given by Beris and Liu
(1988). This paper also surveys the state of approximation in the one-dimensional
we may integrate to find the general solution. The solution is theory, and concludes that this simplification is useful and valid. They in vestigate
the mathematical nature of the one-dimensional equations in the case of the
y=c+v(Wi)+-\-'-l::;-ln{ 2
(Wi) r! ( x _ 1\2 ")
} l~-V3tan-1 - ; ; ;
(2X+ !) 1I, (7.49)
convected !'.1aX'NeH m odeL The pro blems ofbc t!nd2fY c o ndit~cns and the nature
o L LX +x+ ) v3 J of time-dependent spinning problems are also discussed. Note that this analysis
can also include temperature variations (Chapter 9).
where x = /J7) and the constant b in the expression The question of the stabili ty of the d rawing process wiii be considered in
Chapter 10. Finally, we note tneuse of spinning-type experiments to characterize
b 3 == 1 + (V,Ii)/c:, (7.50) poiymers (Wagner el al. 1988) .
 356 FIBRE SPINNING AND FILM BLOWING 7.3 FILM BLOWING AND BIAXIAL STRETCHING 357

<a)
20 r 1St •
• Experimental data
( Wi) "'OOS26

"t
12
~
E

'il

"

v=~
w 0­
(/)

---

50 100 150 200

Dislance from spinneret, mm
O'L----­ __ ~ ______ ~ _______ L ______~~____~

O~ ~4 O~ ~8 I~ Fig.7.9 Comparison of s pinning theories and experimental data . FlIliline, PTT model, ~ = O.I,
J' z IL E = 0.015, [eqn (5.163)]; Dashed line, Maxwell model, eq n (5.57). Experimentai data are for
po lyslyrene at 170 ° C. Eight time-constanls were used in the model.
<b)

1.0~
~ ~
08 '\',
88 ",Wind -up
. /
I \ \ \ cqn (7 .51)
I ~~. \1 La~
I\
h(l \
·v"·e"
. ~
'" 0.6r
i
\
\
\
\ I i nip rolls
\\ ! ~ -ilUb~iC
\
! ~
~

0.4
cqn (747)\
\
\
Solid zone
.
~ Frost line Air venl
ito 0.2
~
~
i< Extruder
~ 0' ,,
O.DI 002 () 03 0.04 0.05 t 0.06
Die
<W,) - AWo _ I­
T DR-I <a) (b)

r:ig. 7.8 Spi!!~!!"~g o f a ~;fax\ve H !1uid . (3) Dimen sion !ess vc!OC !t y as a function of distance for Fig. 7.10 Sketch of film-blowing process. (a) Section or whole process . (bi E"! ,,rged sec tion
va rious Weissenberg numbers (WO( = >'Wo/ L ). DR = 20, T(O) = 1.0 . (b) Force parameter :€ as func­ showing flow in die and in molten zone of bubble, with the intrinsic co-o rdinate system (n ,s). The
tion of Weissenberg number (Wi) for DF{ - 20, T(O) = 1.0. air vent is used to regulate the internal pressure . The frost line is a n optical errect due to materia!
property changes with cooling; material is solid above freeze line.

7_3 Film blowing and biaxial stretching

Spinning is bllt one example of a nearly shear-free process; cena.in parts of
coating processes also involve free webs of material that are stretched with­
out appreciable shear (Middleman 1977) and fiim blowin g (Fig. 7.10) is a lso an
important shear-free motion .
'A plane web-stretching operation is very similar to spinning; instead of an
ax,isymmetric stretching motion the stretch is along one axis, the contraction is
mainly at right angles to the plane of the sheet, but the third direction may also
show contraction. Thus a theory may be built up along the lines indicated for
spinning (see also Problem 7 .8). 1t wiIl not be detailed here.
 358 FIDRE SPINNING AND FILM BLOWING 7 . 3 FILM BLOWING AND BIAXIAL STRETCHING 359

Film blowing is a process whereby a thin tube of molten polymer is extruded Mass conservation demands that
through an annular die and is extended in both the radial and axial directions by a
q = 2nahvs = constant, (7.52)
differential pressure tJ.p between the inside and outside of the tube and by
mechanical tension in the axial direction. The tension is provided by a set of where Vs is the meridional velocity component, q is the total flow rate through
driven 'nip'-rolls, which also seal off the gas within the 'bubble'. A diag~am of the die, a is the local bubble radius and h is the local film thickness. Since the
the arrangement is shown in Fig. 7.10; the a ir ring is a device sometimes used to problem is axisymmetric, v, is zero; Vn is not exactly zero since the film is of
'stabilize' the bubble and to cause a rapid increase of heat transfer at the point changing thickness, but it is negligible, in the same way that it is negligible in
where the turbulent stream of air from the ring strikes the bubble. Thicknesses spinning and lubrication flows.
from die to finished film are usually in the range of a 20-300 reduction ratio. Ifwe take the derivative of (7.52) with respect to s, the distance along the film,
Inertia, surface tension, air drag a nd gravity forces will be neglected; due to then we find
the thinness of the membrane these are often realistic assumptions , but gravity
dvs I dh I da
and air drag are often significant in typical processes. - = - - Vs - - - Vs - . (7.53)
Considering Fig. 7.10, we now make the further assumption that the bubble ds h ds a ds
is axisymmetric, at least until freezing sets in. Then the problem is conveniently The left-hand side of (7.53) is the rate of stretching' along the film, and the two
referred to intrinsic coordinates described by the unit vectors is, il> and in terms on the right-hand side of(7. 53) are, respectively, the negatives of the stretch
respectively in the meridional, tangential , and normal directions [Fig. 7.11 (a)] rates in the thickness (n) and the tangential directions (t).
at the centreline of the sheet. The equilibrium of the material can now be considered. As in the kinematic
section above, all quantities are averages over the thickness, and shears are zero. (
A small element of material (Fig. 7. 11) is in equilibrium under a set of membrane
forces. Let CT r be the tangen ti a l stress and CTs the meridional stress; shears are (
S ignored. Then the equilibrium equation in the norma! direction is found to be

~f tJ.p CT
=-s +-
CT r

(,) 17_,.
r/
~ I I
-
II Ps Pr
(7.54)
l.
JV6p-n I wh~re .0" ann .0, ~re
the pr.i ncipa! curvatures in the two directions sand! and 6p
is the intemal pre~~urt: mea~urt:u relative to the external (atmospheric) pressure.
Explicitly,
I (
t
t
t.
Ps = -{I + (da/dz)2}3/2/dd2~ 1)
" z (7.55)
~~

P,
los
/ P, = a(1 + (da/ dz) 2) '/2
where a(z) is the local bubble radius.
In order to find a further equilibrium statement we may consider a force
balance on a plane z.
(b)
>, */a
ds Then (

- na 2 tJ.p + 2nahCTs cos e = T, (7.56)

1/" I

",.'here cose = {I + (da/ dx)2rl/2, and Tis the (constant) total force on the

shell. When T is known, for a given shell, then CT s is determined from (7.56), CT,

can be found from (7.54), and the stresses are statically determined, irrespective

of the constitutive equation. Equation (7.56) ignores inertia, air drag, gravity,

Fig.7.U Fiim geornei.ly. (LI' Ekmt:ni ur fiirn. (h) Bubble fiirn radii. and surface tension.

(
360 FIBRE S PINNING AND FILM BLOWING 7.3 FILM BLOWING AND BIAXIAL STRETCHIN G 361

7.3. j New/onian solution In this process the value of rr is guessed a nd used with the condition r' = 0 at the
In this problem the stresses in the s, t , and II directions are the principal stresses. freeze-line . The freeze- line radius rri s then adjusted until the desired radius (r = I)
( is reached at x = O. The dimensionless pressure B , the dimens ionless force T*
In general, the film stresses wilJ be much larger than the pressure difference 6.p;
it is easy to see from (7.54) that the stresses are o f order (a6.p j h), so that O"s» p, and the freeze-line distance Xr then specify the problem completely.
since a» h. Hence, to this order of accuracy, the through-thickness principal It is not possible to have totally unrestri cted va lues of the parameters; in
stress is zero . "We use this to eva luate the pressure in th e film p articular one assumes B > 0 (positive internal pressure). Inspection of (7.62)
shows that jf T' + r2B becomes zero at a ny x then th e c urvature 1'" must become
"Us dh Vs dh very large : a ' kink' develo p s in the film. To avoid this we suppose tha t the ten­
P = 2f) - - = 2rl- - cosD, (7.57)
h ds h dz sion applied to the bubble is sufficient to avoid this problem. This may be
guaranteed by setting the dimens ionless total force T ' to be greater than - B; if
since the force F applied to the film is used , then T = F - 7ra 2 6.p , and in terms of F
we must have
dz = ds cos e. (7 .58 )

One can now substitute (7.57) into the Newtonian constitutive la w for the
F > 7r6pa 2( r~ - I). (7.63 )
stresses , thereby elimina ting the pressure as a variable. We find , after eliminat ing
When the value of Tis zero, a rapid blow-up is obta ined which is uncharacteri stic
v, by usin g (7.52)
of the prac tical process, so only the case T* > I is to be considered. In the
solution one can choose ei ther rr, B or T* arbitrarily: once fixed , the soiuti o n s to
as = _ f)q cos 0 { ~ da I- ~ dh ~ (7.59) the problem will be curves in the (rr, he/ h) plane along which the other two
nail ~a dz h uz )
para m e ters will be co nstrained. Figure 7.12 sho ws the results for Xr = J O. In this
1>. solution B · 0.2 , T' = 2.0; here the final blow-up ratio is 2.7. Further details of
Or _ 7]qcosB {~ da _ ~ dh} (7.60) the solution proccdlirc arc given by Pearsoll anu Peirie ( i 9 70) . The iong-necked
nah adz h d z bubble shapes produced by this analys is are not close to typical experimental
These relat ions can be Su bs lituted inlo cgrlS (7.54) and (7. 56) to yield a pair o f I shapes for p o lymeric Duid s. Therefore we now consider viscoelas tic effects.
(non-linear) ordinary differenlial eq uation s for hand u. W e now suppo se thaI

\ aii qu anti ties arc m ade dimens ion less. 'The nlean inlet bubble radius 0.0 is cho sen
as a unit of le ngth , so thaI r = a/ao, x = z/oo. h is len dim e nsional , it can also
be sca led wilh respect to 170, the thickness al z=O. We also define the dimen­
"'1 t
sio nless quantities B = 7ral6.p/,r)q and T" = Tao/rJq . Then (7.56) reduces

h' I/" ' I

I \ h = - 27 - 4 (T' + r2 B) sec2
0, (76 1)

..
0

~ J

where h ' = dh/d x, etc. By using this relati ons hip in the equilibrium e quation ~ j I F reez.e-line

(7.54) to elimina te h'/h, we en n obtain an equation eont ai.njng o nl y r: 2 . I

,[ ~: ,",-u
2r2( T' + r2 B)r" = 6r' + reT' -- 3r 2B )( I + r'2).

This equation may be integrated to find Ih e bubble shape . For boundary con­
(7.62)

d.i.lion s we have r = ! a t x = 0 and provided th e film 'freezes' 1'1 t x ~ x" then we can
l
o .-
r'" ,
6
~
:
10 12
z/oo
set r' = 0 there : the tube will be parallel for x> Xr. Pearso n and Petrie (1970) have
discussed this boundary condition more fully. The y also solved the problem Fig. 7.!2 Typica : lo ng- necked iso tbenna i New lonian bubbie. Freeze~ iine is at z/oo = i 0, B = O. 2,
numerically by integrating (7.62) ba ckwa rds from an origin at the freeze-line . r = 2.0. Blow-up ra lio (BUR) is 2.7 .
 362 FIBRE SPINNING AND FILM I3LOWING 7.3 FILM BLOWING AND BIAXIAL STRETCHING 363
\.
7.3.2 Non-Newtonian solution which follows directly from the Tnn equation, (
It is not difficult to include the effect of gravity in the Newtonian film-blowing
analysis (see Problem 7.7). Major omissions from the previous section are the r'
(Wi)C' = 2(Wi)C - - rhCJ!+r'2 +2 - - - (.u.+(Wi)p),
r
- (r' h')
r h
(7.70)
viscoelastic behaviour and thermal effects. We now consider the solution for the
convected Maxwell model [eqn (5.57)]. which is obtained from the hoop stress equation and uses (7.69), and, finally by
Let the dimensionless stresses in the sand t directions be Sand C respectively, us.iug (7.69), (7.66), a nd (7.67) one can reduce the streamwise equation to
where
Ii.h
{( Wi)S + 41.u. + (Wi)pJ) = - rhS~
S = aoa H / 7}O Vo , C = aoa ll / 7}o Vo· (7.64)
r'

- -[(Wi)(S+C)+2(Wi)p+2.u.J. (7.71)
Here the subscript zero refers to the beginning of the bubble; in terms of the r
volumetric flow rate q we have In these equations .u. = 7}/7}0; this ratio is unity for isothermal flow . These
equations can then be arranged in the form of five coupled equations
~
Vo = q / 27ra oho, (7.65)
y:=j;(Yi , X) (i=I,5) ,
where ho is the inlet film thickness. The linear distances are to be made dimen­
to solve for the five Yi variables r, r', C, p, and h. Note that S may be found
sionless with respect to ao; exceptionally the dimensionless thickness (h) is
from (7 .66) without integration . In addition to the Newtonian boundary
in terms of 17 0 ; here h = thickness/ ho. The parameters B a nd T' (dimensionless
pressure difference and film tension respectively) are as defined in the conditions r = I, h = J at x = 0, r' = 0 at x = Xf, we need two additional condi­
tions on p and C. Following the discussion on the spinline problem, we shall <.
Newtonian case (Section 7.3.1).
assume that p = C = 0 at x = O.
The equilibrium equation (7.56) reduces to
lnl.egr;llion from X= Xf ha ckwards towards x=O is highly unstable and
hence integra tion from x = 0 forwards is pre ferred. Luo and Tanner (1985) have
S = (T + Br 2 ) .Jl+7i/ r17 , (7.66 ) used a fourth-order Rungc-J<.utta progi"an-l to integrate in this 111anner using
an ini!!a! guess [o r r'(O). Even so , the process is unstnble fer compnrativ~Iy 1o v\,'
and (7.54) red uces to \l/eissenberg n!.~ mb ers. Resul ts are shov·/r! in Fig. 7 . 13 . The frecze-En e o cc nrs
(

(T' + Br 2 )r" = hC~ - 2Br(1 + r'2), (7 .67)

..--- ' _ - - (Wi)-O (NeWlon ian)

where (7.66) has been used to eliminate S. The through-thickness stress ann is / ' / ...___.-.- 0.1
./--

'l; nearly zero, and hence the extra stress T"" = 0"" + p* is neMl y equal to the
pressure p' . We ass ume there are no shear stresses, hence the dimensionless ::.0 2t / /~./ ...---._._-_0.15
___ . -' - 0.2
extra stresses T ss a nd "[II are connected to Sand C by ",~ /
/ /. / ' .---../
/
..------­
(

d;./../
/ ~/../._----.--.-.-.-
/ /./ .
(

~
Tss = 5 +P (7.68)
025

"[II = C+ p, 1 .~~-.-.- (

where p = aop' 17}Vo is the dimensioniess pressure.

!f the speed is m ade dimensionless with respect to Vc , and we define a f
Weissenberg number (Wi) -~ >'Yo!ao, then the dimensionless constitutive equa­
o
I 4
tions can be wri tten as X ..:.z/ a o

h' (
Fig. 7. 13 Effect of Wei ssenber g number (W,) = ), Voloo o n bubble shape for Max.wei! fl uid;
(Wi)\.p' = 2-;-I(Wi)p
n +.u.1. - .prh J I + ,'2, ( 7.69)
r =2.'1, B=O.2, Freezeline at z=50o.
 364 FIBRE SPINNtNG AND FILM BLOWING 7.3 FILM BLOWING AND BIAXIAL STRETCHING 365

at xr = Sao in these solutions and the values of T* and B were 2.9 and 0.2 respecti­ and dimensioniess coefficients C H and C E where
vely. The effect of viscoelasticity is to decrease the ultimate bubble radius. This is
expected due to the extra stiffness of the Maxweii liuid in stretching motions. CH = 27ra~hl/pCpq
Hence the resulting bubbles are not close to experimentally observed shapes (7.74)
(Pet rie 1975) . CE = 170q/27Ta~hopCp(To - Ta)
These computations have been confirmed by Andre ('[ a/. (1998) a nd by
Beaulne and Mitsoulis (1999) using a finite element method. These authors also Here C" is the specific heat at constant pressure. In dimensionless form
survey th e literature usefully.
Petrie (1975) has co nsidered an elastic membrane theory of bubble shapes; thi s [ r'
0' = -Cwo .JJ+;fi + C£ C-; - S h +-; (h' r')] . (7.7 5)
was regarded as the limit as (Wi) - > oc of the Maxwell model. H e also points out
the very great importance of tem perature in this problem . We shall consider With a n initial conditio n 8(0) = I, (7.75) can be included in the set of equations
temperature effects in genera l in Chapter 10; bere we sha ll consider the appli­ for the film. It is supposed that the viscosity ra ti o 17/170<'=.P.) is a function of
cation to the blown film. temperature:
7.3. 3 M ax well fluid with temperature va riation
A mod e l of the hea t-loss process for a film element is shown in Fig. 7.14. The !l = exp A {~ - -..!...} (7.76)
ryo T To
loss from the film is via a heat transfer coefficient h, which occurs over an
area 27Ta ds a nd over a iemperature differen ce T - T a , where T is the local film and aiso we le t
temperature and TiL is the 8n-lbient telnpera t'Jre; hi ca n vary from position to
position, depending on temperature, air speed over the o ut side and other fac tors. A = ry(T) (7.77)
G(T) = /\(T),
We shall assume it is constant to begin with. The hea t transfer coefficient as
define d is assumeli to lak e care of iosses by convection and radi a tion from
both s ides of the film ; we shall con s ider T(s) to be th e average film temperature: II where
conducti o n along th e film is illso neglected. A heat balance on the clement I
,
~
th e n g ives the rel a ti o n
, liT
-d + 27Tah,(T- T,,) = 2rrah {dV Vda} ~
G = Cu + 0. (T - Tu). (7.78)

After reducing (7. 76)- (7.78) to dimens ioniess terms o ne can integrate to find

"1
pCpq O"ss -+O",, - - . (7.72) the bubble s hapes. Luo a nd Tanner (I 985) ha ve done this for the d a ta of Gupta
s ds ads
\ . (1980). The values for Styron 666 th a t were used are p = 1050 kg/ m3, Cp = 1710 J/
" The di ssipa tion terms o n the r.h.s. of (7.72) may often be neglected . We define 4
kg K , To = 443 K, 170 = 8.8 X 10 Pa-s, A = 18900 K, Go = 200 kPa, a = - 2500
~ a dim ensionless tempera ture e,
.,
'.,
."11:. fJ=T - T"
Pal Ko The average heat-transfer coefficient hI was found by matching tempera­
tures at the freeze-line , and w as found to be about 4 W / m 2 K. Compari son of
(7 .7 3)
To - T" ' bubble shapes for run 18 (Gupta 1980) are shown in Fig. 7 . 15(a). The temperature
Heat ioss profiles are shown in Fi g. 7.15(b).
Aithou g h the agreem e nt is not exact, we believe that the inclusion of tem­
A~ T+dTd s ds
perature modeliing is a great improvement over the isothennal case. In illaDY
other cases this is also true and we devote Ch a pter 9 to thermal and pressure

'I.~

effects .

. 7.3.4 Further analyses

In the above ann !yses the 'freeze' line is imposed by assuming a constant diameter
_ _ __ - L_ _ _ _ ~
bubble from a certain point on. Cao and Campbell (1990) added instead a yielding
process; the ~y!eid strength' 'N2-S assumed to be a function o f temperature 3D.d
Fig. 7.14 Heal balance for film element. defo rmation rate; essentially a strain-hardening mechanism is assumed. Th e y
 366 FIBRE SPINNING AND FILM BLOWING ill . 7.4 OTHER EXTENSIONAL PROCESSES 367

(a) 1 ,1 · ' 7.4 Other extensional processes l

22 Other processes which are nearly shearfree include extrusion blow moulding (
(Hensen 1988), where internal pressure in an extruded tube is made to fill a die;
~
20 stretch/blow moulding (Schmidt el al. 1996) and film casting, which is similar to
a two-dimensional version of fibre-spinning kinematically, but is more complex
Theory
_ 18. due to edge effects (Iyengar and Co 1993).
_____ Experiment
E I ~
~J /
I
References
I
/ Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A. (1965). Handbook of mathematical function s. Dover,
14 ~ / New York.
/ Andre, J .-M., Agassant, J.-F., Demay, Y., Haudin, J.-M., and Monasse, B. (1998). Int .
./
J. Forming Processes, 1, 187.
12 r~ Beaulne, M. and Mitsoulis, E. (1999). In!. J. Forming Processes, 2, 41.
, , Beris, A . N . and Liu , B. (1988). 1. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech., 26, 341.
20 40 60 80 100 120
Campbell, G . A. , Obot , N. T., and Cao, B. (1992). Polymer Eng. and Sci., 32, 751.
z (mrn)
Cao, B. and Campbell, G. A. (1990). AIChE 1.,36, 420.

<",roL
Denn, M. M. (\980). Ann. Rev. Fluid M ech ., 12,365.

Denn , M. M., Petrie, C. J. S., and Avenas, P. (1975). Am. Inst . chern. l:.ngrs J ., 21,791.

l.
,I
Fisher, R. J., Denn, M. M., and Tanner, R. I. (1980). Ind. Eng. Chern. Fund. , 19, 195.
Gupta , R. K. (1980). Ph.D. Thesis, University of Delaware.
- - Theory I Hensen, F. (ed.) (1988). Plastics extrus ion technology. Hanser, Munich .
Hull, A. M. (J981). 1. NOli-Newtonian Fluid Mech., 8,327.

~ '""i '~""
_____ Experiment -'1 Ishihara, U. and Kase. S. (976). 1. appi. Polymer Sci., 20, i69.
II Iyengar, V. R . and Co, A. (1993). 1. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech., 48,1.

~17°1 ~,
Luo, X.~L. aflU TClIlJlt:f , R. L (1985). Po/yrner EfI~r. Sci., 25, 620.
Middle!n an, S. (1977\ FundanF.!}Ha!s of po/yrr!er processing. McGr(lw-l--liH ; New York
I '-'--....: Ii, Nayfeh , A. (1973). Perturbation melhods. Wiley, New York.
c
"~.~
!-
Pe2rson ~ 1. R. A. and Pet!"ie: C. J. S. (1970). 1. Fluid !4ech., 92, 609 .

Petrie, C. J. S. (1975). Am. Insl. chern. Eng rs. 1., 21, 275.

t
~.
::l 20 40 60 80 100 120

Petrie, C. J. S. (1979). E/ongational flows. Pitman, London.

Phan-Thien, N . (1978).1. Rheo!. , 22, 259 .

Schmidt, F. M., Agassant, J. F. , Bellet, M ., and Desoutter, L. (1996). 1. Non-Newtonian

Fluid Meek, 64, 19.

Wagner, M. H., Bernnat, A .. and Schulze, V. (1998). 1. Rheol., 42,917 .

z (mm) Ziabicki , A. (1976). Fundamentals ojfibre formation. Wiley, London.
Ziabicki, A. and Kawai, H. (1985). High-sp eed Fiber Spinning. Wiley, New York.
Fig. 7.15 Film-blowing experiment. Run III (data of Gupta 1980). (a) Bubbie shape. (b)
Temperature profl!e . "
Problems
J. Solve the source/sink flows in the following cases.
(a) Line sink-Newtonian plus inertia.

claim improved agreement with the experiments of Gupta (1980). It seems

(b) Point sink -!nertia-!ess second-order flow .
that this emphasis on the physics of the film near the freeze point is highly (c) Point sink-Inertia-less Maxwell (low.
(d) Line source, Maxweli fluid.
appropriate and needs to be continued. These authors (Campbell el at. 1992)
Comment on boundary conditions and boundary layers as appropriate .
also looked a t the effect of aerodynamic drag on the bubbie shape; the flow

over the bubble can result in a variable difTerential pressure, and consequent
2. Find the steady-state spinning solution for an isothermal power-law fluid [eqn
(7.26)].
changes in bubble shape. c
(
(
 368 FIBRE SPINNING AND FILM BLOWING
3. Consider the Newtonian spinning problem with inertia added and find an approxi­
mate solution in this case. Detail your assumptions carefully.
4. Set up the inertia-less spinning equation for an Oldroyd model where the deViatoric
stress Tij is given by
( Tij = T~;'1) + 2rloodij
where T&1) is the Maxwell stress, eqn (5.57) and rico is a constant viscosity. Use a computer
to produce the solutiol1 for this casc oWhat boundary conditions do you need?
5. In Problem 4 lind the result when the appropriate Weissenberg number e>,vo/L)
becomes very large .
6. Derive eqn (7.49).
( 7. Set up the Newtonian film-blowing equations with gravity present. Solve them by a
suitable num e rical scheme.
8. Consider a series of stretching motions in a Maxwell nuid [egn (5.57)], as follow s:
(a) Equal biaxial stretching along two axes at right-angles. Show th illlhis is equivalent
to uniaxial compression and find the Trouton viscosity.
(b) Stretching along one axis is inhibited. Find the effective visc osity for stretching.
9. Set up a computer program to integrate (7.62) and (7.61) . Investigate integrating
in the forward nnd baC K'.l/nrd ways 2! o r~g the fi!~. \Vhich is r:-:cre eccr:orr:ic(1l?
...
~,
~ centrating the bulk of this chapter on solutions to boundary problems with a
l chosen constitutive relation. Only an overview of computational methods is
~.
(
8
COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND
APPLICATIONS
8_1 Computational rheology
The mathematical complexity of rheological problems forces one to use com­
putation for the effective solution of many problems arising in practice. That thi:;
is the case will be clear from studying the previous chapters, where simple now
fields were studied. For example, in fibre spinning one is led to numerical
methods to determine the flow at exit from the spinneret (Fig. 7.7) even for a
Newtonian fluid ; the power-law analysis of the Hele-Shaw flow [Section 6.6.5,
eqn (6.104)] is also generally beyond simple analytical techniques.
The relatively new field of computational rheology (see Tanner and Walters
1998) has developed two branches:
(a) Given the mass and moment um balances (Chapter 2), a choice of constitutive
equa tiOjJ (Chapiers 4 aild 5) and bOlinua ry conJi lions appropriaie to [he flow
of interest, find a numerical solution of the problem;
(b) Beginning \,v ilh a micros tructl!ra! concept~ use computation to nvo:c1 !h~ usC'
of a constitutive relation, while still ohserving mass ano momentllm con­
servation.
Subfield (a) has been used in rheology since 1964, but (b) is much younger, and
has mainly developed since 1990. We shall address (b) relatively briefly, con­
given here, and the reader will have to refer to the literature for many details of
computer program construction and implementation . We will instead concen­
trate on providing significant, successful examples of various solution tech­
niques. Two useful so urces for non-Newtonian numerical fluid mechanics are
Crochet el 01. (1984) and H uilgoJ and Phan-Thien (J 997).
8.2 Computational problems for lion-Newtonian incompressible flows
Here we assume that a constitutive relation and boundary condit.ions have been
chosen. The choice (Chapter 5, Table 5.4) between differential and integral
models has a profound effect on the computing stra tegy adopted , and for vis­
coelastic material s the question of boundary conditions also needs careful
scrutiny .
 370 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8. 3 DISCRETIZATION SCHEMES 371

Let us begin by assuming an inelastic model (Section 4.1). Then 1977). In these methods the field equations are written as

r,k = 2rJ{-y)dik . (8.1) Lu - f= 0, (8.3)

where..y = ,)2dik d ik , the equivalent shear rate. This is by far the most common
sort of practical problem, and will serve as an introduction. The Newtonian case,
"1 = constant , is a subset of (8.1). Boundary conditions are well-known for this
(eiiiptic) set ofequations: (Chapter I ; Table 1.4). We require, on each portion of
the boundary, that the velocities or tractions are given; sometimes the direction of
the flow is also given , which gives a relation between the velocity components, and
sometimes one traction and one velocity component are given; in cases where slip
occurs, a relation between traction and slip speed could be given (see Section 3.9).
When free surfaces are present , and the flow is steady, then the velocity
boundary condition v· n = 0 must also be enforced, as well as the traction
boundary conditions on the free surface; the position of the free surface becomes
another unknown.
For unsteady free surface flows, if hex , I) is the free surface location, then one
has (Stoker 1957)
oh
-+v·Vh=O (8.2)
Of
plus appropriate traction conditions. When surface tension is important , then the
normal traction is related to the two principal curvatures l/ RI and I / R2 , so that
a( I / R! + 1/ R2) is the jump in normal traction on the surface. In cases where the
surface tension varies on the free surface, then an effective shear traction pro­
p o nion a l to \l(Y is applied to the surface (Levien !962; Lea! 1992)
Additional boundary conditions needed for viscoelastic flows wiil be discussed
later (Section 8.4); initial conditions are also required for unsteady flow prob­
lems. An example ofa stea dy flow problem with a free surface (extrusion) is given
in Fig. J.7.
.~~ Following the setting up of the problem, there is a considerable number of
, ~.
choices for discretization of the partial differential equations and their solution.
where L is an operator, u is the solution vector, and f is a driving function. u is
then expressed as a sum of N modes and (8.3) is weighted over the space n of
interest with respect to each mode gn:
i(LU-f)gn dV=O (n=!,N ) (8.4 )
thereby producing a weak-form solution with a given number of unknowns. The
g" depend on the method chosen (Finlayson 1972).
8.3.1 Finite differences
The oldest discretization method is that oflinite differences (FD), which has been
used since (at least) ! 908 when Runge (1908) and Richardson (! 9! 0) investigated
some elasticity problems. Southwell (1946) discusses the pre-computer use of
finite differences in continuum mechanics. The lirst use of finite differences for
non-Newtonian flow appears to be the work of Young and Wheeler (1964) on the
flow of a power-law fiuid in a square duct.
Since there are many books on finite differences and a comparatively small use
of them in rheology, we shall be brief. An extended discussion is given by
Richtmycr and Morton (1967), Roache (1976) and Crochet et al. (1984).
In this technique the fluid field is covered with a (usually) uniform grid of size h
(Fig. 8 . 1).
The nodes are numbered .i n an (i,j) space <lod the variables 1/), 1J, p , etc ., are
discretized a t the nodal points so that one has, for example , pi,j as the value of the
pr~ssu.e p ~t the node (i,j). By uti!iziDg a T3 ylor· expar!si o n,
2
op I h 02p I 3
Pi+ l,j = Pi,) + h ox .. + 2fJ2 ' . + 0(h ), (8.5)
',j x '.j
and a similar expression for Pi-I,) found by putting - h for hin (8.5). One can lind
values for op/oxi I ,). and 02p / ox 2I. , j . by adding and subtracting equations:

8.3 Discretization schemes

op I = Pi+l,) - Pi-I,j + 0(h2), (8.6)
OX'i,j 2h
Numerical solution entails the discretization of the fields for v and p, and any
other required variables. In all cases the object of the discretization is to reduce
02p
ox 2
I ..
= Pi+ l,) - 2Pi,) + Pi-I,j + 0(h2)
h2 . (8.7)
(
I ,J
the partial differential eq uations of the problem to a set of (generally non-linear)
simultaneous equations for a known finite number of nodal variables. There a re
These are the central difference formulas.
many schemes: only a selection of popular methods ISgiven here.
Alternatively, one can define a backward difference or a forward difference for
Generally, a mesh is set in the domain of solution, although some research on
the first-order derivatives: Respectively, these are
spectral and other meshless numerical schemes has been done. We now survey the
principal methods of discretiza tion. With scarcely an exception , they can be op ap
-;::-
ox rv (Pi.j. - .P, _ I ,j} / l-;; -;::-
ox rv (Pi+l.j·
. - Pi.j·)
. / h. (8.8)
regarded as variants of the methods of weighted residuals (Finlayson 1972; Ames
 372 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8,3 DISCRETIZATION SCHEMES 373

which can be rearranged as

= r;' + (Cl6.t/h2)(T;~f-1 + T;:"I)'

tIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIII)~h

T;n+! - 2T;' (8,10)

This enables very fast computations, since no simultaneous equations need be

solved, but unless 6.1 < h2/2Cl the scheme is unstable (Richtmyer and Morton
1967); for two- and three-dimensional problems 6..1 < h 2 /4ex and P /6a respec­
-j
h
L- tively for stability. On the other hand, if a backward time difference is used, then
the bracketted terms in (8.8) have a superscript n + I, and the scheme is implicit,
(a) Mesh pal(crn - Finite Differences
yielding the sets of equations
(i,j+ I)
-T;"-I + (2 + M)T;' - T;:I = MTr-1 (i = I,N), (8.11)

(i- I,j)~ Li2 (i+I,j)

Lx where M = h 2 / Cl6.t.
The tri-diagonal matrix arising from the left-hand side can be solved using a
very fast tridiagonal (Thomas) algorithm, and the scheme is stable for all values
of 6.1. However, very large values of 6..1 may lead to stable, but inaccurate, results_
--f-- t,J- I ) I For non-linear problems the coefficients of the various terms depend on the
solution and iteration is needed. This process is discussed in Section 8.5 belovJ,
(b) Computational Molecule
By using the estima tes (8.6-8.8) an entire set of partial differential equations
Fig.!U hnilc "illerenee grid. can be reduced to a set of algebraic equations in the nodal variables, The main

~
problem with the method lies at the edges or the region in irregular domai ns, since

,
t
1n con! r2st to (8.5--8.7), \vhich ~!re Dr 0(1/) ~!CCUf~~Cy, (8.8) i~ only 0! O(h) :lCCU­
racy. One C<!r! easily rev/rite (8.5 8.7) for 8p / oy ,lnd other der ;v~!tives. Th2 scheme
the mesh will not fit the body exactly, and accuracy is lost.
Finite difference methods have been used for axisymmetric potential flow free
jet problems and results for final jet size were not accurate (H unt 1968), probably

\ can be extended to three spatiai dimensions.

For time-dependent problems, for example the one-dimensional diffusion
due to difficuities in enforcing the normal fOlce boundary condition on the free
surface which does not fit the mesh neatly, in general.
A stream-function-vorticity finite-difference formulation (see Roache 1976)
equation for temperature T, where Cl is the thermal diffusivity:
was used for a viscous jet and produced a swelling result of about half of that
.
~
aT a2 T
observed, It seems likely that this failure was again mainly due to problems in
~ Ft = ex ax2' (8.9) trying to enforce the normal stress boundary condition where the mesh fi ts worst.
Hill el ai, (1981) used a marker-and-cell.type finite difference program and
( produced results that show too little swe!ling (about 60 per cent of observed
one can discretize the left-hand side using backward, forward or central differ­ swelling). Apart from the difficulty in the free surface fit, they used too short a
ences. Neariy all computations discretize time-dependent terms using finite dif­ field to accomodate the proper boundary conditions shown in Fig, 1.7 and most
ferences, in contrast to the variety of spatial discretization schemes (Richtmyer likely this affected their swelling ratios. Since this problem arises with all com­
and Morton 1967). puter methods we shall discuss it now, Looking at Fig, 1.7 one can regard the
( Let T[' be the value of the temperature at the ftb x-node and n denote the time transition from a Poiseuille flow inside the tube to the rigid body motion down­
scale, in increments of 6.1. stream in terms of a disturbance superposed on a Poiseuille flow or on a rigid
Then the simplest (Euler) scheme corresponding to (8.9) is the explicit rule, cylinder motion. In both cases the disturbance flow has a zero net flux aiong the
using a fOP.:vard time difference: z-axis, and it is known (Til.nner 1963) that in creeping flows these zero-flux dis­
turbances in a tube or channel attenuate exponentially away from the source of
disturba nce (in this case, the exit pl ane) . The ra te of;Jiteill~ation (upstream) inside
(T,"+; - Tn/6.! = (ex/h2)(T':1 - 2T;' + T;"_I)' the tube (the smallest eigenvalue in the problem) is about exp + 4.466z/R in
 374 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.3 DISCRETIZATION SCHEMES 375

axisymmetric creeping flow and for plane flow about exp + 3.749x/ R. (Note x we get, centred at nodej, the typical equation
and zarenegativehere).In the exterior freejet the rates are about exp - 2.81Iz/R r
and exp - 2. I 06x/ Rr respectively. Thus for axisymmetric creeping flows an ; (Vj+1 - 2Vj + Vj-I) + (2W2 _ ~WI) (Vj+l - Vj_I)(Vj + 1 - 2Vj + Vj-I)

upstream and downstream field of about 2R gives a minimum attenuation of250. 2 2h 3

For plane flows it is safer to use 2.5-3R as a field length. With viscoelastic and/or WI
inertial effects longer fields will often be needed, especially downstream, and - 4h 3 Vj (Vj+2 - 2Vi + 1 + 2Vj _ 1 - Vj _ 2) = 0, (8.13)
failure to provide these will render the results questionable; the jet form is sen­
sitive to smail constraints. if analytical results, such as those quoted above for where Vi is the velocity at node i.
creeping flow, are available, they should be used, otherwise careful numerical To consider the stability 0[(8.13) we need to postulate an iterative process. To
experiments are necessary. begin with, suppose that the velocities at all nodes can be written Vj = V + Uj
In a not her finite difference study Ryan and Dutta (1981) avoided the lack of fit where V is constant, with a small perturbation Uj at node}. Then (8.13) may be
between the free surface and the O1esh by mapping the jet and tube wall on to a linearized
rectangular space and performing difference calculations in the rectangular
WIV

space. They also used a stream function/ vorticity scheme in the mapped space Uj+1 - 2uj + Uj_1 = 4h1] (Uj+2 - 2uj+1 + 2uj_1 - Uj- 2). (8.14)

and satisfied the normal stress boundary condition on the transformed free
surface. Results for a circular die are better than the previous efforts described
Let us now represent the current state (after 11 iterations) at thejth node by Uj,
above (but somewhat low, only 12 per cent swelling for a circular tube instead of
while the new velocity to be found at the next iteration is Wj. Boundary condi­
the nearly 13 per cent expected ; see Table 8.8, p. 424). Thus, although the finite
tions are imposed at the ends of the line where the Uj are zero (j -> ±=). Under
difference scheme is very easy to set up, it needs considerable care, especially with
these circumstances, the appropriate solution of the linearized problem is that
irregularly shaped spaces and free surfaces.
Vj = V everywhere, so Uj -> 0 for all j; any solution scheme which does not
The following finite difference Example shows an investigation of numerical
produce this behaviour after a large number of iterations is unstable. We can
stabiJjty.
represent the solution as a Fourier series with an amplification factor depending
on iteration number; each component is represented as (i = ,FI here)
Example
L
I We use a one-dimensional model of the inelastic second-order type [eqn (4.30c)]
to sho\'"..' ho'r"v a fiDite r~{~ge of convergence :n \"/eissenberg !~l!n"!ber spnce car!
occur due to employment of a particular numerical scheme.

Uj = ame21fimj )

L bmehimJ J'
m i

Wj =
Let us study the one-dimensional model for the stress r
m

where m is the mode number. We shall now study the growth of a singie Fourier
" r=17-+W2 -
dx
dV
dx
(dV)2 I
2
d V
- - WIV-.
2 2dx
(8.12) component; since (8.14) is linear, the modes do not interact.
In particular, sllpposeeach new estimate Wj iscomputed by putting thecurrent
estimate of Uj in the right-hand side of (8.14). For the mth component, we get
The one-dimensional equation of motion is dr/dx = 0, and no incompressibility
r
bmlcos 2 -rrm "
- JJ = am4~slD
i WI V[. 4 - rrm - 2sm
. 2 -rrm.
)
constraint is used. The equation of motion is then

Vddx
1]--+
2
2
( 2W2 - -WI I) (d-dxV) -ddx-V- w
2
2
I I Vddx-V = O.
22
3

3 .
(8.12a)
Simplifying

bm _ iWI V

am - 2h1] sin 2-rrm.

where V is the velocity.

To study the behaviour of eqn (8 . I 2a) numerically we use a finite difference Now if Ibm/ami> I, the m-mode is growing. The fastest growing mode is the one
meihod. Repiacing (8. j 2a) by its finite difference equivaient with a grid length 11, which makes ibm/umi iargest. This occurs when m is any odd muiiipie of i/4 and

l
 376 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.3 DISCRETIZA TlON SCHEMES 377

thus
,y
bm/ = WIU.
- - - - - -1- - - - i- - - - - -~- - ­
i I
/am 2111)
L
I I
-r---- - T--­
Alternatively stated, for stability we must have I I I

(
WIU
(Wi)c = - - < 2.
h1)
(8. 15)

In lermsof)' = 'Il 1/21), (8.15) becomes ).U/h = I; we interpret 'III U/ h1) (or NI/r)
as a Weissenberg number based on mesh size and a typical velocity.
A similar analysis can be carried out for plane creeping flow of a second-order
---~~~J-- BI
-1
I
P
- r-~-~~~
IE
fluid (Tanner 1982).
While many of the schemes proposed in the literature are not based on the
- -- +- - - - - f- - - - - t- --­
simpie iterative approach given above, the replacement of the ieft-band side In
(8. I 3) by any similar linear operator involving one iteration step only will not
I
- - f- - - - i - - - -
I
+- - -- ­
I

(
affect the lack of convergence of the scheme, which appears to be due to the Fig. 8.2 A finite volume clement BCDE. Nod a t values are a\lached to points PBCDE in Ihe
higher order terms on the right-hand side. One of the most disquieting aspects of element shown.
the sta bility criterion (8. 15) is that any a ttemp! to rellne the solution by llsing a
finer mesh will often cause lack of convergence, and in the limit h -> 0, no solu­
tion is ever possible with these simple schemes. There is evidence that the above Now suppose that the velocity vector field is (u , v, 0) so that Us is the x-com­
criterion is relevant (Tanner 1982), but such instahilities if observed must not be ponent of velocity at B, and so on. Then the discretized form of(8.16) is

l confused with physical instabilities built into the constitutive equations them­
selves (Chapter 10).
I
dpp
A d! I- 2:h ( PEuE + PD'·IO - PfJuB - PCuc + Povo + Pc 7J c - PBVB - PEV£
)
=
0
.
8.1.2 Fintle volume methods
(.
T\VQ such method s have been ~d~p{ed to u(H1-Nev/ ton:an flo\\'s. !n th e first, I (8. ! 7)

Chorin (1967) proposed an artificial compressibility method (plus a time­

marching scheme) which was used for viscoelastic flow by Jin et 01. (1994); see The advantage of this formulation is that mass is always conserved precisely.
1 We cast the conservation equation and constitutive relations in the form
~,
Huilgol and Phan-Thien (1997) for a further description.
The second method is tha t described by Pa tankar (1980) which has been widely (Patankar 1980; Xue el al. 1998)
t used in Newtonian fluid mechanics because of its speed and low memory
demands. We illustrate the discretization scheme by considering the compressible a a a ( r -;:;-
aq,"\I
continuity equation -8 (Aq,)+-;:;-(Aukq,)=-;:;- +S," (8.\8)
I UXk UXk UXk J

ap + V . (Py) = o. (2.52)
af where q, is a soiution vector composed of the veiocity components Uk , the pres­
Consider a fixed volume n of Unit depth in the z-direction, on a square area sure, the extra stress components, and possibly the density, temperature and
BCDE (of s ide h) whose area is A. The centre of the area is the node P. B, C, D, other variables. The four terms of (8.1 8) are the unsteady term, the convection
and E can be considered as the centres of other areas, as sketched in Fig. 8.2. term , the diffusion term, and a source term S</>. The functions A, rand S¢ depend
Integrating over A and applying the divergence theorem to (2.52) one finds on the unknown .variable being considered; the source term sweeps up all terms

d'
-d

t
J'n
r pd V + !
s

pv· nos = 0, (8. i 6)

not reducible to the other three forms.
The Ileid is discretized into non-overlapping volumes (which can be irregular
in shape, but are often rectangular boxes). Values of the dependent variabJes <P
where s is the contour BCDEB . are stored at the centroid of the volumes, as in Fig. 8.2.
 l
378 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 83 DISCRETIZATION SCHEMES 379

Equation (8.18) is integrated over each control volume (6 V) at each time each of the control volumes in the domain
interval 01, to find, using the divergence theorem:
ap<1>p = 2::>nb<l>nb + Sc + a~<1>; , (8.22)
nb
r r A ~<P dVdt+ ia,r isr JknkdDdt = ili'r in/' S,pdVdl
ili' in vt
(8.19) with
ap = 'La""
" + Q p0- ­Sp ,
where nk is a component of the outward normal unit vector and the flux Jk is nb
given by where the summation is to be taken over all of the neighbouring nodes nb of the
centred node P . The coefficients a"b are the functions of the dependent variables,
Jk = }\Uk<P - r 8<1> . (8 .20) and their contents depend on the relation of the total flux h to the values of the
OXk ' dependent variable a t the neighbouring nodes, thus depending on both the form
of the control volume used and the approximation scheme adbpted. It is these
that is, a convective plus diffusive flux. coefficients that determine the spatial accuracy of the final solution.
By assuming that the value at the central node P orthe control volume prevails After implementing the a bove mentioned steps for each of the control volumes
throughout the control volume for the terms which are not explicitly a function of in the domain , then each of the nodes in the flow domain has its own discretized (
position , such as the time difference term 8<1> /o t and the source term S~" and equation like eqn (8.22). The expressions for Sc and Sp will playa crucial role for
adopting the first-order backward Euler implicit formula over the time interval 01 (
computational success in many cases as emphasized by Patankar (1980) . One of
in view of its simplicity and unconditional stability for numerical calculations, the basic rules required to enhance the numerical sta bility of the discretized
one has (Xue e l al. 1999) equation system and prevent a physica lly unrealistic solution is that the sign of
Sc should be the same as that of anb and Q p (say, positive) , and the sign of Sp should
a~( <pp - ir>(~) + .Jf0,.). ·"' l1 k d~2 = ,Sc + .~p<pp, (8.21 ) be opposite to that of anb nnd ap so that ap 2: 2:nb anb and Sp has an under­
relaxation function for calculations.
In developing the approximation scheme. that is. in choosing the form of the
with total flux h , a voidance of f(l .lse diffusion (lnd instability of the resultant dis­
; cretized system associated with high convection rat es or negative coefficients is

~
o 1\ the main issue of concern.
ap = [;16 V,
To date, various schemes suitable for structured mesh systems have been

t Ii
,t
where the superscript n denotes the values taken from the previous time level, and
the volume integral of the source term S<!>, which is generally dependent on the
developed , such as the PL (Power-Law) scheme of Patank a r (1980), which is
based on a curve fit to the exact exponential solution of the one-dimensional
convection-diffusion equation without any source, the SUD (Skew Upwind
t
dependent variable itself, has been linearized as a function of the <1>p with S, being
~l the part that does not explicitly depend on <1>p and Sp , the coefficient of <1>p. An
Differencing) scheme in which the flow direction was taken into account in
determining the values of the dependent variables at the faces by applying the
overbar mea ns the variablc values arc cvalu a ted using the known field at time
upwind method in a vectorial rather than a compone n tial sense, and the QUICK
level 11 (or from the previou s iteration).
scheme proposed by Leon a rd (1979) with the values of the dependent variables
Now the only integral term le ft is that involving the total fiux h. Once one
on the control volume face being obtained by fitting a para bola to the values of
knows the values o f the dependent varia ble at the con trol volume faces by using
the dependent varinble at three consecutive nodes (for a one-dimensional prob­
an a ppropriate spatial variation approximation scheme. that is, the control
lem) with the two nodes loc(l ted on either s.ide of the face plus the next node on the
volume-based interpolation function , which relates the total fiux h on each
upstream side. All of these schemes involve a balance between accuracy (less false
control volume face to the values of the dependent variable at the neighbouring
diffusion) and s tability, but none of the schemes covers all of the following three
nodes, then this integral can be worked out usi ng the values multiplied by the
desirable features:
respective a reas of the face . Thus the final form of the integrated equation­
namely, an a lgebraic approxima tion equation which establishes the relation of (a) Complete elimination o f the spatial osciliations due to lack of diagonal
(
the value <l>p at the centred node P to its neighbo uring nodal va lues is determined dominance (negative coefficient problem) in the discretized system of
and can be symbolica lly expressed in a generalized (nominally linea r) form for equations;
 380 COMPUTA T I O N AL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.3 DISCRETIZATION SCHEMES 381

(
(b) Reasonable accounting for the coupling between streamwise and cross­
stream gradients as well as the influence of the source terms so that false
diffusion can be reduced o r even elimina ted; and
(c) Ease of implemen ta tio n in 3-D flows at low computationa l expense.
a. limiting sense. Thus, even the coarse-grid solution exhibits the exact integral
balances .
For further details the reader is referred to Pa ta nkar (1980) and Huilgol and
Phan-Thien ( 1997).

Numerical evaluations show that none of the schemes seem s superior to the
others in multid imensio na l flo w situa tions, and the perfo rm a nce of a particular 8.3 .3 The boundary-element method
scheme can vary for different ph ysica l problems. I n the wo rk of Xue el 01. (l998), In the finite-volume and finite-difference schemes, one finds the complete solu­
the Power-I a w (PL) scheme was chosen for the di scre ti za tio n o f the convective­ tio n field in a ll the fluid-filled region whether o r not this is of interest. In some
diffusive (momentum) equation mainly because o f the simplici ty of it s imple­ problems on ly the domain shape and/or the pressure losses may be needed, and it
mentation and low computational expense as well as excellent conservation is therefore interesting to look at the bound a ry-element method and its deriva­
properties. ti ves which avoid evaluating all of the interna l variables, at least for linear
With these schemes, the coefficients anh take the form : creeping fl ow problems. Essentially, the techniques are derived from reciproc a l
lheoren1s farni liar in linea r elasticity, cOinbined ·wi th a knoVv'ledge of the relevant
anh = Drlb/(IP"bl) + rsign( l1b)F"h, 01, (8.23) Green's function. The effective adaptation of these methods for computer use in
elas ticity is due to Rizzo and Cruse (Cruse and Rizzo 1968). Here we begin by
where the 's ign(nb )' is + for th e upstream faces and - for th e downstream faces. discussing viscous incompressible flows; the problem follows closely the di s­
The function /( IPnhil has the form cussion for linear elasticity (Brebbia 1980), but incompressibility need s to be
considered.
IOP""I) = rO , ( I - 0.ljP nb I)51, (8.24) Consider an arbitrary set of field s v7 ,p', 17i;. We multiply the equation of
motion (2.60) and the mass conserva tio n eqn (2.53) by and v;,
respectivel y, p"
where a nd integra te over the body; this is the Galerkin procedure (Finlayson 1972), but
I we a lso add on a surface term over the part S" o f the surface where the velocities
t F"" = (l\U.,n),,:, ;
(rn') a re given. T hus we have (where S1 denotes the en tire body)
=
~

D.'/{, \bXk) "b

F\ r flax;
in 00
ij . I ,' 1 ..\ . r . fJVi.J . r I A \ 44 •
(8.2S)
! can be thou ght of as being the strength of the convection (or rI ow) through the v = -t-pui -ailJ v; d vT '/nP aXjUV T '/so\V; - Vil L;dS,
face nb; and the diffusion conductance, respec tively. Th c ratio of the two
strengths is called the loca l Peclet number: where I; is the traction vector I7 kj nj formed from the starred stress tensor and the
tJ outwa rd unit normai vector n, and v are the given boundary conditions o n Sv .
>;.
~.
, ;­
P nb= (!.-) = (!\U k8xk) , An y solution (17U' p, Vi) that satisfies the equ a tions of motion , the mass con­
servation equation and the bound a ry cond iti o n V; = Vi on Sv will make (8.25)
D nh r ""
vanish, and hence it is then satisfied for arbitrary (l7ij, P*, v7).
with fiXk the dista nce between the centr,,1 node P and its neighbouring node in the N ow consider the following expression denoted by 1(',0) where
k direction .
With th e discretized form given in eqn (8.22) for the generai trans port equation
(Eqn 8.18) the discre ti zed form for a specific eq uati o n ca n be readily written out I (',0) = / ~17& v; dv -
"n UXj
I' vktk
"s
dS _ f
In
p* ~Vl
UXi
d,/. (8.26)
by imposing different coe fficients !\, r , and th e discretized source terms. The
discretized eq ua tion obtained in this manner expresses the conserva tion principle
for <1> in the finite volume. The most attractive feature of the controi-voiume H ere S is the whole body surface . By using Green's theorem we can show tha t for
a N ew to nian fluid there is a reciprocal theo rem where starred and un starred
formulation is that the resulting solution would imply th a t the integral con­
Delds ar~ intercha nged
servation of quantities such as mass, momentum , " nd e nergy is exactiy satisfied
over any group of control voiumes and, of course, ove r the whole computa tionai
domain . This characteristic exists for any number o f grid points, not just in 1(0,') = 1(*,0).
 382 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.3 DIS C RETIZATION S C HEMES 383

6 f
This reciprocal theo rem can be used to repl ace some of the terms in (8.25) finding, g
when both vi and V i are incompressible lields,
7
J
i 1
" f~
OCT·~.
l
. \1
_ ' ) Vi
ox}
dv -
. S
V il; dS +
5

V ; Ii dS

+J
Uo;"o,,'
+ js. (V, - V,JI ; dS
\1
p(j; - o,) v; dl/ = O. (827)
x, b

Fig. 8.3 Boundary element discretization . The traction a nd velocity components are uniform on
We can combine the second and fourth terms to form - i5 V,Ii' dS, understanding each segment (element) .
that V i = Vi o n Sv. We shall also s uppose here that f; and Gi are known . For the
exa mples give n h ere, both /,· and ai are assumed zero, so we ha ve creeping fl o w
under no body forces. We will also restrict the di scussion to plane and axisym­
where Oli is a delta-function . In the case of creeping flow with no body forces,
metric flow s. substituting (8.32) in eqn (8 .27) we find
We now assume th at the (')-lields are produced by a concentrated unit force
in the I-direction . The plane-flow solutio ns for th e I ~(I) and vZ(1) in Ca rlesi a n
coordina tes X i are well-known (Brebbia 1980): o= -~1JI -1 Vk IZdS + 1 vZtk dS , (8. 33 )

,(I) i or or ] where v k a nd lie are known exacti y from (8.28) and (8.29). If we now assume that L. _

lrar
c
V = - (-lnr)O'k+ - - , (8.28)
k 4 n~ OX,OXk the field is uniform over each segment, so that we ma y speak of v \m ), v~m) , I\m ) and

I
~(') - -
I ---
or 01'1 (8.29)
Ir') as the uniform co mponents on the segment containing the mth node, then
k - "r Lon aXi< aX iJ '
(8.27) becomes a set of linear equations

r 1 r r 1
where l' is the distallce fr 1J1 iJH:~ point or ap plicat ion of ~bc force (r) ~ln d ~he
pO!s1tion at which i : is eva uatcd (x)_ b,k. is th e un~t !e n ~() r, equa l £0 unity if
I 0= - ~ VI +~
N

[L l~ dS 1m I; dS] l :~n) J + ~
(III) N

lL
VIL dS V
1
2dSJ l :~m) J
(m)

equab k. ;(.'::IU otherwise. lence (8 .34)

l r2 = (Xk - rk)(;q - rd, (8.30 )
where N is the number of nodes. The ~-factor in (8.34) arises because the point
l
~
and by differentiating (8.30) we find
force is applied on the boundary and not in the fluid interior.
The integrals in (8 .34) may be co mputed, since v' and t' are known , and (8.34)
.~ is a linear equation connecting 2N components of velocity 2N components of
or Xi - r i
~ - = -­ (8. 31 ) traction . Similarly, one can apply a unit force in the X2 direction a t node I,
OX; I'
generating a second equation, and so on for all nod es, finally generating 2N
In eqn (8 .29) n refers to the direction normal to the surface across whi ch the equations. There are 2N velocity components and 2N traction components, but
traction is being computed. The co rresponding formulas for axisymmetric flow s only a total of2Nunknowns, s ince at each node two o ut of the four unknowns are
contain L egendre functions and a re given by Bus h and Tanner (1983). given as boundary conditions. After eliminating these known quantities, one can
Consider the bod y of fluid in Fig. 8.3. Suppose the boundary is discreti zed into solve a set o f linear equations for a1l2N boundary unknowns . To obtain values in
linear 'elements', ab , be, ed , etc. , a nd at the centre of ab we piace node i . (in this the interior, one places a point force where needed as the C) -fieid , and uses (8.27)
simplest of boundary element schemes no nodes occur where elements join .) We again, thus producing the needed value of v; a differen t s tarred field will produce
assume a (*)- field which consists of the respo nse to a unit force in the xI-direction the tractions and stresses. Thus results at all p oi nts o f the body can be found, but
a pplied at node I. Then we ha ve (Brebbia 1980) only if needed .
The boundary element method (b.e.m.) uses relatively few unknow n s. How­
o(J~ ·
-"= -0 .,·t· (8.32) eve r, the b.e.m. generates a full matrix. By considering the number of operations
ox} needed to solve the equations, we found the b .e .m. is quick for smaii iinear

 384 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.3 DISCRETIZATION SCHEMES 385

problems. As usual, remarks about relative speed need to be treated with caution
and judged for the case in hand.
With this method non-linear problems have to be solved as a series of per­
turbations about the viscous solutions, and convergence may not always be
obtained. Bush and Tanner (1983) found that Reynolds numbers not much
greater than 15 can be solved for Newtonian flow in the Hamel (or converging­
wall) problem; for complex linear problems (Ramia 1991) the scheme works
very well.
( blems, we have the option of working with a stream function 'I/J or with the
8.3.4 Finite efemenl method5
The bulk of the work with non-Newtonian flows has been performed with the
finite element method, and the quantity and variety of schemes available for
viscoelastic problems is remarka ble (Baaijens 1998). Here we will descri be the
main ideas of the discretization.
The finite element method (f.e.m.) covers the fluid-filled region with an irrc­
gular mesh, usually made up from quadrilaterals or triangles. Curvilinear
quadrilaterals may also be used (the isoparametric elements, see Zienkiewicz and
Taylor (1991)), so that a close fit io irregular boundary shapes may be arranged
(Fig. 8.4).
Another advantage of the finite element system is that it permits a closer 'mesh'
near singular points. Of course, no finite mesh can cxactly capture the singular
behaviour there and it would be possible, ifone knew the orderofthc singularity,
to insert a special semi-analytical element at the singular point to give a good
I where Vn and Vi are the components of velocity normal and tangential to the
t
I '\ U , W,jJ
I surface "vc must have the normal vcl.ocity COill.ponent {Vi;) zero, so that ov,i /8s
"""~
\
u,w
u,w
~ u,w,p
l (bl u, w,{J
representation near these points. This device has been used .in fracture mechanics
and in extrusion studies (Georgiou et af. 1989). The finite element method's
ability to mode! the singularity more or less well without special elements is
helpful but probably not decisive in favouring finite element methods over finite
difference methods; more useful is the ability to have a mesh fit the extrudate
shape closely.
Even within the finite element field, a wide choice ofcomputational methods is
available. Restricting ourselves to plane or axisymmetric incompressible pro­
velocity components, u, IV and the pressure p as primitive variables; or, we may
retain the velocities, pressure, and stresses and use the mixed method. The free
boundary conditions are best handled by not using the stream function method
(Nickell et af. 1974). Briefly, if we consider a computation using a stream function
in a Newtonian fluid, then the pressure is eliminated and is recovered afterwards
by solving a separate Poisson-type equation. For problems in which velocity
boundary conditions are given the scheme works satisfactorily, since boundary
conditions are given in terms of .t/J and its normal derivative o'I/J/on. For
boundaries partially made up of free surfaces, without traction, we require on a
part of the boundary (5,) that the normal (ann) and tangential (a ns ) stress com­
ponents vanish there. For the Newtonian nuid this means that
OVn oVs _ 0' OV
-p+ 2ry-n = 0
as + an - , an ' (8.35)
boundary, respectively, and 77 is the (constant) viscosity. or course, on the free
vanishes. To expresseqn (8.35) in terms of the stream function is difficult; it is the
presence of p in the normal stress term which is awkward, since p is not known.
These problems are by-passed by not using 'I/J in the computation and electing to
work instead with the veiocity components u, w, the pressure p, and possibly the
stresses, as computational varia bles. Few completely successful examples of free­
surface computations using the stream function are known; for the primitive
variable method using u, wand p we proceed as follows.
In a Cartesian tensor representation we have the conservation laws

L-i'"
u,w,p
oai). (r , ~
,,----t-
uXj
P Ji - ail = v, (8.36)

""L ~'W'
u,w,p
and

OVi
OXi
=0, (8.37)

1<ig.8.4 Some successful elements for finite element fluid mechanics. (a) Biquadratic velocity and
where Vi is the velocity component in the direction of Xi,;; are the (known) body
bilinear pressure area-<:oordinate triangUlar element; (bl Combined biquadratic velocIty and force components, and (Ji) are stress components; ai signifies, for steady flow, the
bilinear pressure isoparametric quadrilateral element. acceleration component Vjov;j OXj.

I
386 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS
Let the boundary S be composed of two parts; S = S" + S,. Velocity boundary
conditions are given on Sv, while traction (stress) boundary conditions are given
on St . On S, we shall assume
Gljnj li ' (8.38)
where the traction vector components Ii are given and nj is the outward-pointing
normal unit vector on the surface.
We suppose the choice of constitutive equation has been made; most of the
difficulties we shall encounter are already present in the convected Maxwell
model (4.25). The finite element method now reduces the abo ve system ofpanial
differential equations to a set of (usually non-linear) algebraic equations by one
of several approaches. In the displacement method (strictly velocity in this case)
all stress variables are expressed in terms of the velocities and the pressures and
the stresses are then back-calculated after finding the velocities u, HI, and the
pressure p. Thi s is the approach followed by Nickell el al. (1974). The following
steps are made to effect this process:
(i) We assume that the nodal variables (a node usually occurs where two ele­
ment bounding curves cross but it may also be elsewhere on the element boundary
or inside the element) are the unknowns ;
(ii) We assume an interpolation function fo r the variables inside each element.
Often linear or quadratic interpola tion .is lisen hut elements with high inter­
polation orders which can be changed at will ha vc been very effective (Talwar and
Khomarni i 995). Thus the representati on or the rnd:~d ve!oc!!)' compo nent u
in si de the inth ciement ;vi H tnke the fcrn1
r fer stabi lity t.h..at the pressure fie ld be irHerpoh!ted w ith a polynomial one orde.r
(nI) '\ . ~ . ,{m) ( , ) (",) (8.39)
u -~ l v i x,./ ui ' lower than the veiocity terms . [This is the so-caiied LBB condition; see Huii goi
;= 1
where the superscript denotes that the field is for the mth element, and r is the
number of nodes associated with this element; the shape or weighting functions
N~m) are cho sen in advance and the nodal point variables u~m) are the unknowns.
(iii) We substitute the global expression for the variables into the mass­
co nservation equation and the equation of motion, multiply by the relevant
shape functions in turn for each element and integra te over the body . The process
then sets the resu lting expressi o n equal to zero. This is the Galerkin method used
above (see also Finlayson (1972) and Crochet el al. 1984). It is usual to eliminate
the stresses a t this point and to m ake an integra tion by parts on the equation of
motion (8.36); this red uces by one the number of times o ne has to differentiate the
shape function s. Care must be taken in this step as the shape functions are of
limited differentiability.
T a king the mass-conservation equation as an example of the process , we form
! OVj Nim ) d V = 0 (m = ! , N), (8 40 )
J body OXj
8 . 3 DISCRETIZATION SCHEMES 387
where N)m) are the known shape functions for the pressure. Clearly, eqn (8.40) ,
after integration, gives a linear combination of the unknown nodal point veloc­
ities and forms part of a system of equations; the remainder comes from the
equations of motioo . (
Thus the result of these integrations is a system of simultaneous equations,
usually non-linear, for the nodal point velocities and pressures. (
(iv) When integrating the weighted equation of motion by parts we obtain a
surface integra l which can be evaluated on the parts of the body (S,) where
traction boundary conditions are given ; this takes care of these boundary con­
ditions which contribute to the known right-hand side of the system of equ ations
to be solved. The ease with which these traction boundary conditions can be
satisfied constitutes a great advantage of the finite element (and boundary ele­
ment) methods . The remaining (velocity) boundary conditions are now set in ; we
(
recognize that soine nodal velocities are known and these velocities are removed
from the list of unkn owns .
(v) Fioally, we find a set of non-linear simultaneous equations for the
remaining unknown nodal point velocity and pressure components arranged as a
vector V (
(K + C)V = F (8 41 )
(
The matrix C depends on V and is often unsymmelric. K is symmetric and
constant and tirises frem the (linear) creeping tlo\.v part of the problem.
There a re sorne constraints on the shape functions. It has b e~ n fOllnci essenti()!
and Phan-Thien (1997)]. Two simple (u, w,p) elements are shown in Fig. 8.4; these
have linear pressure and quadratic velocity fields over the element. Further dis­
cussions offiniteelement methods in nuid mechanics are given by Gallagher et al.
(1975), Kawai (1982) , and Johnson (1990) .
Crochet and Keunings (1982a) have used the mixed method where no attempt
is made to eliminate the stresses; these, plus the pressure and the velocities are
used a s primitive variables and are interpolated on the elements. Thus one has
larger matrices and longer solution vectors fo r a given number of elements but
there are some compensating advantages; for example, the construction of
a Newtonian- Raphson equation-solving scheme is facilitated. For inelastic
fluids the Picard method gives smooth stress fields. Stability problems at high
Weissenberg numbers also occur.
In some cases (Baaijens 1998) the use of pressures and other variables which
a re not continuous between elements has been advantageous in maintaining
stability.
In closure, it appears that the so-called DEVSS-based methods, introduced
by G 'u enette and Fortin (1995) are among the m ost robust finite element
 388 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATiONS 8.4 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR VISCOELASTIC FLOWS 389

fomlUlations. Some methods of using finite element methods for transient nows
have been described by Ba a ijens (1998).
( A great number of books dealing ~ilh the finite elemen! meth od is available;
we cite only Finlayson (J 972), Crochet el 01. (1984), Johnson (1990), Reddy and
Gartling (1994), Zienkiewicz and Taylor (1991) , and Huilgol and Phan-Thien
(1997) .
and Beris el al. (1987) also used a mixture of spectra) and finite element method s.
We shall give examples of their work later.
The main advantage of spectral methods lies in their accuracy (for a given
number of unknowns) but they are geometrically relatively inflexible and often
do not work satisfactorily on problems with sharp boundary wall corners
pointing into the flow (salient points); see Section 8.7 below.

8.3.5 Speclral melhods 8,4 Boundary conditions for viscoelastic flows

)n these methods the solution vector does not contain nodal values orthe velocity Once the discretization has been performed, most methods need to have the
and other variables. Gottlieb and Orszag (1977) desc ribe the method using as an simultaneous equations modified to accommodate boundary conditions. In the
example the solution of the heat diffusion equa tion by a trunca ted Fourier series. case of inelastic flows, either of the form (8.1) or of more complex forms, such as
Consider the equation [for u(x, I)J the second-order flow model (4.30c), the relevant boundary conditions are that
on the boundary of the body of fluid (S in Fig. 8.5) two velocities, two tractions,
au
al
= Lu +.f(x, I), (8.42) or a mixture of the two, need to be specified everywhere. If velocity boundary
conditions are applied to an incompressible fluid over the entire surface, then one
where L(x, I) is a linear spatial differential operator and./ is a known driving must make sure that the net influx across the boundary is zero; usually it will be
function. Appropri a te boundary and initial conditions are also required. An necessary to fix the pressure at some arbitrary value at a single point to fully
approximate solution is sought in the truncated series form determine the pressure field in these cases.
F or viscoelastic fluids, either of the differerrtial [for example, eqn (4.25)] or the
N integral types [for example, eqn (4.54)) further boundary conditions o n the inlet
II N(X, I) = I>"(I) 4>I(X) . (8.43) section AB in Fig. 8.5 are needed. Consider the UCM fluid [cqn (4.25)J as an
11=1 example. For steady flows the equations can be written as
The ¢II are linearly independent functions (Fourier compon en ts. polynomials, .. UTi) /" II _ \

Chebyshev series, for example) and th e Galerkin process applied to (8.42) pro­ Uk aXk - j i j V..', <). (8.45)

duces the results (n ~ !, tv)

Given a known velocity field, this is a set of six first-order hyperbolic partial
d differential equations for the extra stresses Tij. The characteristics of(8.45) are the
dl (¢n, UN) = (rJ;,,, LUN) + (4)nJ), (8.44)
streamlines, defined in Section (2.3.1) . Such equations (Courant 1972) need
initial conditions on the inflow boundary. Hence one expects that all six of
where (4), u) = J ¢ udx over the space of int e resl.
the stress components should be specified on AB (Fig. 8.5), or, for plane and
Equations (8.44) can then be used to solve for the coefficient fun ctions an. Non­
axisymmetric flow, three and four components respectively.
linear problems can also he 'discreti zed' by this method; in a steady flow situation
this yields a set of (non-linear) sim uitaneous cyw.I iions [or the tim e-independent
an which needs to be so lved. An early example of this method is the sol ution of a
power-law nuid in a square duct by Schechter (! 96 I), who assumed a series
solution orthe form, for the axial velocity w(x,y), OUlflow region

N.N

( w= L aij sin (XiX sin /3lY S

i=l ,j= 1

and used a va riational principle to find thea".ln theseearJydays oniy a few terms B
could be used in the expansion a nd accuracy of order i per cent was claimed.
Pilitsis and Beris (1989) have used spectral methods for non-Newtonian flows Fig.8.S Inflow and oUlfiow regions on the boundary S of a body .

390 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS
If one elects to solve (8.45) together with :he momentum and mass conserva­
tion equations, then Renardy (1990) has shown that prescription of all stress
components at the entry surface for the UCM model may lead to an over­
detennined problem. No simple resolution of the boundary data has been pro­
posed, and some ingenuity is needed to generate a correct, compatible set of
stresses at the entry surface. In the cases to be reported below, this problem is
absent , either because the exact solution is known on the entry pla ne, or the
problem has a periodic character. Another approach is to add time-dependent
terms to eqn (8.45) and solve as an initial-value problem , with all extra stresses at
zero values in the rest state. Another possibility is LO add on an extra entry domain
in which the required stresses can be developed ; the boundary conditions on the
entry domain can then be chosen a t first in a fairly arbitrary manner and then they
can be iterated as required until suitable stable inlet boundary conditions to the
region of interest a re obtained.
For other model s of a form similar to eqn (8.45), for exa mple the PTT and
Giesekus models, similar problems arise. However, addition of a solvent vis­
cosity, as in the Oldroyd-B model, removes the Renardy dilemma.
The above discussi on has been in terms of differcntial viscoelastic models, but
clearly the same problems occur with integral constitu tive models: a complete (or
compatible) set of stresses on the inlet region is needed.
A further discussion of the boundary data problem is given by Huilgol and
Phan-Thien (1997) , together with a clear diSCUSSIOn of the compiex eiliptic­
hyperbolic nature of the mathematical problems being solved.
With regard to free surfaces, we may look at the finit e clement case. Here the
use of the divergence theorem on the integralr,(iJuijI Dx;)Nk d V, where Nk is the
~ shape functioi1, yie!d~ In (Jij:1jr"' k d V = J~ !;JVk-d V. On free surf3ces !i is often
zero, so tha t on areas of the boundary where no boundary conditions are pre­
'\ scribed, a stress-free boundary is automatically generated - this is a nalUral
boundary condition for the method. The boundary element method also has this
I
\
.,
advantage: free surfaces in other methods usually require imposed (forced)
boundary conditions on stresses.
In the case of slip at the.solid surfaces (Section 3.9) another form of bound­
ary condition is generated , needing speciai attention in the setting-up phase
(Phan-Thien 1988). In other problems it may be necessary to prescribe thermal
and other boundary conditions, but these are usu ally classical in nature and
present no unknown problems.
8.S Solution procedures and stabilization
Once the discretization is complete and boundary conditions are applied, the
solution of the simultaneous non-linear equations for the variables is
needed. Linearization and iteration are necessary for the nonlinear system .
Ge ner ~i1y , either a Picard (successive substitution), the Newton- Raphson or a
quasi-Newton method can be used to solve the system, and either an iterative
(
8.5 SOLUTION PROCEDURES AND STABILIZATION 391
method or Gaussian elimination is used on the solution of the linearized
equations.
Each discretization method has its adherents. For example, finite difference (
and finite volume methods usually use successive substitution solution methods
and an iterative procedure (or at most, a tridiagonal algorithm) to solve the
equations.
Due to the iterative procedures used, updates of the variables are obtained at
each iteration. In finite element procedures using differential models, the ten­
dency has been to solve simultaneously for all variables. Allerna tively (Sun et al.
1996) one can find a velocity field , then compute the stresses, and iterate back and
forth between the sets of equations. While this leads to smaller matrices at each
step, convergence can be a problem. For integral models, one is forced to use this
iterative (Picard) procedure.
Finite element methods (Baaijens 1998) have often used Newton-Raphson
methods for problems with differential models, together with Gaussian elimi­
nation . Spectral methods have also followed this pat tern. On the other hand, with
integral models the Picard method is often used , plus Gaussian elimination.
Boundary elements with mild non-linearities have generally used a Picard pro­
cedure plus Gaussian elimination. (
Example: Picard procedures
Consider the singie non-iinear equation x 3 - 7x - 6 = R(;<) = O. The equa tion
I has three real solutions x = 3, x = I , -2. Several successive substitution algo­
I
rithms are possible. We can set
x = (x.] - 6)/7,
where x' is the current best estimate of x, or x = 7 I x' + 6Ix· 2 , or x =
(7x' + 6) I /3 obtaining different results. One can show that by starting at different
(
("
places one mayor may not reach a converged solution. Beginning with x' = -1 .1
the first algorithm slowly converges to x = -I, while the other two reach x = -2.
If, however, we take x' = - 2.0 I as the beginning point, then about 12 iterations
yield a value of x < -10 10 , so the process diverges. The other two algorithms
continue to converge to x = -2. Hence the initial guess is very important with
non-linear systems.
The extension of the method to many variables is immediate.
Example: Newton iteration
In this process, for N equations in N unknowns, (x;,i= i,N) we write the
equations as
Fk(Xi ) =O (k=l,N). (8.46)
(
 392 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS
(
If an estimate x;' is available, then the Ncwton- Raphson process produces an
improved value Xi by expanding (8.46) about x;:
.... Fk(X;) + a;k
~'(,
Ix! = x ; (Xi - X;) = o. (8.47)
The matrix fJFk / fJXi is the Jacobian, Jki. Usually one solves the (linear) system
(8.47) for Xi (or X i - x;) and obtains a better solution , achieving quadratic con­
vergence in the error Xi - x;, unlike the linear convergence of the Picard method .
Applying to the case N = I, with F = x 3 - 7x - 6, one finds that two iterations
(
gives x = -0.99993, showing rapid convergence. The Newton-Raphson process
does not always converge, however. For highly shear-thinning power-law models
(n S 0.5 ) it is usually safer to employ Picard iteration.
For a discussion on quasi-Newton methods see Dennis and Schnabel (1979).
In all cases a key problem is to get a good initial estimate, so that convergence
more readily follows. Of course , one has to respect any inherent limitations on
stability due to a large mesh size relative to the time step, as discussed by
Richtmyer and Morton (1967). Somc schemes (see, for example, Section 8.3. 1)
actually are more unstable as meshes are refined ; these are clearly untrustworthy
at any but insignificant Weissenberg numbers.
8.5.1 The high Weissenberg number problem
By iate 1970, JJlany workers were beCOi)iing fj"ustrated by \vhat quickly bec£:!!ne
kno·y./n as the ~ High V,I cl:;senberg Number pro b!en1' (HyVNP) - there \.v;:) s :1n
upper niHil o n (~Vi) , above ;;/ hich the numcr1cu l algo rithlTIS faded. In 1984 ,
Crochet el al. referred to ' the outstanding problem in the numericai simuia iion 01
non-Newtonian flow' and made the following observations:
(i) A limit on (Wi) is found in all published work.
(ii) Minor changes in the constitutive equation and /or the algorithms employed
l;, could lead to higher limiting values of (Wi). However. such improvements
did no more than delay the breakdown process.
(iii) Near the critical (Wi), it was often (but not always) observed that spurious
oscillations appeared in the field variables.
The prcsence of boundary corners sticking into the flow (saiient comers;
commonly referred to as re-entra nt cornerS in many publications) was thought to
destabilize the flow.
Solutions to the HWNP have gradually evolved since 1977 (Tanner and
Waiters 1998). An early idea of importance was that of Crochet and Keunings
(1980). who used a system of coupled equations. Here, the unknown pressure,
velocity and stress components were solved for simultaneously, using Gaus~ian
elimination. This led to a considerable advance in the critical Weissenberg
number attainable. (Crochet and Keunings 1982). The solution method was
8 . 5 SOLUTION PROCEDURES AND STABILIZATION 393
coupled to a Newton-Raphson scheme, which enabled accurate solutions to be
made, once divergence had been avoided . A clear recognition of the source of the
convergence problems began to appear. The hyperbolic nature of constitutive
equations of the differential type was pinpointed and it was recognized as an
important factor in the instability. Baaijens (1998) has reviewed progress in this
field over the years 1987- 97 and gives a long list of references. Generally, several
ideas have assisted. For example, Perera and Walters (1977) changed the vari­
ables, and instead of solving for the T:ik directly, they split off a Newtonian
component , and solved for a new set of variables Sik:
Sik = Tik - 2T}r d ;k. (8 .48)
where T}r is an (arbitrary) reference viscosity. Sun el at. (1996) generalized this idea
to a variable. adaptive reference viscosity. The use of upwinding, discontinous
Galerkin methods, and artificial diffusion have all combined to stabilize com­
putations so tha t useful (Wi) ranges can now be attained with finite elements
(Baaijens 1998), with finite volumes (Xue el at. 1998) and with spectral methods
(Pilitsis and Beris 1989). The knowledge that very thin stress boundary layers
appear with some models, especiaiiy the UCM , has aiso enabled mesh refinement
to be made more rational.
8.5.2 Accuracy oj" COiilpuialioiis
For a iong time ii was difiicuii io achieve stabiiiiy in compuiations wilh highiy
viscoeiastic flows , <'1S detaiied in the previous section. Now that the HVv'NP
has been at least partially solved, the accuracy or computations needs to be
considered.
Generally. in the limit of an inflllitesimal mesh size, the algebraic equations
produced numerically should reduce to the exact partial differential equations.
The accuracy of a solution can usually only be judged by reducing the mesh size,
adding more modes in the spectral method, or by using more complex inter­
polations in the elements (Talwar and Khomami 1995). It is preferable to use at
least three meshes, which is sometimes difficult, to establish con vergence.
.Usually. one plots some measure of the change in variables against mesh size
(Fig. 8.6). The convergence rate can then be seen, and accurately established.
Richardson extrapolation (Roache 1998) can also be useful.
One should not confuse accuracy with the iterative convergence obtained by
iteration on a fixed grid, which is necessary to solve the non-linear equations.
Often iterative convergence can be drjven down to machine aceuracy (l0-15) and
is not related to the overall accuracy of the computation .
Roache (1998) has explained these matters expansively and he notes that it is
now editorial poiicy in some journals to require mesh refinement (or the
equivalent) to establish some idea o/" the accuracy of the computations. He also
394 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 86 SOME TEST PROBLEMS 395

10- 3 ~:::r= ~V ~
. Average speed iii
-.. -
.- ­ -
(a)

E 10- 4 . -{.
W (b)
Galerkin, SUPG
S'
///#4'4'//&?/'&~
2
Wall speed U

p ]'"- -E?€::-~ -t<

10- 5 I _

(c)

10- 2 . 8 10- 2 .4 10- 2 10- 1.6 . I

h

Fig.8.6 Error analysis for a finite element viscoelastic one-dimensional problem . Ordinate shows
Ln IT, - rfKI/n where r; is the numerical result a t node i and rfK is the Runge- KUll a result at node
i; n is the number of element s on x = 0- I. The approximate slopes are marked on the curves. The . - (. (d)
abscissa shows h on a logarithmic scalc. The two curves, O(h) and O(h 2 ), show the clTeet or
changing numerical schemes. The Runge-K ull a solution is essentially exact.

L~, ..

lists a taxonomy of errors: ~. fixed outer cylinder

Discretization errors --z~ . - b ,'/Jr
•'-...-f'\
(e)

~ Errors that a re nurnericai bui not error!:> of uiscret~z a tio:: ( for example,
short a domain)
• Modelling errors
• Errors in a physical pa rameter
• Programming errors
• Computer round-off errors
The last category is often easily demonstrated to be unimportant.
With these warnings, we now exhibit some uses of computation in rheology.
8.6 Some test problems
While the computation of inelastic response is now routine, that for viscoelas­
ticity is still a delicate matter. One of the hardest equations to compute with is the
UCM model [Eqn (4.25)], and we wiii frequently present results fo. this model.
Addition of a 'solvent' viscosity gives the Oldroyd-B model [Eqn (4.28)] which
has also been often used. A very useful feature has been the repealed solving of
several test problems of varying severi ty. Figure 8.7 shows the five most common
test problems . Perhaps the simplest, we h ave discussed the eccentric cylinder
t OG
'0 i' 'V /
'//1%P//
-4-1--10
Fig.8.7 Five sta ndard lest problems. (a) Extru sion (plane or axisymmetric). Weissenberg Number (
Wi = AW/ R where A is a relaxation time. Note points or singular stresses S, which are dirJicul! to
capture numerically. (b) 4: I Contraction now (plane or axisymmetric): the points S ca use problems. (
(Wi) = ).i" / R. (c) 2: 1 Tube/sphere problem : (Wi ) = ).,U/ a. No singula r po ints. Drag rorcc Fleads
to definition o r drag cocrr;cient K = F / 67r7JOUa where 1)0 is the zero·shear rate viscosity. (d) ' Wiggly'
tube problem: diamete r varies sinusoidally with distance a long tube . Amplitude (E) and wavelength
(L ) are parameters in problem, besides )"w/ a. (e) Eccentric rotating cy linder ('bearing') problem.
Two dimensionless c riteria are (Wi) = )"f!a/(b - a) and (De) = An; the eccentricity ra tio E/( b - 0)
is also importan t. (f! is the angular s peed or the inner cylinder).
(Probiem (e), Fig. S.7) in Chapter 6 . In ihis case Beris ei al. (1983) solved the
problem for the UCM model using a combination of tinite elements and spectra l
methods. Huang e! al. (1996) used a finite volume method . However, the finite
volume method did not resoive the thin O( Wi) -I stress boundary layers occur­
ring, despite the fact that the load magnitude and direc tion agreed with the
pseudo-speciral method (Fig. 6.5). No inle t or exit regions are present; only (
continuity of stresses is needed .
(
 396 COMPUTAT.IONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.6 SOME TEST PROBLEMS 397

Similarly, Problem (d), the wiggly tube, has periodicity in s pace.
The solution therefore needs only to be found in a single period of the corru­
gation. Pilitsis and Beris (J 989) used the pseudo-spectral/finite difference
method , already used for the eccentric cylinder problem, and again it was suc­
cessful and relatively stable. A flow resistancefcan be defined by
f(Re) = 2Jr6.pa4/7JLQ, (8.49)
where ( Re) = 2pQ/71'J']a , p is the density, Q is the flow ra te, 6.p is the pressure drop
over a length L, a is the mean radius of the tube, and 7J is the (constant) shear
viscosity. The amplitude of the sinusoidal wall shape is c; = O'a; fis a function of
0, (Re), (Wi), and the ratio of pitch to radius, L/a.
Pilitsis and Beris (1989) were able to solve the creeping flow of a 'UCM mod el
quite accuratel y [< 0.1 per cen t for f( Re)] and some of their results are shown in
Fig. 8.8 for 0' = 0.1, L/ a = 0.16. Agreement with a perturba ti on solution is also
clear: one sees that f(Re) does not increase with (Wi) and the domain pertur­
b a tion solution appears to asymptote to a constant f(Re) as Wi ---> 00. They
emphasized the need for adequate discretizati on and showed, for 0' = 0.0 1
(slightl y wiggly tube), that for (Wi) > 40 inadequate m es hing gave an apparent
sharp increase in f(Re) which disappeared with mesh refinement. For the
Oldroyd-B model, the value ofj(Re) initially fell, and then rose as (Wi) increJ sed .
In this work 8-32 F ourier modes were used and up to 200 finitedilTerence modes
across the tube; the largest number of unknowns was 38400. Pilitsis el al. (1991)
extended this work to various constitutive models, including a PTT model, the
power law model, and others, including inertia. They found that their compu­
tations for f(Re) did not agree well with experiments and they wondered if there
was an instability in the experimental /low which was not captured in the cal­
culations .
While these two problem s (d and e) show good results from the spectral
method, its geomet rical i nflex i bili t y is a major pro blem wi th com plex bou nd aries.
8.6.1 Flow around a sphere in a lube-VCM model
We begin with the UCM model (eqn 4.25).
The test problem 8.7(c) has been widely attacked , a nd it has proved to be
more difficult than one might imagine at first sight. Consider the creeping flow
of an upper-con vected Maxwell ('UCM) model around a fixed sphere of radius
a in a long tube of radius R. If the tube speed is V, and the drag on the sphere
is F, then
K = F/ 6Jr7)Va =F[a/ R , ( Wi)] (8.50)
where th e force Fi s compared with the Stokes drag on a sphere in an infinite sea of
Newtonian /luid , and the Weissenberg number is ).V/ a. Many computations
have been performed with a/ R = 0 .5 [Fi g. 8.7(c)] and we will focus on this

( r --,~
.---,-~ ----,

j
case first.
ftJth nugh the prubJern is geurnelric::dly ~rn{)0ih, failu res a1 IotA' (Wi)« 0.5)
f occ'urred u p ~ 0 a bout 1990 (T3nner :l nd \\1 a lt er!) 1998) :}nd .no trust worthy resl.:l t~
1
• mesh M1
beyond (Wi) :0::: 1.0 were then avaiiable .
16.8L
o mesh M2 'Using a n EEME (Explicitly Elliptic Momentum Equation) method, Jin el al.
• perturbalion
~ (1991) produced consistent results up to a (Wi) of 1.5; Lunsmann el ai. (1993)
16.6 r t used EEME and EVSS methods and obtained similar results. Later, Fan and
., Crochet (1995) used an EVSS method and were able to avoid divergence up to a
(Wi) of about 2.1. Baa ijens el al. (1996) were able to reach a (Wi) of2.5; Sun el ai.
~ 16.4
"" r !l (1996) reached 2.6 and Lu o (1996) published results up to 2.8. The simulations for
(Wi) > 1.6 are again showing some divergence , but reliable resul ts are now

16.J ' ... avail able at medium (Wi) values.

Some recent results are shown in Fig. 8.9 and Table 8.1 shows a comparison of
1
-=0.

.., the results of Fan el al. (1999) using a finite element code with the ability to resolve
t o · ...
~ Om!! ~ thin stress boundary layers, and an average of a group of papers by Sun ei al.
16 L. ! I

o 4 8 12 16 20 24 (1996), Lunsmann el al. (1993), Luo (1996), Fan (1997), Warichet and Legat
Weisscnbcrg number (Wi) (1997), and Luo (1998). At the given (Wi) the highest and lowest K values were
discarded and the arithmetic mean of the others is tabulated; the error estimate
Fig.8.8 Flow resislancej(Re) [see eqn (8.49)1 as a functi on of Weisse nberg number, (Aw!a), for
flow in a lube wilh sinusoidally varying diameler. Results for the Maxwell (UCM) model. H ere lhe
is for m..:d by studying the remaining maximum differences from the mean. It is
sinusoiuai ampl ilude E is O.ill, w here a is ih e mean iube radius. The pitch/ raJius ratio (Lla) of the clear that as (Wi) in creases, the available accuracy goes down by more than
( sinusoid IS 0.16. one order of magnitude. Most of the computa tions used in excess of 30000
398 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.6 SOME TEST PROBLEMS 399

unknowns. The problem with this geometry lies in the thin stress boundary layers,
hard to resolve, and in the wake region, where Fan el al. (1999) have shown that
accuracy and convergence are hard to achieve. Some results up to (Wi) ~ 4 have
been reported, but they have not been well replicated by others. One can ask
whether the drag curve will ultimately rise with increase of (Wi). Walters and
Tanner (1992) suggest that experiments with Boger (constant viscosity) fluids
6.0
show an initial decrease with (Wi) and ihen an upturn. So far no obvious increase
has been noted in the UCM model calcul ations with aiR = 0.5, (see Fig. 8.9)
although convergence problems often show up as an increase in the drag cQef­
ficient K There is therefore an argument suggesting that K may stay, for the
'< UCM model and aiR = 0.5, at a constant value as (Wi) becomes large.
o
... Most workers have computed the drag by integrating around the sphere, but
U
one may also integrate around the contour ABCD. (Fig. 8.10). Since the extra
:;, 5.0
stress T is zero at inlet (AB) there is no problem with inlet boundary conditions; a
r5'" long exit is needed to ensure that there are no residual stresses at exit; Fan el ai,
(1999) used an exit length (Le) 0[25a. As the fluid is carried away at a speed U, it
will take a time of about Lei U to reach the exit. ] n that time, assuming an
exponential stress decay, an attenuation of stress of about exp(-Lel>"U) will
(
occur, or exp( - Leia( Wi)).
4.0 Thus for (Wi) = 3, Lel a = 25, an attenuation of about 2.4 x 10- 4 will occur,
which is only just sufficient for the claimed accuracy of the computations. At
higher (Wi), a very long exit region is clearly needed. CalculatIng the drag force.f'
o
Wei sst:nberg lIoJllber (~Vi ) = A l..//a by a simple force balance on ABCD, and assuming a zero traction exit, where
p = 0, one finds
Fig. !!.9 Sphe re dra g rHctor K( = F/67rT)aU) ve rsu s Weissc nberg number Wi( = AU/a) ror a/ R = 0 ,5.
Oat" o f Tr1b !c R.I.
1rR26.P +27rRj(E Tw dz=F. (8.Si)
,A

Table 8.1 Sphere drag coefficient F/61r7]Ua In the case R = 2a we find, in dimensionless terms,

(Wi) Fan el 01. (1999) A verage Error estima te % 2 + -2lB Tw dz.

K = - /::,.p
3 3,
(8.5Ia)
5,9476 5,9474 < 0,01 A

°
0 ,2 5,660

:~- cls.:· _~J~

0.4 5,187
I
0,6 4 ,802

0.8 4.528
1.0 4,33 8 4.341 <0,1
f
1.2 4.2 15
1.4
1.6
1.8
4,134
4,083
4,056
4,077 < 0,25 l C::.p
- '. I
I
'

2,0 4,045 4 ,029 < 0.5

4,047 fig.8.10 Altern a tive computation of sphere drag. [see eqn (8.51)]. The pressure dro p C::.p is made
2.2
dimensionless with 1)Uf a.

 400 COMPUTATIONAL RHEO LOGY AND APPLICA TIO NS 8.6 SOME TEST PROBLEM S 401

One can find 6.p as a function of( Wi), Fig. 8. j i and Tabie 8.2 shows this quantity. An approximate analysis can be made, as fo llows.
'w is negative, and the stress pattern shifts downstream as (Wi) increases , without We assume (see Luo 1996, for example)
much change in the value of the shear integra l; K seems to be tending towards a (i) The flow field changes little from the Newtonian case
constant. This behaviour would be consistent with the/eRe) results for the UCM
(ii) Th a t, with the UCM m odel, the pressure drop 6..p con tinues to fall, as (Wi)
sinusoidal tube problem reported above - the y reach a constant/eRe) value as
increases. The plausibility of this argument is strengthened by the asymptotic
(Wi) becomes large.
theory and the sinusoidal tube calcula tions of Pi lit sis a nd Beris (1989), which
show this trend.
(iii) That the two componen ts o f drag due to pressure d rop 6..p a:-:d wa l! s hear
"'- 20 stress respectively [eqn (8.5 I a)], are linearly related, so that, for (Wi) > 1,
<I
o ne has

1:
0.
2
""
~~ ,dz = 0.4656..p. (8.52)

~---~--~--~----
0.
~ The actual computed values a re shown in Table 8.2.
C" 10 From Luo's (1996) cont ou r plots, one sees, as (Wi) increases, that the pressure
o
' v;
c
<> drop is more and more concentrated in the downstream direction. This follow s
E becau se in the inlet region to the narrowest constriction (0 ) z> -I) the UeM
is
model cannot respond viscollsly to a suddenly impo sed strain ra te and so the
pressure needed to drag fluid throu gh the gap is dim in ished. An approximate
computation assumes that the re gio n Z = -I to 0 is affected by this lack of

(. o 2 3
(Wi)
, response. )f a constant shear ra te of order Vja, say cVja, where c is a constant, is
illlposed a i z = - 1, ihen if ihe fluid shear stress resp onse is linear, the Liimen­
sionlcss shea r stress r obeys
F!g. 3. ;! Dil)!cns!on!css rrcsSllre drop {Sp ~ $ a func tion or 'vVe issc nbcrg number l,Vi(= ,,\U/a) for
" / R = 0.5 , UCM model.
I T
(Wi) de

d z + ,=c, (8.53)

where (3 is a factor which sets the (average) convection speed at V / (3 instead of V.

Table 8.2 Sphere in tube drag
Solution of (8.53) and inserti o n of a boundary condition -r = O:'C at z = - I gives
(Wi) !J.p K (nurn) reo rdz - Jrdz /!J.p K (calc.) eqn (S.55) 0/0 erro r the result:
0 14.99 5.947 -6.069 0.405 5.947
r = c[I + (0:' - l )exp(-,6 ( 1 + z)/(Wi)J. (8.53a)
0.6 12.69 4.798 ·­ 5.493 0.432 4.63 ···4
1.0 11. 79 4 .330 -5.295 0.449 4.34 The factor O:'C accounts for initial st resses developed before the entry region is
11.39 4077 -5.275 0.463 4.!4 +! reached. Computation of I~I rdz gives the result
1.6
2.0 J 1.33 4 .030 -5.285 0.466 4.06
2.4
2.8
11 .35
11.31
4.030
4.05 8
- 5.305
-5 .223
+0.467
+0.462
4.01
3.97
0.5
- 2
-
1
0 dr, ) (Wi) (
_ I ' Z=ClJ-li-O:' ~ l-exPl-!-'
. f'l/( w ·· )l
I) J' (8.54)

3.2 11.3 2 4.04" - 0.465(") 3.94 -1 With this result and assumption (iii) above, one can compute the drag factor K
3.71 ± O. ! when c, 0:', and (3 are known , since K = -0.776 L ,dz, from (8.51a). (Con­
tributi ons to the integral outside - I < Z < 0 are neg lec ted .)
~

,.,* inferred; (*) aS$u'm cd . To fit the data at (Wi) = 0, we set 0.776c = 5.947 or c = 7.75. As (Wi) --> =,
Drag factor K = F/6r"7Ua ill creeping fl ow for of R = 0 .5; UCM model [cqn (4.25)]. t , 6p mode
dimensionless with 1)U/a; ( Wi) = AU/a [Fig. 8.7(c»). K --> 5.9470:'. The limiting K, from Table 8.2 , is not known. To find 0:' and (3 the
402 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.6 SOME TEST PROBLEMS 403
(
curve is fitted at (WI) = i and 2 giving I - 0< = 0.377 , (3 = 0.702, and so
1.6
K= 5.94711-0.536(Wi)(1 -exp(-0.702/(Wi»)]. (8.55) Upper bound
I
/ . - - - ............
Table 8.2 shows the values of K calculated from this formula. The limiting K(oo) Com outed '", -11.4
is 3.71 from (8.55), but this value is certainly subject to possible errors of at ,
least ±2-3% (±O.I). The drag is reasonably well fitted by (8.55). Since the
0
o "'- '
o .-.~\..
argument depends on the constancy of 6.p and the shear integral, caution is J 1.2
./' '~o :..,
needed for other aj R ra tios and other models. The a/ R ra tios of 1/4 and 1/8 have / ,0
been considered by Lunsmann el al. (1993). The change of K with (Wi) for
a/ R = o. I 25 shows an initial decrease of K, then an increase for (Wi) > 0.8. For /
\.0
' E
1.0 "
"
.!!l
u

aiR = 0, with the UCM model, the drag factor is practically constant up to
(W/) = I (Gu and Tanner 1985).
/~ower bound
8 OJ)

r:
Experiments on configurations where a/ R 20.4 are prone to show the inability / 0.8
0

of the sphere to stay on the centreline, and so few detaiied studies of ex peri menial
correlations are available. Also, (Bot el al. 1998) there is evidence that two
spheres following one another, in falling ball experiments, assume different 0.6
speeds. This effect is probably due to destruction of the structure in the fluid and a
slow recovery (Walters and Tanner 1992).

8.6.2 Olher sphere problems

The flow of inelastic fiuid s around spheres is oriJjteres~. Gu <InC T:mner (1985)
o Experiments 1
JO.4
(

studied the power-law case and showed that wall effects were minimal for 1 . 1
0. 1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
!1 ::; 0.5 . They compared their computations with upper and iower ltfJalyticaJ
Power-:aw jndex n
bounds and also with experiments. (Fig. 8.12).
Fig.8. /2 Drag F for spheres in unbounded power-jaw riuids, where T = k-Y' . fhe drag coefficient (
Butcher and 1[vine {! 990) studied a modified power-jaw mouei and cOH1parcd
X IS nltfe defined by X = 2" F i i 21'ik ij~ (]2 1:.
their computations with a solution of carboxymethyl cellulose in water. Beaulne (
and Mitsoulis (1997) studied the flow of Herschel-Bulkley fluids. Beris el af.
(J 985) st udied a true Bingham flow.
for the UCM model are more difficult than in the sphere case (Fan et al. 1999),
Jin el af. (1993) studied the flow of a PTT model using the EEME method and
especially with regard to the stresses behind the sphere. The drag coefficient
the increased stability of the computa tion was clear. The reduction of drag due to
Kp = F/ryfi (here F is the drag force per unit length and u is the mean channel
shear-thinning was also clear; this led to a recirculation behind the sphere.
velocity) is a function of a/ H and (Wi) = Au/a, and shows the same continuous
Lunsmann el al. (! 993) studied the Oldroyd-B mode! and the Chilcolt­
reduction as in the sphere case for a/H=0.5. The Oldroyd-B model was, as
Rallison (Section 5.5.!) model. Results for the drag lactor K , at a/ R = o. J 25, first
expected, easier to compute with than the UCM model; it is not clear from these
showed a slight decrease, then an increase for (Wi) :> 0.8. Changes from the
computations if there is a minimum value of Kp . Sun et at. (1999) investigated the
Newtonian resuits were small, of the order of a 2 per cent increase at (Wi) = 2.
The Chi\cott-RaIJison model gave a small increase. Thus the a/ R = 0.5 and Oldroyd-B result for two a/H values (0.5 and 0.125). For the a/ H = 0.125 case,
there appears to be a shallow minimum value of Kp at about (Wi) ~ 0.7 , and then
a/ R <' O. j 25 cases behave differently; in the former the wall effect dominates the
drag, whereas for the iatter the extended wake is important. Generally, shear an increase in drag. The increase for ai H = 0.5 was not seen by Fan e{ al. (i 999).
thinning is always important. The Giesekus model was also used by Sun el at. (1999) and showed a contin­
UOus decline in Kp with (Wi), at least up to (Wi) = 14. Comparison with experi­

8.6.3 Cylinder in a channel ment has been made by Baaijens el al. (1997) who used two 4-mode PTT models
and a Giesekus 4-mode model to fit low-density polyethylene data, with a uxiliary
The flow past a cylinder (rarlius 0) in a channel with fixed walls distant 2H apart calculations using one- and eight··mode models . Stress birefringence patterns
has been studied and sometimes compared with experiment. The computations were compared with computations up to a Weiss enberg number of about 5 and

(
 404 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.7 FLOW NEAR CORNERS AND SEPARATION POINTS 405

reasonably good agreement was noted. For a polyisobutylene solution, see also where
Baaijens el at. (! 995). 2 & j 0 j &
\7 -- -or 2 +--+ - ­
ror r 2 oB2·
8.7 Fiow near corners and separation points
Substituting (8.56) in (8.57) one finds an equation forlm which can be solved to
So far the problems considered have had smooth geometrical outlines. The
give the general solution
remaining two [Fig. 8.7(a) and (b)J have sharp corners or separation points. The
flow near these points presen ts additional difficulties because even simple con­ 1m = A cosmB + BsinmB + Ccos(m - 2)0 + D sin(m - 2)B, (8.58)
stitutive models generate singular stress fields . We will begin with creeping
Newtonian (Stokes) and generalized Newtonian Clow s. where A , B, C , and D are arbitrary constants. Case (a) (solid walls) has been
In Fig. 8.13(a) we show the Clow near a sharp corner. extensively treated by Dean and Montagnon (1949). Here we require v = 0 on the
Since there is no length scaie, we assume the stream function 1jJ for the problem sohd walls at B = 0,0. (Fig. 8.13(a)]. This gives four requirements for the
can be expressed in the form determination of the constants; these lead to a characteristic equation for m :
1/; = rn~(,t1(B), (8 .56) sin o(m - I) = ±(m - I) sin o. (8.59)
where the exponent m has to be found. In a creeping Newtonian flow the satis­
The minus sign in (8.59) gives a series of antisymmetric flow patterns (about a
faction of the Stokes equation s can be shown to be equivalent to requiring that
symmetry line B = 0/2) and the positive sign gives symmetric flow patterns.
\741/; = 0, (8.57) Dean and Montagnon (1949) have solved (8.59) for the exponent m as a
) func(ior! of 0: . The results are shoV'ln in Table 8.3; these roots correspond to the
antisymmetric ilow patterns. The important idea here is that corners that poinl
, Flow )11tO the rio w ( 0 > i 80') give singuiar stresses ai the corner.
.,.-­ Vole prefer to caii these soiid corners lhal slick inlo lhe riow salienl corlle rs;
commonly in the literature they are referred to as re-entrant corners, but this can
only refer to the fluid , 110t to the boundaries themselves.
(a)
Since the stresses are proportional to r m - 2 , the stresses behave like r- I / 2 when
G\' = 360° , a nd the singularity is less powerful when G\' is smaller. For 0< < ! 80°, the
corner stresses are zero; when CY < 146.3° eddies begin to appear in the corner a s
the exponent in is then complex.
In the case or the separate problem [Fig. 8.13(b)J the angle a: of separation is
)
also an unknown quantity. Michael (1958) showed that the separation occurred

Free Table 8.3 Corner flow exponents

surface
(b) 0'0 m 0'0 m
a
360 1.500 220 1.697
Flow
340 1.500 200 1.818
320 1.503 IRO 2.00
Free surface 1.512 170 2.13
300
) 280 1.530 160 2.29
270 1.545 ISS 2.42
(e) 260 1.563 ISO 2. 53
240 1.616 146.3 2.76
Fig.8.13 Sing ular point s of flow . (a) Flow round a COrner thaI projects into the nuid . (b) Flow at
a sharp, well · defined separation poin!. (c) General separation point. For angles less than 146.3° the exponent m is complex .
406 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS R.7 FLOW NEAR CORNERS AND SEPARATION POINTS 407

at an angle a = 7r. In that case the exponent of the singularity is real and has a that the model behaves, near the singular point, like a Newtonian fluid, with
minimum value of m = 3/2. Thus the stresses (and the pressure) behave like 1'- 1/2 viscosity A2""/ A. This does not seem to be what occurs (Hinch 1993; Tanner and
near the separation point. Experimentally (and also in computaiions) separation Huang 1993). In any case, for the UCM model, where A2 = 0, this gives a zero
does not always occur as suggested by Michael. It seems probable that either stress. Hinch considered an a1rern~tivt. limit 6.::! 6.! = 0 in tl cere lcgiOil, wltich
separation occurs as at Fig. 8.l3(c) or that the Newtonian fluid physics is follows the weak, viscometric flow upstream. Writing this result in Cartesian
inadequate near the singular point, but further research on this point is needed. form, in the core one has J
(S-e-e '-ka-n -a-n-d -P-ritcnarcl- J9S-0~ "Tanner el 07. T9KSTHU1cninson (19(5-8)113s
extended this result to power-law fluids; if chij OVj OVj A
'Uk - - - 'k · - [ik - = u. (8.61 )
8Xk 8 Xk j OXk
L = k"y" (8.60)
Letting Lij = h('IjJ)'Uj'Ui, where h is a function of the stream function 'IjJ, and sub­
in simple shearing, then he found that the stress singularity in such problems stituting in (8.61), one finds the left-hand side of this equation reduces to
behaves like 1'-11/ (11+1), approximately. Tanner and Huang (i 993), using the Vj'UjVk (8h/oXk), which is zero'if h is a function of the stream function, as
J-integral method of fracture mechanics, confirmed that this is an exact result. assumed. Substitution of this solution in the momentum equation, using the
Thus a s the fluid parameter n decreases from I to zero (pseudo-plastic case), the incompressibility condition, enables one to eliminate the pressure, and leads to a
power of the singularity decreases from -1/2 to zero. Tanner and Huang (1993) non-linear eigenvalue problem. The final result gives all the stresses behaving like
also investigated several other inelastic models (Carreau, biviscosity (Herschel­
a ~ r - 2(I-rr/ o)
Bulkley) models), and they computed the intensity of the singular stresses in (8.62)
several cases. See also Henriksen and Hassager (1989) for flow of a power-law
fluid round comers. 'vvhere one has chosen the strean1 function (.-.... sinn inO) to be zero at e= 0, Ct.

For the ~t:cond-order moaei, the veiocity field is the same as the Newtonian
I
case (Seciion 4. i i. i), and one finds that the norlllal stresses nt:ar the singular
point behave like r- I, which is non-integrable. One thus reconfirms the unsuit­
a bility of this model in rapidly-varying stress fields.
Tanner and Huang (1993) also considered the flow ]1a rallel to sharp edg~ (~dg<:,
flows); that is, a parallel flow w(r, 8)k ill Fig. 8.13(a). We shall refer to some of
these results in connection with COll1putational results given I'atcr.
8.7. J Viscoelastic models
The methods employed in the previous section do not help with the UCM and
Oldroyd- B analyses. Renardy (1993) considered the problem of the UCM model
when a = 270 He assumed that the flow field was Newtonian. The stresses were
0
•
When (X = 71", the soiuiion (8.62) is reguiar. For a = 27[, n = 2~, and the stresses
aft: ~ingui;Jr iike r i . When (} = 3'1[/2 , m = 2/3, n = 7/3 , and the stresses are sin­ .,
gular like r- 2/ 3 Hinch also showed that the solvent stresses were less singular
than the elastic stresses.
Renardy (1995) matched upstream and corneT flows fo!" the 270 0 :Ingle caSE. He
found a ~ r- 2/3, "y oc r- 4/ 9 in the core region, in agreement with Hinch, and
upstream a ~ 1'-2 /3 , 'l' OC ,.- 1/ 3 During this work with the UCM and Oldroyd-B
models Hagen and Renardy (1997) showed that the thin stress boundary layers
are oforaer (Wi-I), but are only of order (Wi) - I/3 for the PTT model. These
results go far to explaining the greater ease of computing with the PIT model.
For the stick-slip flow, the PTT model gives Newtonian behaviour near the )
singularity (Tanner and Huang 1993; Renardy 1997).

then calculated and were found to behave like r-074. At the wall s, using a theorem
8.7.2 Numerical results near Singular points
of Caswell (1967) , the flow is viscometric, and the normal stresses behave as the
square of the shear rate, like r- 091 . Thus boundary layers appeared and matching It is extremely difficult to achieve a satisfactory numerical solution near singular
was difficult . Hinch (1993) considered the same problem for the Oldroyd-B points because of the steep gradients. We shall see that establishing the exponent
model, assuming no lip vortex was formed, so that the streamlines continue of the stresses and the level needs very great mesh refinement.
around the corner. The flow upstream near the wall is viscometric. Rewriting the Newtonian Slick-slip problem
Oldroyd-B equation as
Xue et al. (1999) and Salamon el 01. (1995) have studied this problem
LH
A 6.1 +T = 2TJ d
[6.d]
+ A2
6.1 ' (4.13a)
[Fig. 8.14(a)]. The former group used a finite volume method and the latter a
finite element program.
Fluid enters far upstream with a Poiseuille flow in a channel of depth 2H and
where A2 is the retardation time, there has been a tendency to argue that the two very large width. For X> 0 the (thin) walls vanish, and slip occurs, and the
6./6.t terms dominate, and are of equal importance. This argument then shows velocity eventually settles to a uniform speed (; far downstream. The point S, at
,)
COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8 . 7 FLOW NEAR CORNERS AND SEPARATION POINTS 409
408

where TJ is the viscosity (one should note that the pioneering analysis of
(a)

\.
Stick r
AI
,SI'p
__ __
Richardson (1970) gives results abo ut 16 per cent too low). The factor
(3 / 2n)I /2 ~ 0.691 (= 0'1 /2 ) and so in dimensionless terms the factor 0'\ / 2 represents

' - f$', I w:
~
the intensity of the stress fieJd at S. Note that the length scale used here is

"
H/2. The stresses in the lilamenty = 0 down stream near S can be found and the

) ~~ $,;0' e~s - ~i normal stress difference Trr - c:eo(=N\) can be found to be

N\ ~
-
4TJUO: I .I 2(Hr/2)-
1/2
(8.63)

Three line meshes were used in the computation, shown in Table 8.4.
JSti.ck \SliP I
1
Comparisons of the N, formula (8 .63) and the velocity field are given In
I

I I
1 L/2 - - - r - -- - L / 2 - - -1
Table 8.5, for downstream elements along the centreline, The computed values
of N\ shown in this table are in error by ~ 2 per cent at the (different) radial
positions . Figure 8.15 shows the smoothness of the solutions. Salamon el at.
(1995) used ultra line meshes to get the result shown in Table 8.5; their minimum
(b) y

- - J. UII LLl Mesh

Table 8.4
Number or nodes imax xjmax
Meshes used
Minimum (dimensionless mesh size)
!'v11 22 x i 06 0.025
'
i" I1
I M2 44 x 152 0,0025
I

I I I
f-8[~(:
M3 70 x 204 0.00025
LI
)
L/ 2

I t! 111J
6°1 'J

,. ,'__ '1._. " . . 11,_

~ x
50
MI
I IJ
-<>-- M2
Fig. 8.14 Schematic dia gram o f: (a ) pl a ne SLick-slip flow (if a co nstant pressure gradient is 40
M3
specifi ed a long the x-direction o r a full y devel o ped Poiseuille flow is imposed at the entrance) ; and
~f edge fl o w (if top and bollom plat es are moving al a c o nst"'li speed in z-direc lion). The singularil Y T X)'

is localed at Ihe edge S(O.O, z) in Ihe Cartesian coo rdinate syslem (x ,y , z). A local polar co ordina le 30

sysl em (1' , 0) wilh B corresponding 10 a ray leading 10 x < 0 along th e cenlreline (y= 0) is used fo r Ihe
ana lysi s o f thc singularil Y. and (b) plane flow pa sl a junclion in a channel. A local polar coo rdina te
syslem (I', I) is used fo r Ihe analysis of the singularity, and the Cartesian co ordinate system (x,y ) is 20

for cakul a lion .

)
10
the end of the no-slip solid wall , is the singular point. For Newtonian creeping
flow the form and strength of the singularity are known exactly (Tanner and
0 1 ~88"9~~
Huang 1993). ...:0.1 0,0 0.1
Upstream, on the solid wall, the shear stress is given by x
Fig. 8.15 Dis tribution of r xy al o ng the cenlreline fo r a Newtonian fluid calculated with the
T = 2TJU(3 / 2n )I /2 (Hr/2) - 1/2 + O(rl /2 ), different three meshes MI, M2, and M3 in stick-slip now; X= x /H .
)
410 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.7 FLOW NEAR CORNERS AND SEPARATION POINTS 411

Table 8.5 Newtonian stick-slip results 300 I ' ,

I 40 I (d) I
Mesh Ml M2 M3
2 J (e)?,
~
_
---<>-
M2&cwi)= 0.13

1
I

~
I

I
M2&(Wi)~0 .25
j
~ ~
JV r 30
Radial position r 0.05618 0.05386 0.05206 M 3&(W i).... O.13 I I

2.~~1 j\
_. 1' _ __ 1 •.• ' . '
Ur \.alldlYlJl,..j 0.328 0 .32 1 U.315
j. I I
JIU~
. fJ'l
11,(computed) 0.326 0.314 0 .309 N, 20
-- r
xy
Nj ta-n-a-tytic} 11."00 IT§I ri.!l 150
1
[\ 1 I
NI (computed) 11.33 11.59 11.66

~~ ~.~
'::U~
HI (Salamon el al. ! 995) 11.68

j 0,
---
----0--
M2 &(W,)=O J3
M2 &(Vh)=-O.25
1.0 ,r --~-~------,., o ~ -10 I - - - M3&(Wi)~ 0 . !3
20 ~ ! --~ M2&(Wi ) ' . 0.I) 0.1 0.6 -0.1 0'0
. 0.1
---o----- M2 &(WI),-oO. 2S X X
10 ~ >-0=-£
' - M J& (Wi) ·· O. 1 Fig.8.17 NI (= T xx - Tn) and Txy fields for above.

u 0 .5 p
of ~"""" 0-0-<>.. ~o =1 )
I _--­
it I I V( 1 0.5) __ _
H- -- M2 &(Wi) = O.IJ! - 101 1 j
~
'!
I
~ M 2 &(WI) "" O.2 5'
,
M3 &(Wi)·· O. I)
_WIW
I
,
0.0'
)

0 .0 0.5
y
1.0 1.5 -0. 1 O~
X
~I ~2 1
Fig. 8.16 Velocity and pressure fields for UCM model at two Weissenberg numbers
(Wi = 2). U/ J-I) as function s of dimen sionless dista nce X= x/H.

-2
- I
II
Log r 0
mesh clement was about 4 x 10- 7 units in size. It is clearly very difficult to get

~.~ ~~..~{
accurate results near singular points. 2r
I --:::-- - - - - -- - - - ,
(b) (e)
---........---- "---.....:
UCi\I! and PTT Slick-slip corner and edge problems. 1.0
Much more difficult is the UCM stick-slip problem, see Fortin (1992). Here the
Weissenberg number is defined as 2)..[;/ H. Two Weissenberg numbers (0.13 and ~ 0.5 Slope = 2/ 3 ~
Ol)
0
o

==
0.25) have been used and Figs 8. 16 and 8.17 show these results. Note the extre­ ....l

mely fine meshes needed to get smooth results. The slope appears to be close to .3 M I &(WI)- O JJ \
- I
M I &(Wi)-O.J3
M2&(WI)-OJJ
the viscous result, ~0 . 5. Unfortunately Hinch's (1993) and Renardy's (1995) M2 &(Wi)u O.JJ
M I &(W\)=O.66 I -2 MI &(Wi)~O . 66
results do not give a result for the stick-slip case, and so the problem in Fig. 8. J4(b) -1.5
with a sharp 270 corner was computed. A reasonable agreement with the -2/3
0
-3 -'1. - I o -3 -2 -I o
Log r Log r
prediction for stress, and the +2/3 power for the velocity (Renardy 1995) was
found (Fig. 8. I 8). (All of these results are taken along the x-axis). For the PTT Fig.8.18 270° corner problem for UCM Ouid model. Asymplotie behaviour of: (a) the velocity
model (~ = 0, c = O. I), there seems to be a very small, roughly Newtonian region, magnitude w; (b) the shear stress T .•y; and (e) the normal stress Txx at angle (J=7r/ 2 around the
as predicted (Renardy 1997.) salient corner for an UCM Ouid at (WI) = 0.33 and (Wi) = 0 .66 on two different meshes.
 412 COMPUT ATI ONA L RHE O LO GY AND APPLICATIONS S.8 E NT R Y FLOW 413

For the edge n ow, w here the flow is along the sharp edge, parallel to OZ, exact
predictions of the singularit y fo rm are a vaila ble (Tanner and Huang 1993). The
resuit s ofXue el ai. (i999) show the small regio n of r - 1/ 4 behaviour for the PIT
mode! stresses, which was only detected with the fine st mesh.
One sees that stable, smooth results can be o btained if fine enough meshes a re
used in these problems. The question of the validity o f the physical dcscription
under ex tre me stress conditions actually must now be faced . On e of the few
investigat io ns which uses molecular dynamics simulatio n to stud y the phy sics of 4=
singularity flow s (see Section 8. 10) is the work Koplik and Banavar (1997). They Fl ow
were able to find rea sonable agree ment with the -0.5 Newt o nia n slope prediction
) using short molecu les, and with chains o f a ro und 30 units they found a larger
) expo nent , up to", - 0.7 5. Further considera ti o n o f th e physics nea r the corner is
dearly needed, in view of the opportunities for slip , cavi ta ti o n and molecular
scission the re.
In view of the difficulties in volved near corners , the two rem ai ning tes t pro­ (a)

blems clearly pose great problems , especially for the UCM model. Fortunately ,
the PTT and similar models are somewhat easier to compute with.

8.8 Entry flow

We no w consider the en try flow [Fig . 8.7(b)]. Th e fl ow pattern is com pl ex a nd I
viscoela sticit y makes great c han ges to the co rn er vo rti ces (Fig. 8. j 9) . F igure 8.20
shows a ske tch of the probiem. Often th e contraction ra ti o {j(= Du! D d ) has been
I
se t a t 4, a nd Boger (1 982) a nd his coll eag ues have performed man y experiments
with thi s geo metr y. A plane ana logue of thi s problem is also possible, but end
effects, due to the finite channel width, then co mplicate mailers. ~
Aside from thc vo rtex size and strength, the losses at entry are of interest. These Fiow
need to be defined carefully with non-Ne wtoni an fluid s. Usually, in viscoelastic
computati o ns, a t the upstream entry pl a ne , a fully developed velocity profile is
) prescribed , plu s associated extra stress ('ij) compo ne nt s. Downstream only the
velocity needs to be prescribed, plu s possibly a refere nce pressure at a single point.
(b)
Alternati vely, the exact stress di stribution can be imposed ac ross the outlet plane;
the point to observe is the variation of stress across th e sec tIon [see cqn (3.57)
) Fig. 8. 19 Entry n ows: flow is from right to Jefl. (a) Newto ni"n fluid. (R<'l - 1. 5 x 10- '.
a bove] and, rorexamp le, with the UCM model the press ure is constant across the ~,, = 20s - ' . (Wi)=0.( b)Vi scoe la s ticfluid.(R<'l _ 1. 8 x 10- '.";. = 24 s- '.(Wi)=0.108 . Bo th fluids
tube sec tio n, but the ax ial s tress is not. have co mpa rab le viscosity (20 Pa· s ). No te small '"orte, ill N~wtonian case a nd large. st ro ng vort ex
The question of h ow to define the losses in a co ntraction is probably best wilh ·wine-g lass · fl o w in viscoe las ti c case. Here ( Wi) = )"./ D . whe re D is the down s tream di a meter
resol ved by defining a nd " . is the ave ra ge speed d own strea m. The upstrea m tube diame ter is 7.68 D. (Ph o to by cou rtesy
of Pro fe sso r D .V. Boger. Universit y of Melbo ur ne . )
D.p, = D.p - D.pu - D.Pd (8.64)

where D.p, is the e ntry loss, C:;.p is the overall loss and C:;.p" and D.Pd are the losses
which would ensue if app ropri a te fully-deve lo ped Po ise uille flow s persisted up
)
and downstrea m from the SS' plane. C:;.p is the val ue o f the pressu re difference
on the centreline in Fig. 8.20. In addition , the re will a lso be a momentum c hange
which causes a n extra loss but thi s vanishes in c reeping flows a nd in other cases
can be readily comp uted (Probiem 8.9). F o r the UCM m ode L the overall
momentum change is the sa me for both New to ni a n and non-N ewtoni a n fl o w. in
any case.
Other wa ys of defining th e losses <lre poss ible: one might prefer to define D.p
from measurement s at the tube walls: for fluid s in whi c h the seco nd norm a l stress
difference N~ is zero !his reduces to the sa me va lu es as the centreline definition

)
)
414 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.8 ENTR Y FLOW 415

A V E Table 8.6 Maxwell fluid losses

! <:'--Z~ I Weissenberg Entry loss Exit loss Total loss
I
I
-­ ',I c
\~
number (Wi)( Ai w) 6.peo/2r", 6.pc. / 2rw entry + exit
<;' 0.00 0.566 n. " .... .,
V.L..J"-t 0.300
I - ) I 0.25 0.470 0.319 0.789

cr
I / 5'
A
\1-1
r
0.50
0.75
1.00
0.375
0.279
0.185
0.426
0.525
0.655
0.801.
0.805
0839
The enlry is a sharp· edged axisymmelric 4 : I conlr"clion: for compari son
i\

/'\~ I

wilh Fig. 8. 19 nOle >.w/ R = 0.25>'i .. _

Table 8.7 Exit apd entry losses for long tubes

B V F
Fluid model Exil loss Entry loss Sum
Fig. 8.Z0 Inlel flow problem . Inside Ihe areas VSE and VS' Fare vorlices. <I> is Ihe vorl ex opening 6.Pc./ 2r w 6.Pco/2 ,. e = (6.pe, + 6.Pcn)/2r",
angle. 5- 5 a re singularilY po inls. Conlraclion ralio {3= Du/ Dd'
Newtonian «(3 » I) 0.25 ­ 0.03 (Re) 0.59 + 0.071 (Re) 0.84 + 0.041 (Re)
(no surface
[see eqn (3.57)]. Or, the work necessary to generate the elastic field in the fluid tension)
could be considered. Since we will mostly deal with cases where N2 = O. the Creeping power-law
simplest definitions wil! be ll sp.d. ((3» I)
n = 1.0 0 25 0.59 0.85
it is ciear ihai ihert: is no ' nat' or uniform entry prufiie iii an y case . Boger (l9S2)
0.9 0.25 065 0.90
has discussed the theo reiicai and experimentai facts of entry fiow s; uespil e the 0.8 0.25 0.73 0.98
number ofentry-Iength calculations using a flat (uniform) velocity entry profile, 0.7 0.25 0.84 1.09
there is no evidence that this flow ever occurs. Hence we shall not survey this 0.6 0.26 0.98 1.24
area of work, especially as it is mainly concerned with higher Reynolds numbers 0.5 0.26 I. 17 1 41
and Newto nian flows . 0.4 0.27 1.46 1.73
With the entry flows, the contraction r a tion (3 is a n important parameter which 03 0.28 1.94 2.22
0.167 0.59 3.54 4 .13
affects the flow field. Boger (1982) has surveyed the entry lengths for abrupt
entries for various (3 values. He concludes that for axisymmetric contraction
ratios greater than 2 one can write
given . For shear-thinning fluids less extensive investigations are available , but at
L e = 0.49 higher Reynolds numbers greater entry lengths a re found (Boger 1982) for
Ii + 0.11 ( Re ), (8 .65)
power-law fluids. Table 8.7 gives the computed entry losses for power-law fluids
in creeping flow.
where the full development is judged to have occurred when the centreline
Abdali el al. (1992) have studied entry and exit flows of an approximate
velocity reaches 99 per cent of the fully-developed value. The result is valid up
Bingham model. Kim-E el al. (1983), with a 4: I contraction, found Lei R '" I. I 5
to (Re) = 2100, and is a conservative estimate. The creeping flow portion of
for n = 0.4 and 1.59 for n = 0 .2. Thus the figures in Table 8.7 are expected to be
eqn (8.65) has been subjected to experimental verification with fair results; it is a
upper bounds . It is doubtful if the inelastic fluid model is a proper one for
difficult experiment. Similarly, the entry loss pressure drop D.Pcn can be written
describing shear-thinning fluids in these complex flows (cf. Fig. 8.22), and in
(for (3 ? 4)
experiments it is often difficult to separate elastic and shear-thinning effects.
Thus we now consider viscoelastic effects in entry flows.
D.pen = 0.589 + 0.0709(Re). (8 .66) Computations on Maxwell fluids and second-order fluids at low (Wi) values
21""
yield entry pressure losses less than the purely viscous case (Caswell and
Table 8.6 gives some values for D.Pcn/21"w ; it is probable that the computer esti­ Viriyayuthakorn 1983), see Table 8.6. The total loss coefficient is nearly constant,
mates are more accurate than experiments in this case. Exit losses D.pe. are also which is also unrealistic (Boger 1982), see Fig . 8.21 ; for the second-order fluid the
 416 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.8 ENTRY FLOW 417
)
!
g 6~ 3
1
t

}'t
iJ
/. I
2~
I
~ t
.s
-0 3 "
120 130 140
'
150
~ •
.....
'"
c
II Phan·Thien-Tanner

T w (kP") ~
<l
I \. ,
Fig. 8.21 The Bagley and correclion (c) verslI s shea, stress for high · d ensity POlye lhylene at 180 °C O. ,
0.5 1.0 1:5 2:0· (Wi)
(froll) H a n 1976). F o r comparison , Ihe N ewtonian value of e is con'tant and is about 0.8. \
\
\
)
planc cntry loss can readily be computed (Problem 8.7). Keunings and Crochet
(1984) have numerically solved the entry problem for a modified PTf fluid in
a 4: I contraction and the results arc shown in Fig. 8.22 (here the Weissenberg
number is defined as )"1,,/ R, wh erc R is thc radiu s of the downstream tube). Thus
,I ~OldrOYd.B
\
\

the ohserved hi gh er losses nO'N become e vident \vith :.h!s v: s coeh~stic , shear­
thinning mode!; the e!ongat!on of th e corner '/ortice$ ~ppe~~r:l (cr. Fig. R. ! 0) } and
generally the simulation is more realistic. In Fig. 8.22 the decreasing losses due to
the Oldroyd-B model (essentially a Maxwell fluid plus a constant viscosity) are to
be noted.
The results with the Maxwell model are reminisccnt of the sinu soidal tube
losses discussed in Section 8.6. The survey of Baaijens (1998) discusses the then
) current state of computing with the UCM and Oldroyd-B models; finite element
methods are the principal concern of the paper.
The need for the use of realistic constitutive models again emerges clearly in
this example. It is also found that more realistic constitutive models are much
more stable in computa tions than the convected Maxwell, Oldroyd-B and
second-order model s, ena bling much higher Weissenberg nllmbers to be reached.
Aziez ('I al. (1996) werc a ble to show results for the planar 4: I contraction using
the PTT, Giesckus and FENE-P models (see Chapter 5). They used single-mode
models and correlated their results with experiments. Their numerical results
were obtained on three meshes and they compared reasonably well near the
salient corner for (Wi) (= ),,0/ H) equal to 2.9; here [; and H refer to the down­
stream section. Considerable differences in pressure loss between the three
models were noted, and agreement between computcd and experimentally
measured stresses was only moderate, possibly due to the one-mode models used.
Byars el 01. (1997) compared computation and experiment for the axisym­
metric 4: I contraction flow. They studied 4-mode PTT and Giesekus models up
to (Wi) = 5. (Here (Wi) = 2),,0 [;/ D d ; ),,0 is the relaxation time I'll I /2r!l i _'0; see
Section 4.11).
- 2rI
Fig. 8.22 Enlry loss as a funclion of the Weissenberg number A1.. / R computed for the Phan­
Thien·-Tanner nuid (<: = 0.015, ~=O . I) and the Oldroycl-B nuict .
The agreement with the PTT model was quite good, as judged by the vortex
sizes appearing.
Some work with KBKZ-type integral models has also been done . An early
paper is that of Dupont and Crochet (1988). They used the integral model for low­
density polyethylene ofLuo and Tanner (1988) and were able to show reasonable
agreement with some experiments.
Luo (1996) used a finite volume method with the same material models as
Dupont and Crochet, with a contraction ratio of 5.75: I to match with experi­
ments. Eight relaxation limes were used and results are plotted versus the stresses
ratio (so-called recoverable shear) SR , which is defined to be
SR = (N I / 2r)
evaluated at the far dO'NJ1stream wail.
·SR is a measure of the elastic effects. A further quantity is the nominal shear
rate, r equal to 8[;/ D d . Of interest is the vortex opening angle ¢ (Fig. 8.20) and
the entrance pressure correction normalized with twice the downstream wall
shear stress. Three meshes were used and the results were compared with experi­
ments and other computations. The agreement was good below lOS-I nominal
 8 . 9 EXTRUSION 4t9
41K COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS

rt
! D;ewa!! : u- ....-O Free,\rface' ann ~ on, - o,OT~ - h(T-T )/k

RIS' , , ),
I .::.. T-T
'> >, >,':;: >" ) , >,/
on
I=:J '"

Inlet
rully developed A Fa,do"""",." , l
IN I
ft
wand T profiles u-O, a nn - a.os-.....
-0 R
L u- O, 0n - , aT -0 .No .ellplicicthe r.mal.- r
_ \. O or.r cond ,lion imposed
z .---L-...
moo
z mox

Fig. 8.24 Boundary conditions in extrusion . T ypica l thermal boundary conditions a re included;
surface tension and gravity are ignored .

The free surface of the jet makes the problem more complex than the previous
non-Newtonian test nows and involves mixed boundary conditions on the nuid.
By mixed boundary conditions we mean that part of the fluid Sv has velocity
(usually no-slip) boundary conditions and a part S, has traction (or stress)
boundary conditions. (In addition, there may be thermal boundary conditions.)
Fig. 8 . .23 r.,.. irud.li C' ;-.ven . Ai i<lj is a Newtonian sin: i.lm ~:~. iljl!g. riOIl) ~I c"'piii.!ry <II1J :-,jwwillg iilllc Figure 8.24 shows a 'ypic:aJ case; it ma y be that ar: extelij(1! mcdiurn 01 :surface

I
, well : al ttl)" \·iscoda slIc IIquod swclls 10 Ihree limes Ihe capillary <.Iiameler.
shear rate . The comparison between the nominal shear rate at the wall. the act ua I
shear rate . and Sf? was also riven
In conclu sion. one sees that good progress has been made with the more rea­
iisiic models for ihis problem. but the UCM model remains elusive because of
numerical problems at the salient corner.
8.9 EXlrusion
The tcst problem of Fig. 8.7(a) relates to the simplest extrusion problem . Aside
from the e xit stress singularity. one also ha s to find the free surface shape here. as
in other extrusion problems.
We have mentioned (Chapter I) that a stream of fluid emerging from a plain
circular tube (or die) does not usually have the same diameter as the tube. With
polymeric fluids the extrudate often has a diameter se veral times that of the tube
(Fig. 8.23) . If gravitational forces are significant compared with the viscous
forces acting on the nuid , then the extrudate shape will partly be governed by
gravity . and the details of the orientation of the tube are relevant. To confine the
discussion . we suppose here that gravity is negligible or effectively absent : this is
often the rele vant case for polymer melts. Additiona Ily the flows to be considered
will be steady. There is of course an intrinsic interest in finding the mechanism of
swelling and. more practically. the production of precision extrusions also needs
an accurate prediction of swelling.
te.nsion (to be mentioned later) '1/11! cause normal and tangenti a l stresses on ihe
free boundary, or that slip at the wall may occur in the die , but in the main the
conditions shown in Fig. 8.24 suffice to describe extrusion. One also has to find
where the free surface begins (at A in Fig . 8.24) .
The boundary condition problem is basic as free boundaries present funda­
mental difficulties even for simple material properties. The creeping (inertia-less)
solution was obtained for this problem (Nickell el al. 1974) by using a finite
eiement method. The solution shows that at the point of exit where there is
a sudden change in boundary condition there is a stress singularity; (see
Section 8.7) .
8.9.1 L ocating Ihe free boundary
On the free surface we have to sati sfy three conditions simultaneously
(i) zero normal velocity;
(ii) zero (or prescribed) shear stress ;
(iii) zero (or prescribed) normal stress.
In elementary cases without surface tension, so that the shear and normal
stresses are zero, one approach is to ignore the condition (i), set up conditions (ii)
and (iii) on an assumed contour, and then calculate the normal velocities on the
assumed contour. From these (Fig. 8.25) a new streamline can be constructed,
which can serve as a new assumed contour, and the process can be continued until

 420 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8 . 9 EXTRUSION 421

Revised surr~ce In the next section we report some results and compare the various numerical
~ A ssumed surface
-Z'r?7"Z"7'""-:Z'rZTZ7Z77Z'"':Z'rZ7Z7~7
7 - - - - - - TI approaches.
) . A~

R
I. a
n<
~ o -·0
nn Ir( z )

) _L. i
o
-1:-­
'
Fig. 8.25 Locating u nkno wn boundary by iteration . Da she d lin e. curren! approximation to rree
stre amline. Full line, new strea mline. Se para tion is al A.
) Let us first concentrate on the the simplest problem of a long (plane slit or
a satisfactory ievei of convergence is obtained, tha t is, the normal velocity is small
enough that the final contour can be regarded as satisfying all conditions. To
construct the boundary streamline at each iteration we know that the streamline
begins at point A (Fig. 8.25). and we have an estimate of the velocity vector on
the assumed boundary (dashed line in Fig. 8.25). If we assume that the velocity
components u and won the true boundary are the same as those on Ihe dashed
curve, then the streamline coordinates r( z) are given by
rz " 2. Flow kinematics-only 'iV, the average entry speed, is needed if the die is
r(z ) = R+ I d z ":.
J .=o n'
) The integral can be found numerically. Thi s defines another bOllnding curve and
a new iteration can start with this curve . This simple approach is adequate for
practical extrudate swell calculations where surface tension is not dominant.
Caswcii and Viryiyayulhakorn (1983) have discu ssed an improved scheme of this
type. Jf the swelling were very large, it' would bc useful to cmploy a morc complex
scheme to find the free surface, perhaps employing an interpolation scheme to
l
I
find the values of (u/w) in eqn (8.67); the simple schemc describcd uses the (u/w)
values on the previous surface. I t should be noted that the streamline springs from
~i a sharp corner in aillhese problems ; few computations (Tanner et at. 1985) have
been published with a realis tic rounded-corner exit [Fig. 8.13(c)]; since the point
or separation is now an unknown, the problem is more difficult.
For cases when surface tension is very large, the above scheme is unstable . This
means that when the dimensionless number o-j1)W, which gives the ratio of surface
tension to viscous forces, becomes very large, another scheme for finding the
boundary shape is needed. Orr and Scriven (1978) have in this case set the normal
velocity and the shear stress equal to zero and then made the normal stress equal
to the surface tension force by adjusting the boundary position. This group has
also included special equations treating the free boundary coordinates as
unknowns, so that several options are open in difficult cases. Finally, one can
include the surface positions as unknowns, along with r, \' and p in a global
solution procedure .
!I
8.9.2 The extrusion process
The object of our studies is to understand the pressure losses a t exit, the shape of
the extrudate and ultimately the sta bility of the flow in terms of basic pa rameters.
Although \ve 2re discussing extrusion here, the methods and SOBle of the resulis
have obvious relevance to other flow problems such as melt spinning, film­
blowing and wire coating.
axisymmetric circular) dic. This will ensurc that the flow is a fully developed
viscometric flow far upstream of the exit plane. Let us now consider the swelling
ratio X . This ratio is defined (see Fig. 8.24) as
X= ~
R' (8.68 )
The swelling ratio is a function of several parameters. These are:
I. Geometry--R is the only length p~r~m~ter.
(8.67 )
iong enough .
II
3. Gravity (g) . For many polymer melts, ignoring this factor is a good
assumption which will be adopted here.
4. Fluid properti es. Clearly we need p, 1) for an isothermal incompressible
Newtonian fluid (we only consider incompressible fluids). For other fluid s,
especially viscoelastic !1uids, other parameters are needed, and these will be
introduced as required. Surface tension (0) is also a relevant parameter.
5. If heat transfer is important. then the wall temperature (T,. ), the surround­
ings temperature (Too ), a surface heat transfer coefficient (h), the product of
density and specific heat (pc) and the conductivity (k) need to be specified .
6. Other factors such as slip at the wall can also be considered.
Wecan study the influence of the above factors by dimensional methods; once
the relevant dimensionless quantities have been selected, then computer solutions
ean be made to explore the range of parameters required.
Newtonian fluids
In this case we have (ignoring gravity)
X = X(R, W, p, 1), 0). (8.69)
Here R is the tu be radius and the other parameters are defined above.
Formation of dimensionless groups shows that
X = X(2pHI R/ ry,0/TJw) . (8 .70)

)
422 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.9 EXTR USION 423

..1.'1~,
Reynolds numbers of 1000 have been converged without difficulty but they

--.1
-1
f JExper;ments
needed a large number of iterations (~50 at the highest Reynolds numbers). In
Fig. 8.28 the computations Were done to match experiments (Gear et al. 1983)

x
!
.1
~~~ -
_ . . .
and higher (Re) calculations were not attempted with a!wTj = 0.3.
t'lnlle Clemelll !)UIUlJOIl
At high Reynolds numbers one must permit a long jet region to exist; analytical
results of the boundary-layer kind for the ra tes of decay in a jetJ!!e!-l~~ful f.Qr ~
seffin-g- rne- nelOlengtn . . ....... _ .. - .. - _. .

-lcOr
From the polymer processing point of view, the Reynolds number is usually

.~:
negligible, and in the following we shall ignore it; we shall also ignore surface

"'f .
10 20 30
R ey nolds numbe r 2p wRI'I
40
·1

50 1.10
44444
Fig.8.26 Extrudate swell ralio X as a function o f Reynolds number (Re) for a Newlonia n jet with """"""",II.
surface lcnsion in axisymmetric flow. Here J!iv1) = 0.3. 4""

I.2r

I
.2
105

IT '.
,~
~
...
::lo
z
II~ ______
~
:::l

~
"
I -­
100':-------7------~----~,__----__:!

Surface tension parameter a/wry ...

Fig. 8.27 Exlrudale swell ratio X as a function of surface tension group "!W11 for a New lon ian jel
in axisymmetric now; (Re) = O. 0.90 L1

o
- -- - - - - - '- - - - - - ' - -- - - - -- ' -- - ­

3 dR
Downstream axial distance (mulliples of nozzle radius)
The influence of the Reynolds number [(Re) = 2plvR/'rJJ and the surface tension
number on X have been investigated ; both produce some change injet diameter. Fig. 8.28 Newl o nia n jel shapes for various Reynolds numbers; ,,!iv1) = 0.3.
The results are shown in Figs 8.26 and 8.27, the final diameters agree well with Reynolds numbers Symbol
available experiments. The effect of large surface tension is to destabilize the 4.09 Tri angle
calculation; small 'kinks' in the surface tend to grow, and no convergence was 12.5 Circle
obtained for ajrJlv > 4.0 (Reddy and Tanner 1978a) . As a frJw --> 00 the swelling 17.2 Diam o nd
27.3 Square
should vanish; Orr and Scriven 's (1978) method is useful here.
47.4 Invert ed triangle.
For the Reynolds number problem the effect of inertia is to slow down the rate
of convergence; iteration for the non-linear effects and the free surface correction Filled symbols are experimenlal data (nole error bars). Open symbols a re f:nite clemen I Solulions.
are done in each iteration cycle. Without surface tension calculations up to (From Gear el al. 198 3).

)
 424 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.9 EXTRUSION 425

.== ::>~
~
tension effects which are also usually small. In brief, inertia tends to make jets
smaller, and surface tension tends to pull thejet shape back towards a cylinder of
")J
~ '"f
radius R. When we ignore p and a in our list of para:neters :n (8.69), then no
dimensionless group can be formed from R, IV and 1], and we have simply that :\:: is
a constant, :\::0. i,
A selection of:\::o values from the literature for the basic Newtonian creeping -2 - I 0 2zlR
flow case is shown in Table S.8. ]t is noticeable that the Le.m. results with a

K
greater number of degrees of freedom generally show less swelling. Several
programs were involved in the results of Table 8.8. By plotting:\::o against the
reciprocal of the number of degrees of freedom for each family of res\llts the

I· ,I' ,\' \ 0
extrapolated values :\::0 = 1.127 ± 0.003 (axisymmetric) and XO = 1.190 ± 0.002
(plane) have been estimated for an infinite number of degrees of freedom. The
'"',or
error ranges represent differences in calculation method and grid choice. It is ' 0
noticeable that the FD (finite difference) method (Ryan and Dutta 1981), the -1 - I o 2 zlR
series ma tching technique of Trogdon and Joseph (J 981), and thc collocation
Fig.8.29 Stresses in Newtonian creeping jet. (a) Contours of constant dimensionless shear stress
method of Chang el 11/. (1979) yield results that diffcr from the finite element a"R/ryw. Numbers are marked to identify contours; the values of the contours corresponding to
these numbers are: (I) - 6.72,(2) -5.98,(3) - 5.25,(4) - 4.5t,(5) - 3.77,(6) - 3.04,(7) -2.30,(8)
- 1.56, (9) - 0.83, (10) - 0.09. (b) Contours of constant dimensionless axial stress a"R/ryiv. The
values corresponding to the marked numbers are in this case: (I) - 16.0, (2) - 12.4, (3) - 8.77, (4)
Table 8.8 Newtonian swelling ratios XO - 5.14. {5} J .5 L (6) 2. J 2, (7) 5.75. (8) 9.38, (9) ! 3.0, ( :O) 16.(). NOie tbe s in g. 1I1 ~Hiiy at ,ht exit, 1 - 0.

Investigator M e thod Degrees Xo

of freedom

(a j AxisYI11I11(!Iric results. In the remainder of this chapter we shall assume Xo = 1.13 and 1.19 for
S<ltchelor and Horsfall (1971) Experiment .135±0.01 the base cases in axisymmetric and plane flow respectively.
} Nickell el af. (1974) Lc.m. 1000 1.128 The stress fields (Jzz and (Jrz are plotted in Fig. 8.29. The singular stress behav­
Allan (1977) fe.m. 988 1. 132 iour near the exit lip is prominent. Note also (Fig. 8.30) the region of compressive
) Ta~1ner (! 976) f .c.in. 254 I . : 36
(negative) axial stress near the axis in the exit plane, and the I·egion of tensile stress
Trogdon and Joseph (1981) Series matching 50 1.1 I I

near the free surface. These are generai features present in all extrusions from a
Ryan and Dulla (1981) FD JlOO 1.120

Crochet and Keunings (1980) fe .m. Jl78 1.126

long tube. Pressure losses can be computed for the exiting fluid. Suppose the
Chang el af. (1979) f.e.m. 306 l.139
pressure at a point L units upstream from the exit is known; let it be Pi. The
378 1.126
pressure loss per unit length in the fully-developed flow is just 2rw/ R, where rw is
Extrapolated value
= .127 ±0.003
the fully-developed wall shear stress and R is the tube radius. Then the exit
pressure loss /;:,.p can be defined as
(bj Plane
Crochet and Keunings (19820) Le.lll. 174 1.227 /;:,.P = Pi - 2rwL/ R (8.71 )
338 1.207
562 1.200
1178 1.196 Clearly, /;:,.p is the excess pressure loss (above the Poiseuille fully-developed loss)
Crochet and Keunings (1980) Le.l11. 1178 1.188 caused by the non-viscometric flow at the tube exit. It is convenient to compute
Cha ng el af. (1979) Lc.m. 306 1.206 the effective exit length /;:,.p/2r: w , and this is shown in Table 8.7 for various flow
Collocation 252 1.155 conditions.
Reddy and Tanner (1978b) Lc.m 254 1.199
Milthorpe (private Le.l11. 2928 1.189 InelaSlic non-Newtonian fluids
communication, 1981)
) Extrapolated value oc J190±0.002
The next level of complexity is to permit the viscosity to vary with shear rate.
A realistic viscosity-shear rate curve will usually involve several parameters to

)
426 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLO GY AND APPLICATIONS 8.9 EXTRUSION 427

20 r , I
13r
I
I

t l
1.2 ,
i
I
-I
I
-I
I
j
'J I
J~ .. ..)

."~ 10 r I
I
LJ 0 05
'"
e~ I I
10 1.5

___- Tu bt: !
ccn lrdine I Fig. 8.31 Swell ratio X as a functi on o f power-law index n for zero inertia and s urface te ns ion in

J axisymmetric n o w.

f Viscoelaslic ejjecIs
. 7
/ Wal l
1:0 • r//1
The Maxwell fluid [eqn (5 .57)] ha s a relaxa tion time (A), in addition to the
°1 0.5
./
/­
viscosity and density, as a fluid parameter. Under creeping fl ow conditions_

-Sr­ -=~- --­ --­---­ dimensional theory shows that

X= x(Awl R). (8.13)

Fig. 8.30 Dimensio nless ax i,li slress 0" R/17'''' ,\l lube exi t plane . Note inl e nse lension a ( out side The group Awl R is a Weissenberg number (Wi) . As mentioned a bove, in the
(r ~ R) and compress ion o n ax is (r ~ 0).
limit of slow flow , a viscoelastic fluid behaves as a second-order fluid . In this
case; ditnens iona1 ana )ys!s gives

(ilI 2 ill! lV\

describe the Newtonian behaviour a t low shear rates h) and the power-law X = X \. ~ ' 7)R)- (8.74)

beha viour at hi gher shear rates. The most importa nt features can be inves tigated
by us ing the simple powe r-law rule depending on the index n [eqn (4.4)J .
When 11 = I. we have the Newtonian case, when 11 < i. the flow is ' pse udo­
plastic ' (shear-thinning) and when 11 > I, it is shea r-thickenin g. Sta bility con­
sidera ti o ns forbid a nega tive value of n , so tha t 11 = 0 represents the extreme lower
limit for 11 . In that case, we have slug (or plu g) flow in the tube a nd the extrudate
expan sion is zero so that X = 1.0; the 'fluid' just slips at the wall. Dimensi onal
theory shows us that (for zero g ravity and surface tension)
X = x( n),
in the creeping-flow limit. Figure 8.31 shows computed results for thi s case, and
T a ble 8.7 shows the pressure losses. It is clear tha t no great change of ex pan sion
takes place due to chan ge in viscosity with shear rate. In fact , the usua l variation
of viscosity with shear rate demand s I > n (shear-thinning) and this yields
somewhat less expansion than the Newtoni a n case.
Available experimental evidence (Table 3.9) shows that w2lill l is rou ghly a
constant (about -0 . 1). If we note that W\ 17) has the dimensions of time, then the
equivalence of (8.73) and (8.74) is ap parent. Hence the stress difference N\ is
proportional to WI(wIR)2, and the group WI,v/7JR is pro portional to (Nl/r:)w
evaluated at the tube wall; thus the equivalence of the prese nt formulati o n to
those based on 'recoverable shear' (N I / 2r:) w is demonstra ted. In fact, for
equivalence, we set A = WI 127). Reddy and Tanner (1978b) have produced some
results for the seco nd o rder fluid in plane flow s but only for low Wi on coarse
meshes . There are considerable convergence problems with ma ny computational
(8.72)
schemes at high Weisse nberg numbers especially with the second-o rder and
M ax well models, as we have seen in Section 8.5 .1. The choice of constitutive
equation affects the swelling for a given (Wi) and also the exit pressure losses; see
Coleman (1981), Crochet and Keunin gs (1980, 1982a ,b), and Bush el al. (19 84,
1985). Figure 8.32 shows the effect of choice of constitutive model on swelling for
the plane case. Note the difficulty of achieving results for large (Wi) for the
Maxwe ll and Oldroyd-B models (curves I and 2).
 428 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.9 EXTRUSION 429

1.40
,~
1

1 .8~ ~_\)
2/, I I I I 2.0, O

l
I c\,,,s\\C r '(\'" a

r-~

)
"t
I \
I

LW f

',,;'~M~W:"
Xl+
l'
1.2
~l'

,:'

2.0 I
4.0 I
W; 6.0 SiD to .O

us
)
. 101L __-'-_----l_ _-'-_ _-'-_~,-J
o 3
w,
Fig. 8.32 The comp uted swelling rat io X for plane now of several riuid mode ls with
relaxation timc A as a fun c lion of Wi( ~ A-Y)
(I) Maxweli ('I/s = 0 , 11", = I ,A = I );
(2) Oidroyd-i3 ('1s = O. j 12. '7m 0.888 , A .= I);
(3) rTf (c = 0 .01 , ( = 0. 1, '1, = 0. 1 12 , '1m = 0.8R8 , A = I):
(4) MPTT(11 1,£= 0.01 ,(=0,'10 = 1. 1), O.A I):
(5) Lco nov ( It = 0.5 , TI, ~ O. A '- I. l~ = 0) .
The High Weissenberg Number Problem ha s been partially alleviated but is
still there with these models . With the Phan- Thien-Tanner (PTT) and modified
PTT (Bush el al. J 985) models (curves 3 and 4 in Fi g. 8.32) it is somewhat easier to
achieve convergence. The lack of swe lling for the Leonov model (eqn (5. 189») in
curve 5 is noted ; thi s is probably due to the lack o felongational flow stiffenin g;
see Fig. 4. 16 and eqn (8 .95) . For the axisymmetric case (Bush el al. 1984) the
results in Fig. 8.33 were produced, showing over 80 per cent swelling. The curve
E = 0.0 is in fact the Maxwell resu lt; the o ther curves a re for PTT model [eqn
(5.161 ») . The curve marked 'elastic formula' refers to the semi-analytic formul a
) Phan-Thien (1988) has shown the dramatic reduction in swelling which occurs
Fig- 8.33 Compuled swe lling ra lio X fo r axisymmelric swelling of a PTT model (~ = 0, '1, = 0,
1)", = 1.0, E ha s vario us values) . (Wi) = Ai"..
~ single then an expansion as Aiw[( Wi)] increases; this is an expected result for plane
fi ows (Tanner 1980a).
Equation (8.75) seems to increa se too slOwly in the (!ow- Wi) regi on, (Fig. 8.3 3),
although it orten seem s to fit experimental results well a t higher Weissenberg
numbers .
Expansion begins to increase rapidly for Ai", > I . Thu s, as expected, we see
viscoelasticity as a cause of enhanced swelling.
None of the above computations attempts to model experimental behaviour
closely . A very good fit to the IUPAC low-den sity polyethylene behaviour
described in Chapter 3 (Section 3. 8) in both shea r and elongational flows has
been made by Luo (Luo and Tanner 1988) using a KBKZ type integral model.
The computation s used a finite element method where the strea mlines define
element bo und a ries. Results used eight relaxation times as in T a ble 2.1 and the
results are shown in Fi g. 8.34. The slight effect of changing the normal stress ra ti o
Nd NI on swelling is also show n. The black dots a t decade interva ls of nom inal
shear rate (4 w/ R) show tha t at low a nd medium rates the simula tion is excellent ;
at the highest rate (4w/ R = lOs-I) the computation overestimates the swelling.
This may be due to wall slip at the die exit (see Section 3.9) or to inadequacies in
the constitutive equation.

x = 0.13 + (I + ~ (~lry/6, (8.75)

whi ch is eqn (8.92) with the Newtonian swelling of 0.13 added. In both Figs 8.32
and 8.33 one sees sli ght initi a l reduction of swelling from the Newtonian case,
when partia l slip a t the wall occurs.
Goublomme el al. (1992), and Goublomme and Crochet (1993) simula ted a
high-density polyethylene (HDPE) extrusion and concluded that the co n stitutive
equation needed to incorpo rate the irreversible mechanism of Wagner (see
Chapter 4) in order to show a reasonable ag reemen t with experiment a t high
extrusion rates.

)
430 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.9 EXTRUSiON 431

20

18t
t
r
J­

C ,,," ,0"""
~
~'
~- t:
45 ° ,'r: "'" I
No-slip waH

'I '''''orn,i
r(J50"C)
Fo", '''''"po'
==tt~.,
;
II ----
"II
OOW
1.6
•
!.2~ Fig. 8.35 Extrusion geometry for short dies . Flow [rom righl to left. )
o I I I I I I
0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 20 5.0 If)

D=4wIR

~Jg. li.34 Calculaled long die eXlrusion swelling ralio curves in comparison with experimenlal
dala for LPDE.
2.5
. N2 N2
Curve A: M= - 0 . 1; Curve B : M= - 0.2.

o Experimenlal dala. D = 4", is the nominal shear rate . 2.0

/I /:,
x
I
)
Hence, one needs to consider both me<.:hanisms in order to do reaiistic simu­ ·5 L

lations. Convergence wilh mesh size of the swelling r<ltio has bf:"en demonstrated
for the KBKZ-type models (see Huilgol and Phan-Thien 1997).
The exit loss /':,.Pex (Table 8.6) can be defined simply. The radial normal stress at
the wall, (IN(R , 0), is Ihe negative of the pressure as measured by a flush-mounted
pressure ::·~:r;sduccr, pAO); the refen:n<.:e pressure is eSiabiished by taking
a tmospheric pressure to be zero. The pressure varies linearly wi th distance in the
fully-developed flow region, and we define /':,.Pcx as
2TwL
/':,.Pex = Pw(O) - ~. (8.76)
The notation pw (0) is used here because the 'pressure' is no longer constant across
the section of the tube; the w suffix refers to the wall here and the zero to axial
location. Tw is the wall shear stress in fully-developed flow and is taken by con­
vention to be positive. Note that /':,.Pex is an extrapolation and is not itself mea­
sured directly in any experiment.
In cases where inertia is significant this may need to be taken into account by
considering the rearrangement of the velocity profiles before and after the exit
(Problem 8.9). See also Boger and Denn (1980).
8.9.3 Die geometry and other effects in extrusion
So far only the results for extrusion from long dies have been noted. Tanner
(1976), Allan (1977), Crochet and Kellnings (1981), Luo and Tanner (1988),
Hatzikiriakos and Mitsoulis (1996), and Barakos and MitsOlllis (1995) have
• I £'I
1.011 I I I _...1­
124 "'V 20 30 40 50 60 70
L!l?
Fig. 8.36 SwclJing rati o results of shorl die calculation at 4 IV/ R = I in comparison wilh the
experimental poinls ( 6) for low densilY polyethylene at 150 "C.
looked at other geometries including the flow from a reservoir through a short die
and flow from a converging or diverging tu be die of variable length.
Allan (1977) reported some convergence problems for very short dies (Iength/
diameter <0.05). Luo and Tanner (1988) have investigated the short-die geo­
metry shown in Fig. 8.35. For two values of 8w/D (0.1 and 1.0 S-I) tbe swelling
was computed for the IUPAC LDPE; at 8iV/D = 1O.0s- 1 we have seen over­
prediction as in Fig. 8.34 and the res ults were not accurately computed; it is
possible that wall slip at the die exit (Ramamurthy 1986) is important to tbe result
when high wall stresses occur. Fig. 8.36 shows the computed swelling results for
LDPEat 150 °C and 8w/ D = 1.0 S- I compared with experiment in dies of various
lengths.
Hatzikiriakos and Mitsoulis (1996) considered long and short dies and com­
puted the end-corrections for several cases, including zero-length orifice dies.
In the latter case, inlet and exit effects clearly interact, and no distinction between
these effects can be made. Their results indicated some differences from experi­
ments. Mitsoulis et al. (1993) studied an approximation to the Herschel-Bulkley
 432 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.9 EXTR USJON 433

model in various configurations; this is now an easily achievable sort of com­

putation. Swelling was small, as expected. Kiriakidis and Mitsoulis (1993)
simulated the flow of HDPE into plane slit and capillary dies.
In the case where the /low is not isothermal, several more dimensionless groups
appear (see Chapter 9),
Silliman and Scriven (1980) and Phan-Thien (1988) have also shown thal - - ' - -d
permitting slip between fluid at the wall near the tube lip (where the fluid is under
severe shear stress) reduces swelling in Newtonian fluids in the plane case. This is

~- , ~
not an unexpected result, since complete slip would produce no swelling at all.
We have shown how touse computational methods to investigate the extrusion
process. It is confirmed that viscoelasticity and wall slip are important as factors

ro
in extrudate sweii, whiie non-Newtonian behaviour (alone) is not. Surprisingly,
we find that variations of temperature, through the agency of tcmperature­ @ - -6) .
sensitive viscosity, can produce large swelling effects. (See Chapter 9.) ('< I ,'=/

Viscometric Sudden
8.9.4 Mechanisms 0/ swe//ing deformation elastic deformation
) Fig. 8.37 Elastic recovery swelling mechanism.
The above results are of interest in their own right as computer solutions to
complicated boundary value problems, but they can also be regarded as a set of
controlied experiments in the search for a physical explana tion of swelling. This is
in line with the philosophy that ODe does cOinputing for the Sake: of crdight­
enrnent, llotjust to obtajn nurnbets. This philosophy is likely to be very' vd]uCible where V' = aV!ale! is a function of (- t ' and tr C- I . This ignores the second
in pO!YiTICr processing opertitions 'where 0.ctua! cxpcrirr.:en!s (1re hard to perform normal stress difference, but it shows elastic effects amI ;dso re(llistic viscosity and
because of size or instrument problems, for example. One sees three contributions first normal stress-difference functions.
to swelling: Suppose that the material is undergoing a simple shearing up until t = 0, and
then is released from constraint. Thus, for 1<0
(i) The small 'Newtonian' swelling due to rearrangement of the velocity jlcld;
(ii) The 'elastic recovery' swell; v = 1'yi,
(iii) 'Inelastic' swelling due to, for example, thermal efTects (Chapter 9).
The first mechanism has been described above. The elastic recovery idea is and we have, in a viscometric flow
based on the idea of unconstrained recovery. To explain the basic idea we may 00

consider the diagram (Fig. 8.37) showing the trajectory of a 'particle' of fluid as it
emerges from the die, passing from a stressed viscometric state to an unstressed
state. Lodge (1964) has shown how such a sheared piece of material exhibits
_
'xx - 'yy - NI = I
·2

1
0
, 2
V s ds (8.78)

elastic recovery and sideways swelling when released from stress suddenly. We
assume that the exit from the tube is sudden and an instantaneous elastic strain 'xy = l'
.fo
roo V'sds,
takes place which unloads the fluid. (It is more accurate to regard the present
calculation as the short-term response to the sudden abolition of the walls in a wheres = t - I',
shearing fiow.) We shaii calculate the instantaneous recovery after shearing to In the present problem the kinematic history consists of a jump strain from
iiiustrate the mechanism. the present time 1=0+ to a time t = 0-, then a viscometric history. Let the
As a constitutive equation we assume a KBKZ form (unknown) jump strain be described by a defonnation gradient Fo. Then the
deformation gradient can be written
a = - pI + l~ V'C- I dt', (8.77)
F = F(v)F o,
) (8.79)

~
434 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.9 EXTRUSION 435

where F(v ) is a viscometric history. Suppose there is a deformed state x' just before x' = xl A2 +,y y' = AY z· = AZ, (8.87)
the jump s train. Then we can write
where A is a sideways expansion and I is a shear so that
~(,,)
-
= ~ F~ = ox'
ox' ' - v ox '
HI

where-r -i-s-the-particie-positi'on-arrinTe-r'-;' x~is- ttre 'p'a rtide posirro niYefo're-th-e-j"O"rfl-p

(I = 0-) and x is the current particle position (I '> 0). Then if s = -I' we have
\/f))
\v.vVJ

F, ~ rf ,A 00]­ .
OX '

Substituting in (8.84) gives three relations

(8.88) J

01
~ [~
-is
p(A- 4 +,2) = G+ NI p,A = r PA 2 = G.
F(·'
o I oJI (8.81 ) (8.89)

Eliminating, and p from these gives the result for I I A, the sideways swelling:
For I' > 0, we have F = I, and for I ' < 0 - we have F = F(t·) Fo· Now consider the
material for I > 0, when the deviatoric stress tensor is zero, but the pressure is
non-zero. Then
~=
A
(I + NI _ ~)
G G2
1/ 6
(8.90)

pi = J ~ V'(F~F(v) TF(v) Fo)-1 dl' , (8.82) For a single relaxation time,

I • ( / " \ 2' 1/ 6
)
~ = ~I (~I ~
or, since Fo is a constant matrix,
,\ l+\2rJ j (8.9 i)

pFoF~ = fooo V'C (v)- 1 ds, (8.83)

which evaluates the sideways swelling in terms of quantities measurable in vis­
where;; li' is now a function of ir(Fo! C( v) -! Fo Tj and 05; C( ,,) = F( ,-) TF ('·).
I cometric flow. Lodge cl al. (1965) have investigalt:u the response for mUltiple
relaxation times.
To begin with, suppose V' is independent oflr C- I , as in the Lodge fluid. Then
One can appiy simiiar methods to the flow through a tube. If the tube is sud­
,
l Ol
fG+N I denly removed, then elastic recoil takes place as above. One can calculate the

~J
(8,84) resulting swelling as (Tanner 1970)
pFoFoT = ~ G
o
where x= d [I +~ (~I)]
= 1/ 6, (8.92)
o<;
. n 11 ,
s V ds= G, r, N I , (8.85)
,
fo
0
or in the plane flow case

for n = 0, 1,2 respectively; G is a modulus, r is the shear stress in the shear flow,
and NI is the first normal stress-difference. Now the strain matrix FoF~ must be
volume-preserving, so its determinant must be I . Taking the determinant of
X=d= [1+/2(~1)]1/4 , (8.93)

(8.84), we get
where Nl/r is evaluated at the wall.
p3 = G(G 2 + NIG _ ,2 ) (8.86) The coincidence between egn (8.92) and the computed swelIing results is shown
in Fig. 8.33. The computations are for a Maxwell fluid, egn (5.57). The formulae
as a condition on the residual pressure p . The jump strain Fo is constructed from above also agree with some experiments on polymer melts (Utracki el al. 1975);
an elastic displacement field Huang and White (1978) have considered the case where NI is proportional to ra ,
 436 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 8.9 EXTRUSION 437

where a is a constant, and have replaced the coefficients 1/8 and 1/12 in the above
formulae by 1/4a and 1/4(2a - I) respectively, so as to improve the fit of their
experimental data .
This mechanism of swelling, though plausible, inadequately describes the
kinematics of die-swell. For example, where N1/r is largest, one expects, from
(8.91), the largest swelling . In fact, as inspection o[Fig. 8.30 shows , this mils! in
re a lity occur on the centreline, where N 1/ r is zero. Pearson and Trott now (1978)
have (not quite convincingly) attempted 10 rectify this problem ; their result is not
very different in kind from (8.92). Despite these reservations , Allain el al. (I 997)
have shown that these formulas are useful in correlating their experiments.
Finaily, there are swellings which cannot be explained by either o[the above
mechanisms. In a Newtonian fluid whose viscosity depends on temperature,
large swellings can take place when the viscosity near the centreline is lower than
that at the outside. ]t has been proposed that a two-fluid model be used to explain
such swellings. Figure 8.38 shows a sketch of the proposed system. By making a
force balance we obtain (Tanner 1980b)
terms of a change of type of the governing equations. One is reminded that a
change of type requires the presence of significant inertia in the flow.
8.Y.5 Three-dimensional flows
Relativeiy speaking, few investigations of 3-D flows have been made. Schoonen
el a/. (1998) report a flow in a cross-slot apparatus and compared results using
4-mode PTT and Giesekus models; however, the velocity computation used a
generalized viscolls mode!. Beverly and Tanner (1992) studied a bi-viscosity
Bingham-type model and looked at 3-D extrusions.
The boundary-element method using an iterative decoupled technique has
been used, breaking the problem into the boundary element solution of the
elliptic field equations with the non-linear terms treated as pseudo-body forces,
and the integration of the constitutive model using the fixed velocity profile
obtained in the previous iteration. The inclusion of free surfaces is also treated
iteratively, by up-dating the geometry using the previous fixed velocity field.
Separate solution of the momentum, constitutive, energy (if needed), and free

2 _ 7]0 r
x-- , - -Ri ) 2 (I
I IIi \
t - -
(
/ 1 (8.94)
surface update allows different techniques to be used in each stage of the itera tive
procedure, which permits some optimization in the solution process. The main
1]; L Ro \ '1 70/ J dis:acvantage of the method is that the itcrations , usuaJiy of the Picard-type,
co.nverge at best !inearJy~ and the rtidius of convergeut:e is often iimited. Despite
in the axisymn1e!ric case, a nd this , the flexibility of th e decoupJed boundary e!ement method makes it a good
) vehicle for mildly nonlinear behaviour. Huilgol and Phan-Thien (1997) give a
large number of references, including some three-dimensional extrusion pro­
X= 1+ -7]0
( 1);
- I) (ho- -- hi) (8.95) blems. Tran-Cong and Phan-Thien (1988a,b) give the example of boundary­
ho
element computation displayed in Fig. 8.39, showing the extruc!ate shape from a
)
square die [( Wi) = 0.9], and from a triangular die [( Wi) = 1.6] for the Maxwell
) in the plane case. modeL The amount of swelling is of the order 30 per cent, at (Wi) = 0(1), to be
Here the su bscripts i and 0 refer to the inner and outer layers respectively. As an compared with 13 per cent for a Newtonian circular extrudate. The Weissenberg
example, if the outer layer has double the viscosity of the inner iayer, and num ber shown is based 00 the wall shear ra te a t the centre of the die far upstream.
R,j Ro - 0.8, then the axisymmetric and plane formulas give respectively X = ]n the die-design problem, one wishes to find the shape of the die for a given
I. 166 and 1.2, relative to the Newtonian case. This idea seems to give a rea sonahle extrudate profile. In this inverse problem, one updates the free surface from the
co rrelation with numerical calculation s. given cross-sectional profile of the extrudate, and follows a particle pa th until one
The mechanism of delayed die-swell, whereby a fluid exiting from a tuhe takes gets to the die exit station. The die profile is then updated and the cycle of
some distance before swelling occurs, has been discllssed by Joseph (1990), in iterations continues. In practice, extrusion dies usually have a gradual transition
) from a simple cross-section, usually circular, to the final profile forming section.
This is also the adopted method in the numerical simulation; it makes the task of
~ Olllcriayer specifying the inflow boundary conditions much simpler, and the algorithm
»Wf/~wl SlIosc riplO
much more robust, since the inflow boundary conditions are fixed. To date, only
simple die designs have been attempted; for example square and triangular
ho W,. extrudates. The die profile to produce a square extrudate compares well with
Inn er layer
existing dies in use, but there is no published information on a die profile that
o Zr Su bscripl i
produces a triangular extrudate. At low (Wi) , one finds that the die profiles for
Fig. 8.38 Plane two-layer eX lfusion-derinili o n sketch. the PTT model are similar in shape to those designed for the Newtonian fluid.
 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS
438
I
x A y
Fig.8.39 Extrudate shape rrom a square die (Wi=O.9 ), and rro m a triangular die ( Wi= 1.6) ror
the Maxwell model. The Weissenbcrg number is based o n the wall shear rale rar upslrea m .
(Courlcsy Professo r Phan-Thien)
E X L""~d3.te
I
)
Fig.8.40 Square eXlrudal e die d esign (Wi=O .34 ) ro r Ih e PTf fluid . (Co urtesy N . Pha n-Thie n)
Thus, the Newtonian die design could form an excellent starting point for the
corresponding viscoelastic die design. Figure 8.40 shows a die design for a
square extrudate, for the PIT model at (Wi) = 0.34, based on the shear rate at
the waJI far upstream. The amount of shrinkage, relative to the extrudate, is
about 24 per cent.
Finally, we mention the work Xue el al. (1998) on the flows through 3-D
contractions. These are very large finite volume computations (~700 000
unknowns) and a typical grid used is shown in Fig. 8.41. Convergence with
mesh refinement was shown, with UCM, PTT, and Oldroyd-B models up to
Weissenberg numbers of 2.9; after that the time of computation was excessive,
but solutions were still smooth . A variety of vortices were found near the sharp
inlet corner, flowing from the wide channel to the narrow one.
8.10 DIRECT SIMULATION OF POLYMER FLOW 439
z
I
.-J
Fig. 8.41 3D pl a nar conlfaclio n geome lry and graded meshes (one quarler or the domain).
(Courtesy Dr S.-c. Xuc)
8.10 Direct simulation of polymer flow
The previous sections have dealt with the use of computers to solve mathematical
problems for polymeric liquids using the continuum approach . Another possi­
bility is to use computing for more direct simulation taking 'microstructure' into
account expiicitly. Whilst this idea was tried in the 1970s, the lack of speed and
memory frustrated early attempts. However, in 1978, with the growth of com­
puter power, simulations were employed by various workers to study the
relaxation and flow of polymer chains; see Tanner and Walters (1998). Since
then, there has been an explosion of activity, not only for polymeric liquids, but
also in colloidal suspensions and in flows with reactions.
Simulations for the Green- Tobolsky-Lodge- Yamamoto network model were
made by Petruccione and Biller (l988a ,b) and Biller and Petruccione (1996).
 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS
440
Termonia (1991) has developed an in teresting polymer network model that
)
beha ves quite realistically in multiaxial deformations, allowing him to find strain
'I energy functions for these rubbery materials.
A volume edited by Elizabeth Colbourn (1994) describes some of the wide field
now being a ttacked in this way: computer-aid ed molecular design; molecular
dynamics; modelling of amorphous polym e rs; Monic Carlo studies orco!lective
phenomena in dense polymer systems; crystalline polyme rs; failure mechanisms
of networks and bio-polymers. Ottinger (1996) has championed the calculation
of viscoelastic flow us ing molecular models and Kremer and Grest (1990) have
discussed the inte raction of pol ymer~ with walls. In (he mid I 980s, Brownian
) Dynamics was developed for suspensions. The particles are damped [Langevin
equati()m here in piace of Newton' s equations used for molecular dynamics
(MD)] and many papers on dispersions now use these or s imilar methods (for
example, Heyes and Melrose 1993; Grassia el al. 1995). Keunings (1997) has
carried out a study of Brownian dynamics in non-Hookean dumbbells and has
shown the strengths and weaknesses of earlier a pproaches based on simplified
linearizations of the PeterJin type (cf. Chapter 5).
Heyes (1992) gives a short history of molecular simulation applied to rheology,
emphasizing that the declining cos t of computation makes it ever more sensible to
t!se direct sin1'Jiation methods. By duTCl sllnuialioll. we irnagiIle" group of !11odei
particles, which could be small molecules or even mac ro molec ules , tha ( i!rc 'Cl liP
in the computer, usually in a box with porous walls, so that pe riodic arrays of
molecules can be dealt with in repeated images. The molecules are allowed to
move around under Newton 's laws, and stresses and rates of deformation can be
computed for the models. This procedure leads to Molecular DynamiCS (MD)
simulations. Brownian Dynamics (130) deals with the Langevin equations and is
more suited to dea ling with molecules in solution.
According to Heyes (1992), the first a ppearance of rnolecuiar simulation in
rheology occurred in the 1960s, when the Green-Kubo formula was introduced
to compute the zero-shear rate viscosity, without needing to shear the samplei In
1975, Asburst and Hoover actually did shear the sample between walls, but later
Evans and Morriss (1990) used the Green--Kubo method to deal with non­
Newtonian flow, including normal-stress effects. Shear thinning in n-but<lne has
been investiga ted; the main problems with the scheme <Ire tbe limitation to small
12
molecules (hexadecane, for example) and the very large shear rates h ~ 10 S-I)
at which one sees shear thinning. At such rates, 'thermostalting' is necessa ry and
discussion on best methods is still progressing.
The effects of walls have been considered by Ja bbarzadeh el al. (1999); as long
) Beris, A. N , Tsamopoulos, J. A., Armstrong, R. c., and Brown, R. A. (1985). J. Fluid
ago as 1986, Heyes reported shear thin ning in a Lenna rd-Jones potential liquid.
We have already mentioned the salient corner simulation ofKoplik and Banaver
(1997).
While it is clear that, at prese nt, these methods are not generally competitive
with continuum-based methods , they may become so soon, at least for research
8 . 11 CONCLUSION 44\
purposes. The growth of parallel computing is clearly important here and wiil
assist in the 'computer-aided physics' phenomenon.
8.11 Conclusion
This chapter has attempted to show the state of computation versus experiment
for complex flows; see also Pearson and Richardon (1983), Crochet et al. (1984),
Hl.lilgol and Phan-Thien (1997), Tanner and Walters (1988), and Baaijens (1998)
for further references. There is clearly need for much improvement especially in
free surface and corner probiems and in 3-D and transient flows. There are also
unsteady flow s of the kind occuring in mould-filling which have begun to be
attacked computationally. The opportunities for using direct simulations are also
to be noted. While the discussion gives some hope for optimism in the practical
resolution of flow behaviour, we must now turn to a most important aspect of
fluid behaviour - - the effect of temperature on rheology and flow patterns.
References
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Allian, c., Cloitre, M ., and Perrot, P. (1997) . .!. Non-Newlonian Fluid .Mech., 73, 51­
Ailan, W . (Iyn). Jill. J. numer. Melh. Engllg, II , 162l.
Ames, W. F. (1977). Numerical m et hods Jar paniaf difjerenlial equalions, (2nd edn).
Nelso n, London.
Ashurst , W . T. and Hoover, W. G . (1975). Phys. Rev., A 11,658.
Azaiez, J. , Guenette, R., and Ait-Kadi, A. (1996). 1. NOIl-Newlonian Fluid Mech., 62,
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Baaijer.s, F. P. T. (1998). J. NOil-Newlunian Fluid Me ch. , 79 , 361.
Baaijens, F. P. T. , Schoonen, J. Peters , G . W. M., and Meijer, I-I. E. H. (1996). Prof.:.
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)
PROBLEMS 445
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New York .
Problems
I. Derive a formula based on the slream function in plane creeping, Newtonian flow
which is eq ui va lent to the boundar y condition Onn = 0 on a free surface.
2. Shovv th;;t the soiutions (8.28), (8.29), when 1= i , a re the fiow fieids produced by a
po!n~ force in the Xi direction.
3. Using lhe d a la of Table 8.S form your own eSlim a te of the basic Newtonian swelling
ra li os by making a leas t- squa res fit of X as a function of l /(Number of degrees of freedom) .
4. Using the shear- thinning data of Table 8.7 a nd the Maxwell data of Table 8.6 can yo u
estimate the entry los ses in a viscoela stic system? Compare your result with Fig. 8.22. Is il
qualitative: y correct?
5. Suppose an elastic swelling mechanism of the Lodge type is observed in which the
transverse strains are held in Lhe ratio 2: I. Find what the formula corresponding to (S.91)
would be in this case .
6. If <l mUltiple-layer ex tru sion is taking place in an inelastic mate rial (Fig. S.42)
eSLimate the swe lling X when the outer layer has an effective viscosity 10 tim es Lh a l of th e
in ner la ye r.
{;-O.7Ro
.(2'~~;,~:~~r:~~@-,
)11/
Fig.8.42
III
Problem 6--Multilaycr extrusion.
446 COMPUTATIONAL RHEOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS

7. Find the entry losses due to elastic effects for Ihe plane creeping entry of a second­
order fiuid.
8. Consider the probiem of an abrupt expansion in a pipe flow . Can you anaiyse this
problem wilh the data given here? Discuss the results you obtain . 9
9. Form an estimate of inertia effects in entry (contraction) flo ws and also in ex it flow TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS
from a l~!!g , strai~ht, circular tube
1 .... 1-_"',..t •• ""' .. : .... ­
9.1 ....... vu ... ~IL-.VJ.

So far we have looked at the effects of viscoelasticity on flows without considering

the great importance of temperature changes; we note that Newtonian hydro­
carbon oils often change their viscosity by about 10 per cent per degree Celsius
near room temperature. Aside from the quantit a tive effects on flow, it is often
also necessary to be sure that the maximum temperature in the material is held
below the temperature at which degradation sets in . In Newtonian liquids the
viscosity decreases with temperature rise as thermal expansion of the fluid per­
mits the molecules increased mobility . By an extension of such an argument one
can expect that an increase of pressure will decrease the molecular mobility and
lead to an increase in vi scosity. This is observed in both Newtonian a nd '1on­
Newtonian systems and is a signifi cia nt factor ir: high . pressure polymer pro­
cessing and in some luhric;:ttion problems. Therefo re this effect i"llU:;i aiso hc
considered. To begin we take the 'pressure' to mean -! aii when d iscussing
these effects; it is probably that in a highly-anisotropic stress field some other
measure of ,pressure' would be important , see Section 9.2.1 . There are numerous
o ther potentiaiiy importa nt effects (effect of temperature and flow on crystal­
lization) which should be borne in mind when considering applications: these
aspects are considered only briefly here. )
)
9.1.1 Heat transfer
The basic mechanisms of heat transfer by conduction , convection, and radiation
)
are generall y thought to be independent of whether or nol the material is
Newtonian and this wiil be assumed in what follows. In p a rticula r, we sha ll
usually suppose that Fourier's law of heat conduction holds , so that , for the r­
mally iso tropic materials
aT
Xi '
qi -- - ka- (9.1 )

where q is the hea t flux vector and k is the thermal conductivity, which may be
a Junction of temperature.
In convection, the heat-transfer coeffIcient (h) will be used
qw = h(Tw - Tf), (9.2)

where the flux of heat normal to a bounding surface (qw) which is at a

temperature Tw is given by (9 .2); qw is the flux from surface to fluid (bulk
)

 448 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS
temperature Tr). Equation (9.2) amounts to a definition of h . The heat trans­
fer coefficient depends on the fluid properties and flow field and may be locally
or globally defined.
Radiant transfer can be important in some processes, for example in glass­
fibremakmg (Stehle and Bruckner 1979), because or the high temperatures
1 (~J 500 K) involved, but for polymers (~500 K) it is less important. Radiation
can often be allowed for approximately by takin g an appropriate heat-transfer
coefficient (see, for example, Huynh and Tanner 1983) or an augmented con­
ductivity and we shall not consider radiative transfer effects in detail.
In summary, the heat transfer to be considered here is classical. There
exist, at least theoretically, the possibilities of thermomechanical effects. For
e!l.ample, one might find thal lhe heat fiux within a material depended on the
strain or the now field .
This problem has been considered by van den Brule (1995), who di scusses
the effect of now and deformation on heat co nduction. It is difficult to obtain
values of thermal conductivity to better than about ± 10 per cent , so a ny effect
on the conductivity has to be larger than this to be really significant.
Van den Brule argues that molecular orientation affects conductivity because
conduction along a molecule is easier than conduction betwen molecules . He
considers a net\vork the ory. instead of a scaiar herll conduction , a tensor k
a ppears, such that
qi = -k ;/JT/Dxj where
k = kl 1+ 110{j( R R)
Here 110 is the number of chains per unit volume , {j is a coefficient , and (RR ) is
the structure lenwr A, Section 5.5.i. The term "Ii describes ihe usual isolropic
conduction. Data for stretched rubber sam ples quoted by van den Brule
show a considerable variation in the stretch and comprcssion directions. The
conductivity tensor k was described by the form
k
ko = (I - e)l + en,
where e is another constant and B = FFT, the Finger strain tensor (Chapter 2):
here F is the deformation ten sor referred to the undeformed (or original) sta te as a
reference.
For a uniaxial elongation along the z-direction,
o
B ~ (£~' [-I
;,1
o adequate for media at rest, there seem to be no crucial tests of this matter; in
) where c = L/ Lo , the extension ratio . However. tension and compression needed
very different e values (0.25 and 0.75 respectively) which is difficult to explain.
9.1 INTRODUCTION 449
He also discusses bead-spring models in dilute solutions and deduces the
change of the conductivity tensor due to the fl ow . For Hookean dumbbells
one finds
6k
)..T-I6i + k = 2)..Hk od.
This expression will clearly predict infinite conductivity in an eiongational flow
when Aui: > 1/2 (see Section4.3.l) where AH is a thermal relaxation time . Abo ,
in dilute solutions these effects must be small; van den Brule reports some
experiments where conductivity changes of 5-1 0 per cent were noted. In addition ,
Wapperom and Hulsen (1995) have found that additions of the flow-induced
aniso! ropy made little difference to their computed results, especialiy at high
Peclet numbers.
Further changes of conductivity with the crystalline state have also been seen,
see Kennedy (1995) and van Krevelen and Hoftyzer (1976). Thermal conduct­
ivity can also vary with temperature. In view of the uncertainties in experiments
and theory for nuids, we shall often assume that an appropriate isotropic
tensor, as in eqn (9 . 1), can be chosen.
A general exposition is given hy Tru e:scle!! a nd Noll (! 965) in which the
question of reversibility of thermomechanicai action is discussed, and the ques­
tion of the proper apf)licatioll ur lh~ second law of thermodynamics is addres­
sed. 1\ point of view closer to the one adopted here is expresseu by Woods (i 975)
whose book is, however, mainly directed towards non-polymeric fluid s and
gases.
9.1.2 Th e energy equation
The energy equation (2.62) is valid for both incompressible and compressible
materials. For the former, we write
(Jij = - p/5ij + Tij , (2.66)
and note that the pressure does no work, since \l . y = O. Also, we shall write,
for the intern a l energy e
e = CvT. (9.3)
In this case, although we have written C v as the symbol for the specific heat
the subscript v is not necessa ry , because the specific hea t at constant volume
and constant pressure are clearly equal for truly incompressi ble media.
For compressible media we may split the stress as in eqn (2 .66) and then p may
be defined as the thermodynamic pressure, so that p = pep, T). While this is
the absence of further informat.ion we shall assume that p is the thermodynamic
pressure , and that the constitutive relations used are compatible with this


450 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS
assumption . Then the energy equation becomes, after some calculation
D D fi\ Oqi
p-( e) + pp-I-j = r j d i · - - + {IS. (2.62a)
01 01 \ p ~ ~ aXi
]fwe introduce the enthalpy h, so that
h = e + pip, (9.4)
and define the specillc heat at consta nt pressure C p then we lind the energy
equation in the form (Goldstein 1960):
pC -D T + -TP (BP)
- -Op = r ·do' - -
aqi + ps ' (9.S)
.p 01 a T 01
p Ij IJ ax I
Generally , the second term on the left-hand side of (9.S) can be neglected. For
example, for polyethylene, from Tables 9.6 and 9.7 we have p ~ 860 kg / m3, Cp ~
2260J / kgK, (ap /a T)p ~ -0.6 kg / m) K. If T = 400K, and characteristic tem­
perature and pressure changes in the f10~ are 6T and 6p respectively , th~n
the first term in (9 ,5) is of order 2 x ~06 6. 7" and the second is of order 0.3 6p.
Hence very large pressure change rates (~ 100atm /s) only produce a bollt
the sa me effect as a temperature rate of change of about 1 °Cis. Thesc ligures
are typicai , and hence we shall omit the second term ill (9 .5) here.
One can now rega rd the incompressible limit as the case when (rJp/o T) p is
negligible ; 1his j'.'s1ifies our usc of CI' as the rc!ev<lrll specific heat in the
incompressible case, as in (9.S) . W e sha ll always omit th e 'radiant' tran sfer term
ps here a nd whe re it is justified the dissipation te rm rijell) wiii also be ignored .
9.1.3 Olher forms 0/ the energy /unCliol1
'vYhile the above discussion has assumed e = C v T, a function of tempera ture
only, there a re many more option s for e, which essentially describes the sum of
the heat and work inputs to a particle. We ha ve already seen in eqn (9.5) how the
energy equation is modified from (2.62) by using the enthalpy h to account for
the elastic work of compression in a compressible material. In many materials
one can have stored shear-elastic energy, changes of phase, work-ha rdening,
chemical reactions or other physical changes to ma ke the energy balance more
complex. To illustra te the probl em, we consider ela stic-plastic now as an
example. In this case the deviatoric stresses are of order of the yield stress (ry) and
if the elastic modulus is G, then the rate of plastic energy dissipation is of order
r/r, while the ra te at elastic energy change is of order ry"Ye, where 'Ye is the elastic
strain, o f order r y/ G. In this case I » Ie, usually. a nd the elastic component can
be neglected. E xperiments by Ta ylor and Quinney (1931) nevertheless showed
that not all of the external work on plastically deforming specimens appeared as
heat (only about 90 per cent did in their experiments on metals). The rest
9 .2 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE-INDUCED VARIATION 451
of the losses is generally ascribed to energy associated with dislocations, and
defects in the crystal structure, which are not recoverable in the short term . There
appea r to be simiiar opportunities for external work producing structural changes
in soft materials (Zdilar and Tanner 1994), but the physics is evidently eompiex.
In the case of ideal rubberlike behaviour, one supposes that the internal
energy is entirely entropic, caused by network rearran.g~Ipe nt ill a .fS<..ve.rsibJe
man.-ner rritfils case,tis' useful to use
the free energy, defined as e - Ts, where
s is now the specific entropy.
Wapperom a nd Hulsen (1995) have included in their computations the elastic­
stored energy theory of Peters (1995), who has considered these questio ns from a
microstructura l network viewpoint. They again found , especially at high Peciet
numbers, only a few per cent of change in their results. Henc e we shall generall y
omit these refinements. In view of the irreversibility associated with polymeric
deformation (see Section 4.9), effects may be smaller than Peters's estimate.
)
9.2 Pressure and temperature-induced variations of viscosity
One can consider the effec ts of viscosity variation for liquids by using the free­
volume concept or by reaction-rate concepts . The latter give a temperature
dependence o f·1] (for t.Je-w tonia n fluids) in the form
T} = Bexp(E/ RT) , (9.6)
where E is an activation energy, R is the gas con stant (8 .314 JK - Imol-') and T
is the absolute temperature. This type of equation is often adeyuaie to describe
the variation of viscosity with temperature except over very large changes
of tempe rature. Ailernativeiy, eqn (9.6) can be put in a form containing the
densit y (p) :
= '!J. = 8' exp(E/ RT), (9.6a)
1/
p
where 1/ is the kinematic viscosity; this equation, because of the small variation in
p with temperature, behaves simila rly to (9.6). Over small ranges of temperature
we can also write TJ = TJo exp - a( T - To). This expression is sometimes useful
in analytical work. A better description is given by the Walther equation
loglo 10gIO(1/ + a) = m loglo T + b, (9 .6b)
where a, m, and b are constants. This equation has been widely used for lubri­
cating oils; in this case the value of a can be taken as about 0.6 to 0.8 x 10- 6 m 2/s
when 1/ > 1.5 X 10- 6 m 2 /s, thus leaving only two disposable constants. Then the
equation can be fitted using temperatures at two points only.
Another empirical equation that seems more satisfactory than the Walther
equation in that it is more accurate over wider ranges of tempera ture is the
,

9.2 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE-INDUCED VARIATION 453

452 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS

below a no-flow temperature (Kennedy 1995), one might also use a Vogel-type
Vogel equation
equation (9.7) to produce a sudden rise in viscosity.
T} = AI cxpBI/(T - To), (9.7)
9.2.1 Pressure effects and cavitation
where A I ~ ~IJI: and To are const~nts .
Although these equations can be made sufficiently accurate for Newtonian Batchinsky (see Vinogradov and Malkin 1977) introduced the free-volume (Vr)
fluids , they may need to be improved for the non-Newtonian case. Consider the concept, where
power-law model 1) = ki n .- I exp -o:(T - To). Taking natural logarithms one Vr=V-Vm'
finds
Here V is the specific volume of the Ouid (equal to 1/ p) and VITI is the specific
In 1) = Ao + (n - I )In "( - o:T volume of the molecules. The experiments of Doolittle on n-alkanes showed tha t

In this equation all the (T), i) lines of constant temperature are shifted by a T) = AI exp(CVm /V r), (98)
constant amount proporlional to the temperature differences. However, many
tests show a convergence of constant shear-rate lines as temperature increases, where AI and C are constants. Often Vm ~ V and these quantities are inter­
and a convergence of constant temperature lines with increasing shear rate. changeable in (9.8)
Also, as we have already seen, the exponential temperature dependence is not For isothermal conditions we can write, for a change in density due to
very accurate, and there also seems to be a decrease in the value ofn as l' increases. pressure (p) ,
To remedy these problems Kennedy (1995) uses a second-order model contain­
V= Vo(l - p / K), (9.9)
ing sq ua res and prod uc ts of i and T:
where Vo is the .~pecific volu me at zero pressure and l( is the bulk modulus. Use
in 1/ = Ao + A I in i + A2T + A3(lwd + T in l' + AsT2 (9.7a)
A4 of (9,9) in (9 .8), noting th e definiti on of V'r above, yi~kis th e result, \>'/hen p <--< 1(,
where AI) to A s are constants. This model fits some observed data well. but care
T) = T) (O) exp(p /fJ), (9.10)
must be taken to ensurc realistic bchaviour of the model. Kennedy (1995) does
not consider that this model can dcscribe liquid crystal polymers , and so in this where T)(O) is thc viscosity at zero press ure. This often appears to describe
and other cases one simply tabulates data for (T),i, T), and uses numerical the variation of viscosity with pressure adequately . Values of the constant fJ
interpolation for computations. are give n in Table 9.1. Sincc (3 is very large, we may me asure p from atmos­
) While these rules can deal with Ouid behaviour above the melting point, there pheric pressure as datum.
are significant compiications near this point. Figure 9.1 (Kennedy 1995) shows Many results desc ribing the effect of pressure Oil lubricating oil viscosity
a sketch of the situation; the extrapolated viscosities predicted by the first and have been given . A sample of these results is shown in Fig. 9.2 which is for a
second order mod els are too low . While it is possible to use an ' infinite' viscosity silicone fluid.
These curves may be accurately fitted by semi-empirical equations ifrequired;
)
see Pywell (1973).
Actual crystalline 'viscosity'
Table 9.1 Press ure-viscosity exponents
::­
'';;
Actual Amorpho us 'vi scosi ty'
c
~
....
....
Substance Temperature (K) fJ (MPa)
:;
Model Mineral o ils 310--370 30--50
) extrapolation Polystyrene 455 28
Polyethylene 475 76
Pol yd imethysiloxane 375 44
495 83
Metl Temperature Polyisobulylene 375 49
Mould Cr ystallin e
No-Dow 495 83
Polybutene 400 23
Fig, 9,1 Variation and extrapolation of viscosity data a t low lemperatures (arler Kennedy 1995),
)

)
454 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS 9.2 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE-INDUCED VAR!ATION 455

I H" 1 "'_
", .
I~-----~~~",
'~""~
51 /
'

~f . .~~~:\:-- ~0\~'~<{~~

t
~
. ">--...0

~
.5' 3
o

""
E. .
"

8
;; 10
2
-

1 ... '.~.
v

•
"

t" . ! •• I ­ -'----'--- I • I

10 102 10J
Shear ra te -y (s- ')

fig. 9.3 Viscosity versus shear rate for a polybutene at 22°C for various ambient pressures P.
o 200 400 600 800 1000 P = O.OI MPa (x); 0.1 MPa (0); 0.3 MPa (D); LO MPa (.6) .
Pressure MPa

Fig. 9.2 Viscosity-pressure curves at v~r ious temperatures ror ASMF. silicon c oil 55H . Circles.
expe rimenl al poilJts ~ jines are f!il t d cur v!.:$,
Binding el al. (i 998) have done experiments to determine the pressure
dependence of shear and elongational prope rties of a number of polymers
(HDPE , LDPE, polypropylene, polymethyl methacrylate, and polystyrene).
They used three remperatures for each !TI3terjaJ and a range of sheaf n~tes, \v:th
mean pressures from atmospheric to 70 MPa. They used capillary data for
measuring shear viscosities and an orifice pressure drop method to infer eion­
gational properties. See also Jacobson (1991) for a discussion of lubrication
rheology at high pressures.
Cavitation
While the above considera tions apply for increased pressure a bove atmospheric,
when the pressure drops below 3tmospheric, cavitation may occur either due to
the expansion of entrained or dissolved air, or due in· extreme cases to vapor­
ization. Brennen (1995) discusses these phenomena mainly for water and similar
low-viscosity liquids, where the pressure is shown to be the factor governing
cavitation. See also Frenkel (1955) for the effect of ultrasound on cavitation.
Carvalho and Scriven (1996) have discussed the formation ofca vities at the exit of
roller nips, including the effect of surface tension; see also Chapter 6. In these
problems film-splitting occurs at exit from the nip, and viscoelasticity affects the
number and width of the 'fingers' produced in the exit stream.
However, both of the above effects are more in the realm of fluid mechanics
than rheology . Bair and Winer (1992) have done an interesting experiment
where a sheared fluid with various ambient pressures gave the results shown in
Fig. 9.3. Generally, one would not expect any effect of such low pressures on
the viscosity, but this figure clearly shows that when the shear stress is of order
j a tm o sphere (O_! MPa), and the ambient pressure is of sinliJar order, there is a
marked effec t of pressu re on viscosity. Bair and '",Vincr (1992) :suggested that in a
shear field the m::lxirrJl,lTn tensi!e stress !!"! the fluid c~us~s cavitation and con­
sequent loss of shear stress. The maximum tensile stress with an ambient pressure
pa and a shear stress r is given by r - Po, from Mohr's circle (Section 2.2), hence
the argument is plausi ble. Archer et al. (1997) have also found that the shear stress
can collapse at around 0.1-0.3 MPa. In one case the nuid lost its bonding!o the
driving surface, and in polystyrene bubbles were observed to open up. Both fluids
were made of molecules which were too small to entangle, but did show normal
stress differences. Streator et al. (1986) also noted 'lubricant rupture' .
Joseph (1998) has also considered the maximum tensile stress as the criterion
for 'failure' of the liquid. If the largest principal stress is <71 then he postulates that
when (TI > (Te ((Te is a critical tensile stress), cavitation occurs. He also considers
elongational flows.
Hence when stresses approach 0(0.1 MPa) one needs to consider the possi­
bility of such cavitation. See also Chapter 10, Section 10.8.
9.2.2 Amorphous and semi-crystalline polymers
We need to recognize the sta tes that polymers find themselves in at low tem­
peratures. Some polymen; are almost completely amorphous at low temperatures
and some are semi-crystalline. Amorphous polymers are composed of randomly­
packed chains and have a characteristic temperature where they change from
brittle, glassy, solids to rubberlike materials. This temperature is called the
glass transition temperature (Tg). At this temperature there is a change in the
456 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS 9 . 2 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE-INDUCED VARIATION 457

Table 9.2 Critical tempera tures for polymers where ar is the thermal expansion coefficient appropriate to the free volume Vrg
Tg (0C) Tm (DC) Tu (0C) at the glass temperature. We also have
Polymer
Linea r polyethylene (high density V = Vg[l +al(T- Tg)J, (9.12)
polyethylene, l-IDPE) - 110 134 404 1
Branched polyeth ylene (low density where al is the coefficient ofcubical expansion of the liquid . Equation (9.8) then
polyethylene, LDPE) - 1 !O ! i5 404 1 yields
Polystyrene (PS) 90-100 240
Polypropylene (PP) -10 165 387i /71\ _rg(T _ T\
Nyion 6-6 50 240 l og lol~) =logaT =
\rIg C2
;1\>
+T-
' !I I,
Tg
(9.13)
Polyethylene terep htalate (PET) 70 260
Polymethyl methacrylate (PM MA) 90-100
-73 28 where Cr and C[ are constants. This is the Williams , Lande! , and Ferry (see Ferry
Natural rubber
Polytetrafluroethylelle (PTFE) -ISO 327 ~404 1 1981) shift formula which turns out to be widely applicable to amorphous
Polyisobutylene -70 poly mers in the range Tr, to abou t Tg + /OO °c.
Polyethylene oxide (PEO) -75 345 1 At first it was thought that the constants were universal for all polymers. It is
Polyvin ylchlo ride (PVC) 87 130 now recognized that a better fit is obtained when the constants are specially
Polycarbonate (PPO) 150 chosen for each polymer (Ferry 1981). One ma y also alter the datum temperature
ITemperature al which pol ymer loses half of its ma ss in 30 minules.
in (9 . 13) to so me other temperature, To say. and w rite
IDegrades 10 monomer above Ihis lemperalure.

1 (7)\_, ~ . _ -CP(T - T o)
Jog. 1 - ... ,ga, - 0 . (9 .14)
: :dope of lhe speciric. voJume/te:nperature curve, and the giass [ranSiiion teiTI­ \17G/ . C 2 l· ( T - To )
perature may be described as a second-order transition; abo ve this temperature
the molecules are l1exible chains; below it, they are rigid. Semi-crystalline poly­ The s ubscripts imply that the C! and C 2 f<! c to rs depend on the reference tem­
mers, below their melting temperature (Tm), have patches of both crystalline and perature; we find that
amorphous structure. The amorphous regions behave as we have described
above , and the notion of glass transition is relevant there. Thus there is observed cf = Ci + To - Tg 1
a brittle region below T g , then a region of tough, flexible behaviour up to the and ~. (9.! 5)
melting point of the crystaiiine phase (Tm), then the melt region itscif. There is
a jump of specific volume on melting (a first-order transition) with these mater­
C? = CFCi /cf J
ials. We have not defined so far a melt temperature for a morphous polymers. A selection of recent values of these constants is given in Table 9.3 together with
As the tempera ture rises above Tg we find the viscosity diminishes rapidly; the 'universal' constants. The dat a are those of Ferry (1981). These values are
often the temperature Tg + 100 DC is taken as being the onset of the truly fluid
region. As the temperature rises still higher , decomposition accelerates and there
Table 9.3 Shift factors for polymers
is an upper temperature (Tu) beyond which the material should not be heated.
Table 9.2 gives these temperatures for some common polymers. It should Polymer Reference Glass CO1 CO2 CPCf
be noted that in practice Tg will have a range of uncertainty of the order of temperature tem pera ture ("C - ') (DC)
5-10°C, and the other temperatures have a t least this amount of latitude. To (0C) Tg (0C)
We shall be concerned with temperatures above Tg (for amorphous materials) Polystyrene 100 97 12 .7 49.8 632
or above Till (semi-crystalline materials). Polymethyl methacrylate 115 115 32.2 80 2576
Polyvinylchloride 74 66 11.2 35 388
9.2.3 The Williams-Landel-Ferry shift factor . Polyurethane rubber -42 -52 16.7 68 1136
Natural rubber -25 -73 8.86 101.6 900
We shall pursue the free-volume idea for tempera ture changes and assume the Polydimethyl siloxa ne 30 - t23 1.90 222 422
free volu me Vr to obey 'Universal values' Tg Tg 17.44 51.6 900
Vr = Vrg(1 + a r( T - Tg)], (9.1 I) See eqn (9.t4) for definilion of ar.
458 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS 9.2 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE-INDUCED VARIATION 459

usable up to Tg + 100 °C. The 'universal values' should only be used in the reference temperature To. We let aCTo) = I, and then assume
absence of relevant experimental data. When some data are available one can
( pT \
take C? = 8.86 K -j , Cf = 101.6 K and then choose To to give (1 best fit.
G(t, T) = ~po~o)G(t /a( T)) , (9.18)

""
For values of T larger than Tg + 100°C, or where Tg is irrelevant we can use
the Andrade form (9.6); we have already shown in Chapter 3 that this is a useful
form for low-density polyethylene. By taking logarithms of (9.6) we may again where p is the density at T, and Po is the density at To. This represents a scaiing
\Iefin-eaT fOT vfsco-sitychan-ge- in rne "form sUG·h-t-ha-t- G'(-t, F-}has-t·fie·same-shape, -but n01 ·the-sam-e-sc-aTe;aT"alrfein pera t ures .
Now we have a connection between the zero-shear-rate viscosity "10 ( T) and G
[eqn (2.9i)j:
iOg(!!...) = 10gaT = 0.434£ {~ __ ...!...}. (9. i6)
"10 R T To
"10 ( T) = ('>O G(t, T) dt = a(T) ( pT )' J{ OO G(t') dt' )
Typica l values of £/R are given in Table 9.4. The values depend somewhat on Jo Po To 0

the molecular parameters of the polymer. For LDPE , a usefu l formula is = a(T)( pT )TJo(To ). (9.19)
Po To

!!..R = ao + a1P20. (9.17) Thus

TJo(T»)
where ao = 82770 K and al = - 83.3 K m) /kg; here P20 is the density (kg/m) at log ( TJo(To) = 10ga(T) + log ( PoTo
pT )
. (9.20)
20°C.
Simiiariy, we may use a shift ractor to describe the behaviour 0[" solutions
1.. (9.20) loga(T) is always iiHJch greaier tnan iog(pT/po i'o), and the latter

of polymers (Ferry 1981) and hence the concept is generally useful.

factor can usually be iglloreu. Except for the smali pi '! Po To factor (9.20) agrees

l,.v!th the prev:cus definitioii of UT. To Set iilai the aCT) is a time-shill factor we
9.2.4 Time-temperat ure shijiing may calculate the mean relaxation time ,\(T)
So far we have only looked at th e quantity aT as a device for correlating the
zero-shear-rate viscosities 01 polymers. Howe ver, it has a much greater signi­
ficance in that it also gives a shift of material time-scale with temperature.
'\(T)TJo(T) = 100

tG(t, T) dt
~

Let us consider a material undergoing stress relaxation. The rate of relaxation (9.21 )
-
= TJo(To).\(To) ( -)a
pT \ 2 (T).
is determined by an internal time-scale (or clock) within the material. As tem­ Po To
perature rises , so does the amount of molecular motion occurring ill one unit of
an observer's time; the material's time-sca le shortens so that relaxation proceeds Thus
faster. Let us suppose that the material time-scale changes so that one unit of
material time is now equivalent to aCT) unib or observer time; (J(T) is a 5(T) - 5.(To)a(T). (9.22)
decreasing function of tempe ra ture T. Let G(t, T) be the stress relaxa tion mod­
ulu s at constant temperature T, and let G(t) = G(t, To) be the modulus at a More generally, molecular theories (Bird et at. 1977) lead us to expect that
for non-Newtonian fluids a plot of log ITJ(i, T)TJo (To)/1]o( T)I against log (iaT)
Table 9.4 Flow activation energy ratio E/R will collapse all ine separate TJ( -y, T) curves on to a single master curve. Figure 9.4
shows a set of data and the master curve for polyisobutylene. (In the absence of
Fluid 'f/O (Pa-s) To (K) E/R (K) "10 data, one can often still construct such a master curve by careful fitting of
High-impact polystyrene 1.45x10 5
463 3707 the curves or by estimating TJo)· Note that use of eqn (9.18) gives a direct method
Polystyrene 9.2 x 10J 483 4954 of finding a( T).
Polypropylene 3.2 x 10 3 463 5.1-5.6x 10 3 The shift factor is of the form (Bird et al. 1977), for dilute polymer solutions
High-density polyethylene 1520 473 2.8-3.3 x 10 3
Low-density polyethylene 3200 453 6840 a(T) = aT = 1:'70 -1]slTTop(To)
Polymethyl methacrylate 6000 5"I.) 9855 lTJo - TJslTJp(T) (9.23)
 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS 9.2 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE-INDUCED VARIATION 461
460

(a) viscoelastic theory that the characteristic quantities G' and G" (and their deriva­

\
109~
I ~ -80.8°C
tives Ti' and Ti") can be regarded as a function of the reduced frequency ".Jar when
the temperature varies; it is usuai to write

I ~~~-767ce = PJT~
' ~'
~~-74.lce G'(w, T)
Po 0
G'(waT)' (9.24)
J -70.6°C
~ 1-49.6ce~ ~-{'5.4ce
7
10

~
~
~
-~~m20C A~
and so on. Hence the problem of predicting linear viscoelastic response given
data at a reference temperature is soived.

"1
5 v ~

,,~ Some idea of the effect of temperature changes can be gathered if one takes the
universal WLF curve, and considers a change in temperature from Tg + 30°C to
3 Tg + J0 0c. We find aT changes by a factor of a bout 3800, so that processes that
10 Voce
took one second at the higher temperature take more than one hour at the lower
temperature; a further lowering of temperature by 20 °C will increase the time
scale by a factor greater than 10 7 so that the material is then well and truly 'frozen'
w·' 10' Time (h)
as would be expected since it is below the glass temperature.

(11) 10"
9.2.5 The },;forland-Lee hypolhesis
109 Although time-temperature shifting gives one a method of determining fluid
~
P..
properties at a teDlperature T given a !11aster curve at T'o one stin has to consider
-.:: !07
that a particle in a flow will encoun ter;] ~eries of temperature states. 1'.1 o rland and
<:5
105 Lee (1960) showed how to incorporate time-temper(lture shifting into linear
viscoelastic boundary-value problem s. In this case a pseudo-time ~ can be
103 introd ueed where ~ is the time measured by the particle's own internal 'clock'. The
- 15 - 10 - 5 0
(/Tf,h
amount of time that elapses during an interval d ~ of pseudo-time is given by
dIJa(T) where aCT) is the time-shift factor. Then we define
17ig. 9.4 T imc- lcmperalurc superposit io n. (n) Slress-rd,nation of ro1yisobulylene at various
) temperatures. (b) Slress-rela xation ma Sler cu rve for polyisobutylene found by shifting d"ta in (a).
~= !o' a-I[T(/ ') ] d/ ' , (9.25)
where 17, is the solvent viscosity. This form may readily be derived from dilute
solution theory of the type discussed in Chapter 5. From eqns (5.44) and (5.57) and refonnulate the problem in terms of f (Note that Morland and Lee used a
we have an expression for th e vi scosity of the form where we use a - '.) Thus if we have a simple shear-strain situation, we have, in the
isothermal case [eqn (1.24)] that the contribution to the stress at time I is
17 - TIs = Ana k T , (9.23a) G(I - I') d(due to the strain d((/') applied at time I' and in the interval dl l In the
non-isothermal case the stress-contribution, from the above, using eqn (9.18) and
where A is the time constant, no is the number of molecules per unit volume, k is the Morland- Lee hypothesis is
the Boltzmann constant a nd T is the a bsolute temperature. Equation (9.23) then
follows immediately, since 110 is proportional to the polymer density, if we form
the ratio of the time con.stant at two temperatures T and To· For concentrated d, = ( pT ') G[~(/) - ~(/')] d((/').
poToJ,
solutions and melts we ignore 17, . The ToPo J Tp factor is also nea rly unity; the
variations in Tand p tend to cancel one anothe r. When this factor is ignored we
Hence, the total shear stress at time I is
return to the definition of (9.14) which can be represented by the WLF or
Andrade forms given above in (913) and (9.16) respectively.
The previous section was based on the idea that the relaxation modulus G(/)
varied mainly through the time shift [eqn (9.18)]. I t follows from the linear
r = ( PT)
Po To ,
l' G[~(/)
- 00
- ~(/')Jd((/'). (9.26)
462 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS 9.2 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE-INDUCED VARIATION 463

Note that the pT-factor represents the change in the material modulus with non-linear Maxwell model
temperature (it is a small factor which could be pennitted to be more general than
\ve have assumed). l -he p1- factor should not be inside the integral as it is the . 6T
A-+ T = 2Tfd (4_25)
current temperature that determines the current modulus of the contribution of 61 '
the strain d, which was appiied at time 1 i (I n their original paper Morland and I
becomes, since F - T, from (9.30), is always the same function of the shifted time
Lee (1960) assumed pT/ Po To was always unity; it is not a very important factor.)
6 -- .
'riTe inveTse -0t-(-9.-2-6) is
>-aT 61 (F-1T) + F-1T = 2Tfa T d. (9.31 )

'Y(I) = l~ J(f, ( I) - f,(I')) d[poTor / pT L,· (9.27)

This model predicts that in a steady isothermal shearing flow the normal stress
difference NI is proportional to ,2;
Thus, the stress <tnd temperature are now both involved in (9.27), but Pipkin
NI 2>­
(1972) point s out that experimental data would also be consistent with (9.32)
~ Tf

'Y(I) = (Po To / pT), l~ J dr, (9.28) Applying the shift theory , one finds

since the front factor is not very important. We may therefore take either (9.27) or
(9.28) as the relevant form .
9.2.6 Non-linear malerials
The concept ofa time~temperature shift f<lctor C-iln clearly he aflflliecl to Ihl' non­
linear single integral models discussed in Chapter 4 by replacing the time con­
stants by shirted time constants and making the necessary adjustments to Ihe
moduii . For exampie, Ihe speciai lorm of the KBKZ modei [eqn (4.63)],
NI = 2>- F - 1
,2 Tf . (9.33)
Hence, this relation bel ween N! ancl r is predicted to be a very vv:::ak functiOIl of
temperature. This is borne 0111 in experiments by Vincgradov ei af. ( 1970) on
polyisobutylene (Fig. 9.5); a similar relation hl'tw",,,,n NL. f!!1d -r h:ls b:::cr; con­
firmed by M. Keentok and the author. By applying such a consistent set of rules
we may convert any isothermal constitutive equation to the variable tempera ture
fonn as shown in Table 9.5. For integrai equations it is necessary to introduce
the pseudo-time variable f, as indicated. As examples, if we have a power-law

'ij(l) = .f~ /-l(1 - 1') H ij( I') dl', (9.29)

105

can be reorganized to read, for the non-isothermal case:

Til(l) = F(T/7'o) l~ p.(f, - elHij(el d(, (9.30)

S
~-
10'

where the front factor F(T/ To) is not much different from unity, and F(l) = I.
Phan -Thien (i 979) has arranged a differentiai PIT modei of ihe type (5. i 63) [0
cope with temperature variations. He shows, from the dumbbell theory of
Chapter 5 [especially eqns (5.41) and (5.51)] assuming the bead friction forces are
proportional to the solvent viscosity Tfs , that we should regard the reduced stress
r (m)(PoTo / pT) as a function of the reduced time I(TTfs(1'o)/ T o'TJs(T))· When
p = Po and Tfs = 'TJo this agrees with eqn (9.20). Where important we shall, for
",j 103
,
10'
,
loS
consistency, use (9.20) to connect Tf, p and aT. Since the model involves instant­ r (Pa)

aneous quantities only, the instantaneous temperature shift for each factor is Fig. 9.S Relation between normal and shear Slresses in shearing flow at five temperatures fo r
involved; (and the instantaneous front factor F(T/ T o) if required) and thus the polyisobulylene: (0) 22 °C, CC~.) 40 °C. (0) 60°C, ('\7) SO°C, (0) IOO °e.
)
}

464 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS 9.2 PRES SU RE AND TEMPERATURE-INDUCED VARIATION 465

Table 9.5 Shift factors The ratio of viscosities from the reported data is at zero shear rate 23.8, whereas
)
Quantity Shifted quantity at a shear rate of 10 S-1 the ratio is 11.7 .
') However, iooking at (9.34b), we see tha t it is quite wrong to use l' = lOs - I
Time I ' Iar in each case; for a proper comparison one mllst tak e corresp o nding shear
Frequency w war
Stress .,. F- 1
.,. ( ~ "'PoTolpT) rates aT1'·
) Strain C C
(ii) Christensen (1971), following Crochet and Naghdi (1968) develops a theory
Strain rate d, 'Y, A ar d. aT'Y, a.,.A
Constants, '/0, Ao . n·· T/O, Ao, n··· [or small strains which considers sma ll temperature changes. This theory does not
seem to obey time-temperature superposition for constant temperature states.

r = K'i', then the shifted form must be F - 1.,. = K(arr)" where K a nd n a re (iii) Matsumoto and Dogue (1977) have shown that when temperatures change
rapidly , a cooling rate effect is noticeable, and the shifting theory appears to fail.
evaluated at To .
Simiiariy, for a Carreau form (Table 1.6) we have the standard form Gupta and M e tzne r (1982) have a lso co nsidered thi s matte!'.
Further exploration of this idea is need ed; it is a difficult field of
r = '1701'11 + (Ao,dl(n-')/2, (9. 34a) experimentation.
(iv) The equation (9.7a) lies outside the framework.
and the shirted form
We now discuss some theoretical work of Wiest (1995).
F - 1r = '17o a T1'il + (Aoarr)21(n-')/2 (9.34b)
9.2.7 Non-linear effects in lhe Giesekus model
Some c a ution s hilve bee n so unded by workers ove r the tno-er:thusi3 s tic us~ o f Wi es t ( 1995) has consi dered the beod-spring theory and ha s shown th a t for
the shifting id eas. In Older of increasing diffi c u;ty: the Giesekus nlode! [eqn (5 . !! 1)] o ne finds a tt:fnperaiure-shjfted equClti on of
(i) Collins a nd M c tzger (1970) report th e following viscosity data for a rela­ the form
tively low m o lec ul a r weight PVC resin :
6r I DinT
OTA - +r +- -r · r + r A - - = 2'17ok TarAd . (9 .35)
6f nkT Df
T empera ture ("C) Viscosit y (Pa -s)
) Al 'zero' shear ra te At lOs 1 Comparing (9.35) with (9.31 )(setling therron t fa c tor F = I) shows tha t the extra
te rm AD In T / Dt has appeare d. Ifwe compare thi s term with the D I Dt compo­
190 4.2 x 10> 3.0 X 10 3 nent of the fir st te rm. we see that for the new term to be significant, one need s
160 1.0 X lOS 3.5 x 104
)
rD In TIDf :::::: arDr / Df
One can calculate the ratios of the tabulatcd viscosities at the two tempe ra ­
tures c o mp a red with the prediction of the WLF equation ; since unpla stici zcd or
PVC has Tg = 87 °C, using eqn (9 . 14)
DIn TI Dt :::::: arD In Irl / Dt
)
ar(160 °C) = log ('171 60) = - 10 .2
'1787 Now the p ossible variation of Inlr l is much greater than that of InT If the
ar( 190 ° C) = log ('17190)
TJ87 = -11.6. maximum and minimum temperatures are 500K a nd 300K respec tively, then
InTmax/ In T min :::::: 1.09 , whereas the shear varia tion is essentially unlimited. Hence
it is improbable th a t the extra term is often important. These conclusions are
Subtracting the second from the first expression above, we obtain the WLF reinforced by Wiest's own calculations , which found a few per cent change with
prediction the new terms included .
'171 60 = 25.3. I t therefore seem s safe to use the classical time-shift in many ca ses, and we shall
'17190 not cons ider more complex ideas he re.

J
466 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS 9 . 3 OTHER THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES 467

9.3 Other thermophysical properties 9.3.2 Specific heat

To solve the complete set of equations we need to knovl (in addition to thc
constitutive equation) the density (p), specific heal (Cp ) and thermal conductivity
(k) of the polymer. A useful SOlJrc.e of data is the book by vnn Kreve!cn and
Hoftyzer (1976) . Some data on common polymers are given in Table 9.6. Surface
tension an51 radiative properties may _~is_o_b_e_ imp_QrJa.nJjn _s_Qme_case.s.; _gen.eLaLLy
they are not important in the Oow of molten polymers. The surface tension of
polyn1ers varies between! 9 2nd 46 mN /m. {See van Krevelen 3nd Hoftyzer ! 976 .)
9.3.1 Density
The density does nol vary very much with temperature and press ure; never­
theless, it is sometimes important to take account of compressibility. Table 9.6
gives values of the rubbery-phase density at 25°C and also the rate of change of
density with tempera lure at constant pressure ([}pj aT)p; this quantity is almost
independent of temperature (Bondi 1968). For the variation of density with
pressure and temperature we write (van Krevelen and Hoftyzer 1976):
The specific heat Gan be found either at constant pressure (Cp ) or at constant
volume (C u )· The fonner is the relevant one for the energy equation, but since
liquids are not very compressible, one may set Cp ~ C v ,
The difference between the two specific heats is exactly K(X2Tj p, where (X is the
th~1~11~1~ansion coelJi«i(!ll1, T.is_the_abs.o lme_temper.atUl:e, and K is ·the -eu·l·k
modulus. For molten low-density polyethylene, C p - C v is about 300J/ kgK,
while Cp ~ 2000JjkgK.
The general shape of Cp - T curves is shown in Fig. 9.6 and values are given
in Table 9.7. Aqueous solutions behave similarly to the water base (Cho and
Hartnett 1982); see Table 9.7.
9.3.3 Thermal conductivity
Polymer melts are poor conductors. Sample values of the thermal conductivity
k are given in Table 9.7. The key feature to note in Table 9.7 is that the values

j _ p(O) = Clnll
pep)
+ E-I
B'
, (a ipf -­
-...vhere
s' = b l exp (-b2 T '). (936)
I
I I
I~
Here T' is the temperature in degrees Celsius (0C) and the values of C, hi and b2
are given in Table 9.6. One can see tha t press ures of the order ofO. I GPa (I oj bar)
are needed for pressure to have an appreciable effect on density; a press ure
I
of 0 . 1 GPa (100 bar) will increase the density of low-density polyethylene by I
about 8 per cent at 150 °C. Similarly, a change of temperature of 100 °C will
decrease the density by about 7 per cent. T. T

Table 9.6 Density data for polymers in the amorphous state (0)
Polymer Density - (ap/a T)p Values for eqn (9.36) k
fJ (25 °C) (kg/m 3 K)
kg/m 3
100 °C b l (GPa) b2 10- l K - 1
/'
Polyelh ylene (LDPE) 855 0.548-0.70 I 9.70 0.199 5.10

l
Polypropylene 850 0.397-0.679
Polyisobutylene 840 0.395-0.496 8.7 1 0.191 4.15
Polyethylene oxide 1130 0.792-0 .843
Polystyrene 1050 0.474-0.750 8.94 0.244 4.14
PolyvinyJchloride 1385 0.806-0.997 8.94 0.352 5.65
Polymethyl methacrylate 1170 0.712-0.753 8.94 0.385 6.72 T. T
Nylon 6 1084 0.658
Nylon 6-6 1070 Fig. 9.6 Skelch of polymer lhennal property varialion. (a) Specific heat as a function of
lempera ture for amorphous polymers. (b) Thermal conductivilY as a funclion of temperature for
(Van Krevelen and Hoftyzer 1976). amorphous polymers.

)
)

9.4 EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON FLOWS 469

468 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS

Table 9.7 Specific heat and thermal conductivity of amorphous pol ymers and Because of the insensitivity of k or K, to temperature, accurate representations,
which are useful for design calculations, can be given for k , p, and Cp by low order
Olher fluids
} 1 k (W/mK)(b) polynomials (van Krevelen and Hoflyzer i 976); often a linear variation with
Cp (J / kg K) ( I /e,,) (dCp /dT)(K ­ )
(298 K) (except temperature is adequate. Further work on the thermal co nductivity and diffu­
(296 K) (298 K)
where indica ted) sivity of polyethylene is to be found in Kamal el at. (1983) who show that the
conductivity reaches a minimum at the melt temperature and thcreafter increases
) 1.0 X 10­ 3 ~0.25 (423 K)
Polyethylene(') 2260 slowly.
1970 2. 2 x 10· 3 0.130
Polyiso butylene
1720 1.2 X 10­ 3 0.176 (373 K)
Polystyren e
~ 1800 1.5 X 10­ 3 0.195 (423K) 9.4 Effect of pressure flows
Polymethyl mcth(:lc rylalc 011
2050 0.5 X 10­ 3 0.205
Polyethylene oxide
2 140/2470 ~ 1.0 X 10- 3 0.21 (473K) The effect of pressure on a fluid shows in two ways: the variation o f density affects
Nylon 6
2400 0.2 83 the now via the mass-con servation equation, and th e press ure also affects the
Glycerol
4200 . 0.590 viscosity via the momentum conservation law . We can illustrate both of these
Water
(,) F o r partly crystalline pol ymers the the rmal conducti vit y is increased . Eie rma nn (1965) gives points by considering creeping flow through a circular tube. We sha ll suppose
)
k crysta lline/k a mo rph o us ~ I + 5.8 (Pc /p, - I) where Pel Pa is the ratio o f crystalline to a mo rpho us that the flow s are nearly-viscometric .
1 d e nsiti es Lo he (1965) givcs k ~ 0.25 W / m K at 100 °C fo r LOPE ~nd Greig and Sa hoto (1978) give In the first case th e pressure-drop problem can be treated by writing a
k ~ O .41 W / m K at 100°C for a pa rtly crys tall ine isotropic sample: th ey a lso discu ss thermal
Poiseuille law at each axial location and then applying the appropriate average
) a ni so tropy of ex tru ded polye thylene .
(h) Roughly we may ta ke (Tglkt)(dk l dT) ~ -0.2 fo r a morphous po lymcrs. mass conservation law rh = -rrpwR2 = constant; here R is the local tube radius,
which may be a s lowly·varying function of z; and ~V and p are also functions of z
of k. 3re similar in rnagnitude to those of glyce ro l. a nd about 1/3 th ose of water. only. Thus the problem resem bles lubrica ti on th eory; and one ca n sh o'IN that
As a res uit o f this, heat transfe r to poiymers is difficult compress ibility reduces the pressure clror over th a t of a similar incmnprcssible
M o lten poiymers at rest ap pear to be iSOl.ropic with respect :0 hcat con ducti o n fluid. An analysis of calendaring in the compressihle Cilse has been made by
)
so that the values in Table 9. 7 apply io conduciion in (:Iii Jin:etiolls. A s We have Chung (1982).
di scussed above , deformation ca n change this; draw n or extruded polymer In the second case (viscosity a fun c tion of press ure) one can tre<lt the case of
samples s how higher conductivilies in the direction of strain than transverse to a lubrication-type fl ow readily by introducing a modified press ure function . In
th e strai n . These differences are qui te noti cca ble in crysta lliza bl e rna terials where these cases, when the press ure is a function of z only , and the viscosity is given by
ord er o f nJ n gni~ud e differences are possible in the t'A10 directi o ns (Greig a nd T) = 1]0 exp (p l,B ) then use of thefunction ,8{ I - exp( - p/,8) } in place o f p reduces
)
Sahota 1978). Howeve r , in glassy polymers . the effect of orient-a ti o n o n k is not the probl em to the iso thermai fo rm (Problem 9.3). The pressure drop through
nearl y a s dramatic and this is expected to be more indicative of conduction in a tube is in creased over the case ,8 = 00, other fa c tors being equal (Problem 9.4).
amorpholls polymer melts. Where the Weissenberg number (Ai) is much greater Dowson and Higginson (\966) have applied thi s method to ball a nd roller
th a n one the conductivity will depend somewhat on direction (van den Brule bearing lubrication problems.
(1995». Howeve r, few dala are available to verify this, and in any event the rati os In both of these situations one can es timate the effects as being (roughly) o f
of co nducti vities in different directi o ns in amorphous materials are expected to ord er p / K and p /,f3, respectively , where K is the bulk modulus. They will be
be onl y o f order two or three. ignored in the following pages . In many cases the effects of temperature are more
It is important to note that k is inse nsitive to the chemica l nature of the important , and these are considered next.
polymer , molecular weight , temperature, a nd pressure. Thus for many typical
polymers k is between 0.12 and 0.27W / m K . Conductivity data are frequently
9.S Effect of temperature on flows
given as the thermal diffusivity k
)
(9. 37) The effect of tempera ture on material properties, especially viscosit y, is Jarge,
r; = k/ pep , and ca n often mask non-Newtonian effects in flow. As an example, Denn (1983)
where p is the density and C p is the heat capacity per unit mass. Shoulberg has show n that for spinning calculations both non- Newtonian isothermal
(J 963) h as shown that K, for polymers is nea rly independen t of T , p , and chemical and non-iso therma l Newtonian cases can be made to fit the dat(:l almost equally
characteri stics. It s hould be kept in mind that there are fewer data available for well with sma ll ildjustments of the surface heat transfer coefficient (h) (Fig. 9.7).
k a nd K, than for viscosity, so there may well be excepti ons to trend s indicated here. Therefore it is often most import a nt to consider temperature variations in flow.

)
 )

9 . 5 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FLOWS 471

470 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS

In many cases the effect of temperature rise has a great effect on rheology via
~~oo o 0 the viscosity function, and we now consider some examples. One can also

r consider many other heat transfer probiems where the flow field is not disturbed
18
/ 11 by the temperature rise (temperature-independent viscosity); see Bird et ai.

~r
I
I
-_.. n47'
I ,.:
(1977), p. 236, for a collection of these heat transfer coefficients.
Aside from the self-heating analysis (9.38) which leads to the definiJi_o n.oi the
"Brink-man­!i­uriilier 'rio 021kKT, -there are problems in ~hich 6. T is im posed by an
external heat source. One may still define a Brinkman number in this case which
will give an indication of the importance of self versus external heating. For the

I / I OJT
case where the viscosity varies with exp ­ oT, then the Nahme- Griffith number

L"[
'rIoU 2 o j k is a relevant dimensionless group. A large Nahme-Griffith number

I '
I /
.
indicates strong coupling between the momentum and energy equations. In
case convection d ominates conduction, one has the Peclet number (Pe) >> 1;
here (Pe) = pCpUL j k.

,' / .
These numbers should be formed from the energy and momentum equations
taking into account relevant length scales; for example, in lubrication and

16 r I
'/
10
boundary-layer flows there are two length scales that are relevant (h and L). In
this way one finds the Graetz number [(Pe)h/L) which is relevant to some pro­

I /;;
l
A
cessing operations which are nearly viscometric. We now consider some illus­
trative examples .
L I /,'10
3 . I/'/
- 0
"'

11 , - c 9.5 _j Circuiar lUbe jlow

J ­
0 04 O.R IT 1.6
Distan ce (m)
Fig. 9.7 Spinning dat a (L"rcks) s howing fit of isothermal viscoelas tic calculation (curve C , PIT
model) and non-isothermal Newtonian calculations (A and B) using (Al full value of heat transfer
coefficienl II and (B) 7S per cenl of II used in A.
Temperaturevariations can be caused by temperatures external to the fluid,for
example a hot tube wall , or they can be caused by self-heating due to viscous
dissipa tion. It is often useful to make a rough estimate of the latter. In a shear
flow between two conducting walls, spaced h apart and at a constant tempera­
ture To , provided the viscosity Tlo is constant, the rate of energy dissipation is
'rIoU2 j h 2, where U is the speed difference. The rate of heat loss from the interior
is of order kl::,.Tj h2, where k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid and I::,. Tis
the maximum temperature rise in the centre of the fluid mass. Equating these
fluxes, one finds
(9 .38)
I::,.T= C'rIo U2 j k.
The constant of proportionality C is found to be 1/8 (Problem 9.5). Equation
(9.38) is an estimate of self-heating in experiments.
Solutions or the laminar heat transfer problem with both Newtonian and non­
Newtonian fluid s ca n be divideu into three categories as foliows:
(a) Asymptotic solutions which appiy far from the duct entrance where the
veloci ty and temperature profiles are both fully developed.
(b) The thermal entry length solutions which assume that the velocity profile is
fully developed at the inlet to the heated section of the duct but consider the
developing temperature profile.
(c) Thc combined hydrodynamic and thermal entry length solutions which take
into account the development of both the velocity and temperature profiles.
The Prandtl number Cp'rl j k, which is the ratio of momentum dirfusivity to
thermal dirfusivity for a fluid, is greater than 50 ror most of the viscous fluids we
are concerned with . Hence, the hydrodynamic entry length is small and there
is therefore little difference between type (b) and (c) solutions. However, type (a)
soiutions which give asymptotic Nusselt numbers can lead to underestimates
of average heat flux, as the mean Nusselt number can be substantially greater
than the limiting value.
In this subsection and the next we will consider treatments based on the
assumptions that the physical properties of the fluid are independent of tem­
perature and that viscous shear heating effects are negligible.
)
 472 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS 9 . 5 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FLOWS 473

The solutions are thus so mewha t unrealistic and hence we shall not develop For several types of non-Newtonian fluid the corresponding limiting Nusselt
results at great length . numbers have been derived by Beek and Eggink (1962). These a re j.\lustrated in
For the asymptotic zone, where velocity and the temperature profiles are fully­ Fig. 9.8. For example, [or power-jaw fluids with constant wall flux we have
developed , neglecting energy dissipation and axial conduction (Ie 0 2 T/oz 2 term)
then the energy equation becomes, in cylindrical geometry, 8(3 n+ \) (5 n+ I )
(Nu)oo = 3!n2 + 12n + I (9.45)
8 2 '[ loT w(r)oT
- + - - = - -- (9.38a) and this reduces to (Nu) oo = 4.364 for a Newtonian fluid when n = I and when
ar 2 r or K oz '
n = 0, the condi tion of iimiting pse udo-pla s ticity or plug flow , we get (Nu)oo = 8
where K., the therm al difTusivity, is constant. In the fully-developed region we and for highly dilata nt fluid s (Nu)oo = 3.87. For constant wall temperature the
limiting ca ses are (Nu)oo = 6, when n = 0 and (Nu)oo = 3.30 when n = 00.
assume oT/oz is constant everywhere, and hence
For the thermal entry region, making the assumption that the fiow is fully­
T=Az+g(r). (9.39) developed , properties are constant, and axial conduction and dissipation are
ignored, eqn (9 .38a) still holds.
Then we find, for a tube of radius a, Solutioris can be obtained for the appropriate boundary conditions to give the
)
Nusselt number, hd/ Ie, as a function of the Graetz numbe r (Gz) = n1Cp / lez, in the
2[3 I I (r)4]
form (rn is the mass flux)
g(r) = -2wAa
- - - -- (r)
­ 2 +- - (9.40)
K. 16 4 a 16 a (Nu) = /(Gz), (9 .46)
which ensures g(r) = 0 at r = a :ilnd g'(r) = O:ill r = 0; the Dow is a Poiseuille now where the Nusselt number can be th e mean value (Nu)JJl from ihe start of the
with a mean sp eed fY . This gives h e~ted sect ion to any axial position z, ·...vhi ch is useful for lhe case of constant wa il
temperature, or <llr.ern<ltive!y the local value, ( N;.;) z' a t a particulai value of z
~8 --;:-
2
Trnax = Az _ wAa (9 AI) which is useful for constant wall heat flux. Solutions for the mean Nussell number
. with constant wall temperature are given in Fi g. 9.9 with the power law index 11
as a parameter.
and if we compute the averaged temperature Ton where An extension of the Leveq ue approximation to non-Newtonian fluid s ha s

) Ton = 2/wa _21°'Twrdr = Az - -1!lvA

- -a
2 (9.42)
been given by Pigford (1955). This approximation takes the form:

o 48 K, ' (Nu)m = 175v i / J (GZ) i/3 (9 .47 )

then the local heat tran sfer coefficient can be computed. The rate of heat where {; is the ralio of the wall shear rate for a Newtonian fluid to that for a non­
transfer qw through the wall is -Ie OT/orl,.=o out of the fluid, and is ,vleAa/2K Newtonian fluid at the same now rate . For example, for power-law fluids , it can
here. Thu s
8
~h wAa
2
H,leAa/2K. = h(Tw - Tm) = (9.43)
48 K

or .-!l

r
............ 3.87

f ---- 3.30
hd 48
(Nu) =k = II = 4 .364, (9.44) 2 Constant wall temperature

)
where d = 2a. o 4
n
Other cases can be studied, see Kays (1966). The limiting Nusselt number for
constant wall temperature is 3.658. Fig. 9.8 AsymplOtic Nussell numbers for power-law nuids in tube n ow.
474 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS 9.5 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FLOWS 475

the fluid inlet temperature T j as follows:

~
E
::1
1~I'oO
1 1 [/U;J: Tw -
Tw _ T =
Tz
I
L~ Aj exp[- ~ a2 z+J
j=f) ) J .
(9.51 )

where Aj and aj are tab ulated functions gf the 2Qw~_r-tl!W .ind.ex, l1 .a nd..z+ is a
1°1 . - - . I reduced axial disiance, equivalent to a reciprocal Graetz number given by
II / I I I I I z+ "-Z

10 102 10 3 104 105 i1H2 ' (9.52)

Gz
Fig.9.9 Nussell number (Nu)m as a function of Graetz number (Gz) for power· law fluids with n as H being the plate separation.

parameter (n = I is Newt onian case). Constant physi ca l properties and constant wa ll tempera· Tien (1962) has also considered the heat transfer to power-law fluids between

tures arc assumed. parallel plates when one plate is stationary and the other is moving at a constant

velocity.

Yan and Tien (\963) and Agur and Vlachopoulous (1981) have considered the

be shown that simultaneous development of velocity and temperature profiles for laminar

flow of a non-Newtonian power law fluid in the entrance region of flat ducts,

{) = (3/1 + 1)/411. (9.48)

the former authors assuming constant materi a l properties and constant wall

temperature . )
The iimiting cases become: Th ~ Leveque approxirc.aiiOll has aiso been appiied to the Oat plate problem
at high valUeS of (Gz) L>y l'vfc::tzner (i 965) and witb this approach, by taking the
-~...L~G7 1 /3 1
!1 == 0; (7'.1,, )
\.. -'m 7r' 7r - I hydraulic meaD diamc:cr, De, as 2J-l one obtains:

(9.49) l 3

n = I; (Nu)m = 1.75Gz l / 3 ( . hrn D • 1.868 t 13 rD.2 puCp l /

k l kL J ' (9.53)
n = 00; (Nu)m = 1.59Gz t /3 J
where {) is the ratio of the shear rates at the plate surfaces for the non-Newtoni an
These are given in Fig. 9.9. Further discussion of tube heat trans fer is given by fluid and a Newtonian fluid at the same mean velocity; for a power-law fluid
Cho and Hartnett (1982) and Gottifredi el at. (1983) . r5 = (2n + 1)/3n.
The viscosity being very sensitive to temperature the assumption of constant )
9.5.2 Flat plale flow physical properties is not realistic. Empirical correction factors of the Sieder­
T a te form can be applied to eqn (9.53) but these are n o t very satisfactory.
The simplest form of the energy equation for hea t transfer in laminar flow
Theoretical solutions are complicated by the fact that the equations of motion
between flat plates is: and energy become coupled since temperature is involved in both but solutions
have been obtained by Christiansen et ar (J 966) for non-Newtonian fluids of
OJ - a
_ 2T (9 .50) the power-law type with a temperature dependent constitutive equation of the
u(y) oz = K. ay2' form

where z is the axial distance and y the di stance from the centreline; viscous T = K{exp(E/RT)..W. (9. 54)
dissipation, heat generation and expansion terms are neglected.
Tien (1962) ha s solved this problem for power-l aw fluids with con stant By neglecting viscous shear heating and assuming thermal diffusivity constant
material properties, constant plate temperature, fully-developed inlet velocity solutions for constant wall temperature for pipe flow were obtained in the form
profile and constant inlet temperature . The results can be used to give the average
fluid temperature at axial di sta nce z, Tz , in terms of the wall temperature Tw and (Nu)", =/(Gz,n,1.f;(E », (9.55)
 476 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS 9.5 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FLOWS 477

~
":1
10',
\j II I, J =1
, H'''io<
:(£)-. 3 7 / 77
u~u

/Zt 7 x __ _
/ 7
I.T~O

/-t'T'
III
T~O

"'~I ;EtJ=rr;:~'
10 10i I<Y 10' 105 equation reduces to {T= T(z)only}
Fig.9.11
u=·o
Self-healing shearing now.

Gz
d 2T au
+ r-;o-
Fig.9.JO Nussclt numbcr (N,,)", as a function of Graetz Number (Gz) for temperature·dependent
power·law Ouid with n = 0.3. For definition of w see eqn (9.56) .
k - -2
dz oz = O. (9.57)

We now assume that the thennal conductivity k is constant, and that r is related
where to the shear rate and temperature by

'!jJ(E) =RE( TiI - TwI) ' (9.56) r = J.Lo exp( -QT) ( a )" a: ' (9.58 )

T; being the (constan t) inlet tluid temperature and Tw the (constant) walltem­ where J.Lo is the value of the co n~i$t ency at the zero reference temperature. ''Ne
perature. Some results are shown in Fig. 9. i 0 for both heat in g (7/) positive) ane! can elirninatc Du/8z using (9.58) to obta in
coo li ng (7/) neg;]! ive) for a she;l r thinning fl uid with n = 0 .3 .

G) () (T) =
It should be noted that the effects of the temperature-dependence of the
rheologi ca l properties can be much more important [h an the degree of non­
Newtonian behaviour and the cffect of the latter decreases as '!jJ(£) increases.
d?~
d:~ + :0 !/ n
exp Q
n O. (9.59)

This can be see n by comparing (Nu)", for a Ncwtonian fluid and the highly
Integration yields
pseudo-plastic fluid with 17 = 0.3 a t (Gz) = 1000, as follows :
)
11 7/; (E) (Nu)", a[ (Gz) = 1000 exp-
n 2nr
aC 2 (k)
QT = -'-' - (J.LO)
-
r
II" sech 2{aC
- -I (z
2n
+ C2 ) } , (9.60)
0 17
I 3 26 where C I and C 2 are constants which m ay be evaluated from the boundary
) 0.3 0 19 conditions on temperature. Suppose that T= 0 at z = O. The su rface z = h
0 .3 3 28 (Fig. 9.1 1) could be at any temperature; or it could be insulated ; suppose it is
also a t T= O. Then it follows that C 2 = -h/2, a nd we find that C I must sat isfy
Clearly, most of these flows are best handled by computation at the present
time. I = Q2~~ (~) (~o) I/"sech 2 (~:~~). (9.61 )

) 9.5.3 Simple shearing flows Wilh healing

If we consid er a shearing now between parallel planes at constant tempera ture, In this relation r is still not known, but we can see that there are definite limits
(Fig. 9.11) then one can see some of the elTects oftemperature dependen t viscosity on the shea r rate which can be applied. Letting x = QhCd4n, we see that (9.61)
can be rewrit ten as
readily.
To begin wi th , suppose the flow field is described by v = iu( z), and that 'In
) pressure gradients are absent. Then mass conservation is satisfied , and the Qh2 (~) (~ ) = x 2 sech 2x (9.62)
momentum equations reduce to the statement O'xz = r = constant. The energy 8n k J.Lo

)
478 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS 9.5 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FLOWS 479

and that the right-hand side never can exceed about 0.43923, which limits the and loss compliance respectively. Multiplied by the number of cycles per second,
possible shear stress that can be applied; this occurs when x;::::, 1.1997. This w/27r, this gives the average rate of dissipation as
thernla! run-aVJay at a critical shear stress occurs because the cxp - aT variation
of viscosity vanishes faster than an Arrhenius law variation (exp A f T) when Tis D = 1wG"')'()2 = !WJ"T? to C"7\
\ .7. V I}
iarge; it is not necessarily a physical limitation. Accepting this limitation, one can
now find the velocity field from (9.57). We find lr.lh~ .sliLb is. insulale.d s.o that..no .heaLcan.escape,-tR.i.s ·eneF-gy ·i-nput-wi-Hcause a
rise in temperature. So far as the storage modulus is concerned, this temperature
k (aC I )
u = C3 +
l
C! -;: tanh 2n (z - h/ 2) J (9.63) rise 'NiH ~soften' the materia!, Ui1:eSS the frequency is so smaii that the material
is effectively in thermodynamic equilibrium a t all times. Let us suppose that the
loss modulus also decreases as the temperature increases.
where C) and CI are to be evaluated from the boundary conditions on u. Let
If the shearing is carried out at a constant shear amplitude to, then the stress
(Fig. 9.11) U= U on z = h , u = O on z=O. Then we find C3 = UI2 and also an
amplitude gradually decreases as the materiai becomes hotter. Consequently, the
equation connecting 'V, r, and C I :
rate of dissipation also decreases. The temperature rise will become slower and
slower, and, if heat is allowed to flow out of the slab, the temperature wili
-V = C I (")
- tanh (aClh)
- - . (9.64) approach some steady-state value.
2 r 4n
On the other hand, suppose that the stress amplitude ro is held constant. Then
In terms of x = ahC l /4n, (9.64) yields as the material heats, the compliance increases, the shear amplitude increases,
and so the rate ofdissipation also increases. There is a feed-back effect. The hotter
ahrV the material1s, the faster the temperature goes up. The situation is unstable, and
-8-'-
nk
=x tanh x. (9.65)
there will be some sori of a catastrophe; even if heat is allowed to flow out of
the siab temperaiurcs may rise greatiy.
~.' "s;-~
v., u ,"&
{O L"'\
\ ./. VLj.
(h \ ( r \ 1/" _
\u) \1'(0) - v/ I· ';" . .' .
A/~ hUXl;O ~ llX. (9.66) Now consider the erot:lgy equation,

Thus one can choose x, compute the corresponding shear stress from (9 .62) and De aq; . OVj
p- = ---rIJ'j-' (9.68)
then find U from (9.64) . Alternatively, one can choose x, find r from (9.62) Dt ox; ox)
knowing U I h and flO , a nd then find the correspondi!1g value of c from (9.65). A
further procedure is to eliminate r and find an equation for x which depends only We suppose that the internal energy density e is determined by the history of
on the group (ah2f.Lo/8nk) ( V /hr+l; when n = I, this group is independent of h. deformation and temperature. In a quasi-steady-state cyclic oscillation, the
In summary, this problem shows how non-linearity of the velocity profile can histories of deformation and temperature are characterized by their cycle­
develop due to thermal effects. The complexity of the solution procedure is also averaged values and the amplitudes and frequency of their fluctuations . If we
to be noted, and also the limiting shear stress. The special power-law and consider only the average ra te of increase of internal energy over a complete cycle,
exponential viscosity form has been used here for analytical convenience but it then the term pe can be replaced by pCp(oT/ot) where aT/ot is the rate of
would be possible to compute numerically a solution for any separable form; increase of average temperature; Cp will be considered constant.
normal stresses do not enter the problem. Kearsley (1962) and Martin (1967) For the heat Oux we use Fourier's law, qj = -k(oT/oxj) . We treat the con­
have investigated other viscometric flows using similar methods. Agur· and ductivity k as constant herc. In the present problem , if we let the direction normal
Vlachopoulos (1981) have shown how to use finite difference techniques in to the slab be the y-direction , then the average temperature will depend oniy on
problems of heat transfer to molten polymers in tubes . y and t, so aq;joXj will take the form - k(02T/oy2) .
For the average rate of work lJij(ov;/ax) we use the rate of dissipation D
9.5.4 Th ermal runaway in a viscoelastic slab discussed previously. We consider the case in which the stress amplitude is con­
stant, so the expression for D in terms of J" is convenient. We finally obtain
Let us suppose that a slab of (linear viscoelastic) material is being sheared
sinusoidally . If the rate of work , r-y, is integrated over a complete cycle, we find
that the work per cycle (per unit volume) is 7rG"{J or 7rJ"r'd, where TO and {o are aT = ko2T
p C p& oy2 + 'iwro
I
To T ) J "[ a(T)wJ.
2( ' /
(9.69)
the stress amplitude and the shear ampli tude, and Gil and J" are the loss modulus )
 480 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS 9 . 5 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FLOWS 481

The methods to be used can be carried out just as well if Jf! and a(T) are 9.5 .6 Tension in a cooling rod
empirically-determined functions , given graphically or numerically. However, to The above illustration s have not, in the main, dealt with viscoelastic systems
be explicit , let us suppose that J" has a power-law form, l"(w) == Jw- p , and that where a particie has a compiex thermal history. The present example (Pipkin
) a(T) = A exp (-BT). To simplify mallers, let us omit the small factor To/T. ! 972) shows how complex the matter of thermal behaviour is in viscoelastic
Let the boundaries of the slabbe aty = ±h. Wescaleywith respect toh,so that materials.
the boundaries are y = ± 1 in the new variable. We also scale I and Tin such a way In this example, the temperature varies both in time and spacc. Consider that
as to combine as many parameters as possible, and translate' the temperature an extending force F is applied to a rod of radius Rat tim'e zero. Suppose that at
origin so that the new dimensionless temperature <p is initially zero. The equation time zero, the temperature of the rod is everywhere T" but its surface r = R is
can thus be brought into the form lowered to a reference temperature To a t time zero and held there. The ends of the
rod are insulated. The temperature is then a function of r and I only, at least away
2
8</> 8 </> -~.!.a 2ex p( ¢), (9.70) from the ends. It satisfies the initial and boundary conditions
7ii =- 8y2 . 20
T(r,O) = T I , T(R, I) = To. (9.72)
where g2 is J I Bw l - p r;g;h 2kA.
We neglect dissipation, and thus suppose that the energy equation can be
Let us consider the case of insulated boundaries . In that case the temperature
written as
rem a ins uniform at all times if it is uniform initially, so the equation yields
aT
Ie
pCP 7i[ = -; 8r
a (r aT)
or . (9.73)
) ("
1= (2/g2) I. exp(-¢) d</>. (9.71 )
.,0 The temperature can novl be co;nputed explic~tly Of we had Dot ignored di s­
sipation this couid nOl be done).
The integra tion can be carried out explicitiy; but suppose the intcgrand is given We suppose that far enough away from lhe ends of the rod , the extension is
in the form ordata. The mai n thing to notice a bout the integral is tha t it converges uniform , a function Eel) of time only. We omit consideration of thermal expan­
as ¢ --. 00, so the temperature diverges to infinity within a finite time I (equal sion and suppose that the material is incompressible . The tensile stress a (= a zz ) is
to 2/g2 in the present case); the material ha s ' run-a way'. then (ignoring the small front factor)
If heat escapes from the boundary then there mayor may not be run-away.
Pipkin (1972) discusses this ma tter in more detail: see also Problem 9.8. a(r, I) = 11 E[~(r, I) - ~(r, II)] de(/ I), (9.74)

9.5.5 Flow round a sphere where E(/) is the elongational (Young's) relaxation modulus. Here the material
time at the radius r is, from (9.25)
The previous flows considered were viscometric or nearly-v iscomctric flows.
Morris (1982) has shown the changes in flow patterns around a hot sphere. The
solution was obtained for both Newtonian and shear-thinning (power-law) ~(r,/) = 10'1 ¢[T(r,II)]d/ '. (9.75)
fluid s. If the viscosity at the sphere temperature To is '1'/0 then if the temperature
field is determined by cond uction the sphere drag is proportional to '1'/0 U, where where </>(T) = a-I (T). The condition of equilibrium under the specified load F
U is the speed of the sphere through the medium; this is a small Peclet-number is then
limit. The Peclet number is here Val,,-, where If- is the thermal diffusivity. If R
forced convection is important then one find s that the drag is proportional to r
./0
a(r, 1)27rrdr = FH(/). (9.76)
'1'/0 U4 . For larger Peclet numbers one finds that the low-viscosity lubricated layer
cannot build up to a reasonable thickness and the motion is governed by the By combining the stress-strain relation with the equilibrium equation, we
viscosity ('1'/00) at large distances from the sphere where the temperature is Too; obtain
the dra g is proportional to '1'/00 U. The analysis assumed that lex(To - T 00) 1 » I;
the asymptotic method of analysis used has also been applied to channel flow
of polymeric fluids; here ex is defined by '1'/ = '1'/0 exp -ex( T - To) .
t
./0
E'(T, II) de(/l) = aoH(/), (9.77)

)

482 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS
where 0-0 = F /nR 2 and where the effective modulus £* is defined by
F(I, I!) = (2 / R2) foR £[';(r, I) - ~(r, rl)Jrdr.
Note that the equation that E( I) satisfies is not a simple convolution product.
iLis _possib Ie_to_ solye .t h e _problem- numer-iea-l-l-y, -w-i-t-h- -g-i-veB-+une t-ierts -¢{-F-)
and £(0 but it is helpful to obtain an approximate solution, as follows_
Just after lime zero, the temperature is TI everywhere except at the surface, so
the rod extends uniformly according to the tensile compliance D( cPI I ) where
¢I = ¢( TI). The stress is 0-0 almost everywhere. Right at the surface r = R, the
modulus is £(1) rather than £(¢II), because the surface temperature is To· With
the quasi-elastic approximations c:(1)::= D(¢JI)o-o ~ o-O/E(¢JII) and o(R,I) ~
E(I)c:(I), we find that the stress at the surface is
o-(R, I) ~ 0-0£(1)/ £(¢JI).
Assuming tha t cPl is large, £(¢) I) relaxes much faster than E( I) does, so the
surface stress quickly becomes a good deal larger than 0-0· If £( cPI1) and £(1) can
both be approximated by the same power law O -p / (-p)! (after a little time has
elapsed~ so that both are somewhat be1o\·v the glass modulus), then 'Ne cbta;;;.
a(R; l) ~ rro~h~. If Tl - T o == 100°C. then <p j might be about 10 , but p is likely
4 part::;, one of which can be opened at the end of the time needed to finish one item .
to be small. say p = O.l, so <h": is only ~h01.1t 2 .5
The surface stress seems to go up to about 2.5 times the nominal stress (with
these figures) very quickly. It will then come back down, more slowly_ As the
lower temperature To penetrates into the material, the annulus of stiff material on
the outside grows thicker, and it will rapidly start supporting most of the load ,
both because it is stiffer and because a layer of given thickness has a much bigger
area near the outside than a layer of the same thickness has near the middle due
to the factor r in the integral defining £*. Let us suppose that there is a circle
r(l) such that the temperature is roughly To for r > r(l) and TI for r < r(I). As
a further approximation suppose that
2
£'(1,0) = {l- [r(I) / Rj 2}E(I) = [r(I) / RJ £(¢ It)­
Then, with o-(R, I) = 0-0£(1)/£'(1,0), we can visualize how the surface stress
begins to decrease as the load-carrying (cool) region grows larger.
9.6 Thermally-induced extrudate swell
Using a fmite element method, Phuoc and Tanner (1980) investigated the swelling
of Newtonian extrudateswhere the viscosity varies with exp -06 T Dissipation of
energy created a hot fluid near the centreline (Fig. 8.24) while the die wall (a long
tube of radius R) was maintained at Tw. Ambient temperature T DC < Tw caused a
heat loss from theextrudate.lfthemaximum temperature on the centreline is T max ,
9 . 7 INJECTION MOULDiNG 483
then the swelling ratio X for a given material can be piotted in terms of
o( T max - Tw) (Fig. 9.12).1n this figure the thermal propertics ofpolyethyiene were
used , but no non-Newtonian properties are included. The swelling is remarkably
(9.78) high (1"'oJ 70 per cent). Repetition of this c~.1cu!ati0n '.vith po\.vcr-Iaw ~hear-ininning
(Huynh \983) reduces the thermal swelling as would be expected_ Correlation with
the results of the inelastic swelling I!1echanism(S_e_c Jion.8..9A).is.good-a-nd-il-is dear
that the inelastic swellIng mechanism is important in the present case; it does not
depend on energy dissipation btl I. only on the temperature distribuiion across the
die exit plane; if the outside layers are cool and the inner layers are hot, one expects
increased swelling.
9.7 Injection moulding
We now briefly discuss the process of injection moulding as an example of a flow
field which depends on (transient) rheology and hea t transfer and is, conse­
(9.79) quently, very complex (Kennedy 1995) _ Injection moulding involves two pro­
cesses: production of the flow of molten polymer, and shaping the product in the
die. We shall only consider the latter aspect here; see Tadmor and Gogos (1979)
for a discussion of the first part_
The stream ofn1oIten polymer is forced into the ITIouid under pressure from the
ram action 01 the mouider. A typical injection mould (Fig. 9.13) is made in two
,
The mould temperature is beiow the melt (Tm) or glass transition temperature
(Tg ). The flow is through the sprue, runner, and gate system into the mould
cavity; heat transfer to the mould then solidifies the fluid. Initially now rates
are high, but freezing ofa 'skin ' next to the mould surface slows the flow towards
the end of the m ou !d-fi!!ing cycle. (If cooiing is too rapid, the mould may not -)
(9.80)
"r
, "t )
1.01 1 I .,
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0
a (Tmax-T..... )
Fig.9.12 Extrudate swelling ratio X for a tempe ra lure-thinning Newtonian fluid as a function of
temperature difference. Tm., is the lemperature o n the centreline of Ihe upstream tube and Tw is the
tube wall temperature; 0 is the temperature-viscosity exponent, '7/'70 =exp - o(T - To).
)
 484 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFE C TS 9 . 7 INJECTION MOULDING 485

(a)

~ n ~\\\\1 !
A
t}- " _ _
I
__~A
I ~.
I
z~ \. \ I I I
gale-~)II I I I
I III U~~aeSI
'0/'// '. " I
Inlet } 2}

Aft..
~

Tnt> vje w
_ 111

u"'ea rJ-x
Sp rue L

Inlet galc ­ ~ ~~ II
I FuUy developed I I
Pan ing region Fronl
~Iine
(b)

)
rr~
~ ~)
r 1
Ring IIIf""-_
~
1l1W'
""i;!
~ T3b
fig . 9.13 Typica l ga le desig ns and loca l ions for inject io n mo ulding.
Front Tw , mould Mi xing Skin
temperature (rrozen )
be properl y fill ed .) Aft er the cavity has been filled, Ihe pressure is kept on the
melt to pack it securely into the cavity a nd to compensate for contraction during Fig.9.14 (a) Ft ow into a simp le moutd shOwi ng front posi tion a t different times, fully developed
region of flow a nd ' fount ain e ffcct' in front region . (b) Cross-sectional view of a ce ntre-fed di sc­
the cooling pha se. Back-flow ma y take place upon removal of the press ure unless shaped mou ld cavity. Indica ted schematically are th e frozen skin layer that may ro rm during filling
prevented or solidifica ti o n has taken place . The component is then ejected, as well as the nipple-s haped velocity profile.
completing the cycle.
In the mould-filling part of the cycle, the flow is o ften nea rl y-viscometric for
simple mould s [Fig. 9.14(a)] . This figure shows the position o f the pol ymer front
at different times durin g the filling. The ' fountain- effect ' flow a t the fronl is also (1980) considered the fl ow in a Poi se uille (channel-flow) geometry, which is a
shown. This flow is largely determined by kinematical considerations and the two-dime nsional problem. Let the gap width be 2h and the initial tempera ture be
non-slip condition at the wa ll s. To everywhere. At time 1=0 the wall tempera tures are lowered to Tw while the
There h as been a number of mathem a tica l simulation s o f this fl ow. Figure flow is maintained at an average speed w. Later, at a time (lr) the flow is stopped.
9.14(b) shows the fr ozen 'skin' which constricts the flow. Ncar the entry there A time-marching nllmerica l (finite-difference) procedure was used to find the
is enough hea t tran sfer to keep the skin thin; further into the mouid it first ge ts results for the flow field , temperature a nd stresses at the end of the flow cycle
, thicker, and is then thinner near the polymer front. In view of the complexity,
numerical simulation is needed. We shall mention the work of Isaye v and Hieber
(time If) . Then the calculation wa s continued until all the m a terial had dr opped
below Tg and was frozen.
(1980) who have discussed the problem of solidi fi ca tion and the subsequent The material constants and geometry were chosen to ma tch the experiments of
prediction of residual stresses in the so lid product. They used a Leonov model of Wales (1976) on polystyrene . Results are shown in Fig. 9.15. In order to maintain
the melt, thereby including viscoelastic effects; Dietz and White (1978) used an constant inflow rate, the speed in the core increases with time, and the point of
inelastic p owe r-law fluid in their study with some sllccess. Isayev and Hieber maximum shear rate moves inwards from the wall.

)
486 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS 9 8 SUMMAR Y 487

(a) ~
60

~
co..
1\

,­
,.
:::<
." ­
<l
)

. 4
o
01 :;z..... ............ ' ............ ' ~

o 100 200 300

x (mm)

(0) 500~ (c )
>x ,~1 fX:
400 8 Fig.9.16 Fibre orienta tion distribution in a multi-gHted injecti o n m o ulded parI. Here, the pl a na r
projections oC three-dimensional orientation ellipsoid s a re used to show the predicted fihre o rient a­
E l:300 I II ~6
tion Slate. Circics represent a rand o rn orientation wh erea s Iln e~ i nn j("at€' a pc !" fcc ! 3 !;giliT'iClii.

E
~
P1s
• 4 !~r /I t~\ '"
,* 200~-
100

G ~ Wall
,a t
Fig. 9. 15 Idealized moulJing pro ble m a nd result s. (a) Pressure distributio n alo ng cavity Cor
Wall
Some comments on injection-moulding modelling ha ve been made by
Richardson (Pearson a nd Richa rdso r: 1983). Ke nned y (199 5) has aiso devoted
his book to injection mOUlding.
A much more sophisticated approach to the simulation of thermally and
pressure induced stresses in injection moulding is the work of Zheng el af.
(1999). This involves the numerical (finite element) solu tion of the equations of
)

vari o us n o w times (s) (I ) 1.0 (2 ) 1.5 (3) 2.0 (4) 2.5. C u rves are theo retical predicti o ns. Experimental
res ults Co r short ( 0 ) a nd nash (e) co nditions a rC shown . (b) Velocit y profiles, and (c) shear rate
pm files. Number on curves rcCer to times in seco nds: (I) 0 (start) , (2) 0.05 , (3) 0.2, (4) 0.5, (5) 1.0, (6)
! .5, (7) 2.0 , (8) 2 .5. T;n'" = 503 K , Tw = 323 K , IV = 120 mm /s; thickness oC moulding 10 mm .
This idealized problem can be applied to injection mOUlding. The thickness
of the frozen zone is over-estimated in the present calculations and the flow ,
of course, does not model the fountain flow in the advancing nose. Despite
the simplicity of the model , comparisons with experimeniai work of Dietz
and Whi te (1978) for polystyrene are promising. The overall pressure drop is
well predicted (slightly over-predicted) . Predictions of the residual stresses
are somewhat erratic, but generally plausible in a qualitative sense .
Since the flow is nearly-viscometric, one might query what the effect of
elasticity is . In the present case the difference between the value of ap/ax in
the elastic case as compared to an inelastic model is only about 2 per cent as
a maximum . With other mould shapes this may not be an accurate conclusion .
momentum, mass, and energy conservation for short-fibre-reinforced thermo­
plastics. A flow-orientation picture is shown in Fig. 9. 16. Predictions of shrink­
age and warpage are made in this computation , with reasonable agreement
with experiment.
9.8 Summary
)
This chapter has tried to emphasize the grea t importance of fluid property
changes with temperature. It is often the most important part of the process
simulation. The combination of variable temperature with viscoelasticity prac­
tically dictates that numerical methods be used to study these flows and com­
pare with experiments . The effects of pressure can also be important. Much
remains to be done, especially with regard to freezing processes in materials.
A survey and a beginning in this area is that of Kulkarni and Beris (1998); see
also Larson (1999).
 488 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSU RE EFFECTS PROBLEMS 489

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Morris, S. (1982). J. Fluid Mech., 124, I.
Agur, E . E. and V!achopoulos, J. (!98!). J. Polym. Sci., 26, 765.
Pearson, J. R . A. and Richardson, S. M. (ed .) (! 983). Computational analysis 0/ polymer
Archer, L. A ., Ternet, D. and Larson, R. G. (1997). Rheol. Acta, 36.579.
processing, p. 139. Applied Science Publications, London.
Bair. S. and Winer, W . O. (1992).1. Tribology , 114. I.
Peters, G . W. M . (:995). In /I/umerica! simulation o/non-isothermal jlow 0/ viscoelastic
Beek , N. J. and Eggink, R. (1962). De Ingenieur, 74, 8 1.
liquids , (ed. J. F. Dijksman and G. D. C. Kuiken), p. 21 . Kluwer , Am s terdam.
Binding, D . M ., Couch, M . A. and Waiters, K. (1998) . 1. Non -N ewtonian Fluid Meek ,
Phan-Thien, N . (1979). J. Rheo!. 23, 45 i.

79, 137. Phuoc, H. B. and Tanner, R. I. (1980). J. Fluid M ech ., 98, 253 .

Bird , R . B., Armstrong , R. C, and Ha ssager, O . (1977). Dynamics o/polymeric liquids, Pigford, R. L (1955) . Chem. Eng. Progr. Symp., 51, 79.

Vol. I. Wiley, New York . Pipkin , /\. C. (1972). Lec/w'es On viscoelasticity theory. Springer-Verla g, New York.
Bondi , A. (1968). Physical properties 0/ molecular crystals, liquids and g lasses. Wiley, Pywell, R. F. (J973). In T. C. Davenport (ed .) The rheology o/ Iubricant s, p. 118. Applied
New York . Science Publications, London.
Brennen, C. E. (1995). Cavitation and bubble dynamics. Oxford University Press . Shoulberg, R . H, (1963). J. app!. Polymer Sci., 7,1597.
Carv2!hc, M. S. and Scriven, L. E. (1996). 1. Tribo!ogy, llS, 872.
Stehle, M . and Bruckm;r, R. (i979). Giastech. Bel'., 52, 82, 105.
Cho, Y. 1. and Hartnett, J. P. (1982). Adv. H eat Trans/er, 15. 60.
Streator, J. L., Gerhardstein, J. P ., and McCollum , C. B. (1986). 1. Trib ology, 116, 119.
Christensen , R. M . (1971). Theory 0/ viscoelasticity. Academic Press, New York.
Tadmor, Z, and Gogos, C. G. (1979). Principles 0/ polymer processing . Wiley, New
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York,
1196. Tayor, G . I. and Quinney, H . (1931). Phi!. Trans. Roy. Soc. London . A 230, 323.

Chung, T. S. (1982) , 1. app!. Polym . Sci. , 28, 2119. Tien, C. (1962). Can. J. Chern. Eng ., 40, 130.

Collins, E. A. and Metzger, A. (1970). Polymer Eng. Sci. , 10,57. Truesdell, C. and Nol!. W , (1965). The nonlinear field theories 0/ mechanics. Springer­

Crochet, M . J . and Naghdi , P. M . (1968) . Pruc. IUTAM Symp. on Visco elasLicity
} (Scotland). Springer-Verlag, Berlin .
Denn, M. M. (1983). 1n J. R . A. Pea rson , and S. M . Richard son (cd .). Computatiollal
al1alysi5 a/polymer processing, p. 179. Aprlied Science Publications, London.
Dietz, W. and White, J. L. (1978). Rheol. A cta , 17 , 676.
Dowson, D. and Higginson , G . R. (1966). Eiustuhydrodynumic lubricatiun , Pergamon,
Oxford .
Verlag, Berlin .
van den Brule, B. H . A. A. (1995). In Numerical simulation 0/ non-iso thermal flow 0/
viscoelastic liquids (ed . J. F. Dijksman , and G . D. C. Kuiken) , p. i i. Kiuwer.
Amsterdam .
Van Krevelen, D . W . and HoftY7" r, P J. (1976) . P:'openies 0/ Jiolymers. Eisevicr,
Amsterdam .
Vinogradov, G. V. and Malkin, Y. (1977). Rheology 0/ polymers . Mir Pub!., Moscow.

Eiermann, K . (1965). Ko/loid-Z ., 201 , 3. Vinogradov, G . V. and Shumsky, V. F , (1970). Rhea!. ACla, 9, 155.

Ferry, J. D. (1981). Vis coelastic pro{Jerties o/polymers (3rd edn). Wiley, N ew York Wales, J. L S. (1976) . Th e application a/flow birefringence studies to rheological studies

Frenkel , J . (1955), The kinetic theory o/Iiquids. Dover, New York . 0/ polymer melts. Delft University Press .
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) Gottirrcdi, J. C ., Quir o ga ~ O. P., and Flores, A. F. 0983). Inl. J . fl eal }vfass Trans/cr, 0/ viscoelas tic liquid~ (ed. J. F. l..)ijksman and G. D. C. Kuiken), p. 37. Kluwer,
26, 1215. Amsterdam .
Greig, P . and Sahoto, M . (1978). Polymer, 19, 503. Wiest , J. (J 995). In Numerical simula tion 0/ non-isothermal jlow 0/ viscoelast Ic liquids (ed.
Gupta, R. K . and Metzner, A. B. (1982). 1. Rheo/. , 26, I g I. J. F. Dijksman a nd G. D. C. Kuiken), p . I. Kluwer, Amsterdam .
Huynh , B. P. (1983). J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech., 13, I. Woods, L. C. (1975). Thermodynamics 0/ fluid systems. Oxford University Press.
Hu ynh, B. P. and Tanner, R . I. (1983) . Rheol. Acta, 23, I. Yan , J. and Tien , C. (1963). Can. 1. Chem. Eng., 41 , 139.
Isayev, A. I. an d Hieber, C. A. (1980). Rheo!. Acta, 19. 168 . Zdilar, A . M . and Tanner, R. I. (1994). J . Rheol" 38, 909.
Jacobson, B. O . (1991). Rheology and elast ohydrodYllllmic lubrica tion . Elsevier, Zheng, R ., Kennedy, P., Phan- Thien, N ., and Fan, X-J (1999). J. Non-Ne wtonian Fluid
Amsterdam. Mech. 84, 159.
Joseph, D. D. (1998) . J . Fluid Mech" 366, 367.
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Problems
Kearsley, E. A. ( 1962). Trans . Soc. Rheol., 6, 253. I . Using the data of Fig. 9.4 find an appropriate time-temperature shift curve. Compare
Kennedy, P. (1995). Flow analysis 0/ injection molds. Hanser, Munich. this curve with the 'universal' shift curve.
Kulkarni , J. A. and Beris, A. M. (1998) . 1. Rheol., 42,971 .
Larson, R . G. (1999) . Th e structure and rheology 0/ complex jluid~. Oxford University 2. Suppose polyisobutylene is cooied at a uniform ratc from 50 °C to - 100°C over a
Press, New York. period of. 30 min. Plot a graph of pseudo-lime versus time for thi s interval.
Lohe, P . (1965). Kol/.-Z . u. Zej. Polym., 203, 115.
) Martin, B. (1967). Int. 1. nonlinear Mech., 2, 285.
3. Show tha t by using the function ,6{ I - exp -p/,6} instea d of p in Newtonian iso­
Matsumoto. T. and Bogue, D . C. (1977). Trans. Soc. Rheo/., 21 , 453 .
thermal incompressible lubrication problems, one ca n reduce variable viscosity problem s
Metzner, A . B. (1965). Adv. Hea t Trans/er, 2, 357.
to the stand~rd constant-viscosity lubrication problem. Assume '7 = '70 exp(p/,6).

490 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS
4. Assuming a fixed pressure drop 6p in a tube of length L and diameter D, and an
incompressible fluid whose viscosity varies exponentially with pressure according to the
law 1] = 7)Q exp(P/ ~), compute the mass flux .
5. Find the temperature field in a Newtonian shear fl ow between two plates when one
plate is insulated and statiOliary a/lu ioe oloer is at a constant temperatureio
and moves
I 1()
at a speed U. What change occurs if the stationary plate is held at To?
6. Uo aa-i"ffiensionanrnalySiS o f The extrusion problem inchldin-g therm al dTects~'
How many dimensi o nless groups affect the swelling ratio?
7. Use a computer program to solve the shear-heating problem for a general (oon­
Newtonian) variation of viscosity functi on and therm al properties with temperature.
Check your results using (a) the constant property case and (b) the results of Section 9.5.3.
8. Integrate the slab-heating problem (Section 9.5.4) for the case when the edges of
the slab are kept at a temperature To. l s there a steady-state solution?
)
..LV
STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULE-NCE
10.1 Flow instailiiities
IN Newtonian fluid flowing in a channel, we know that at a certain Reynolds
number the simple laminar flow pattern breaks down and turbulent flow results.
The prediction of the critical Reynolds number and the flow mode just beyond
this point are the domain of hydrodynamic stability theory (Drazin and Reid
.1981). Soon after the critical point the flow becomes chaotic and turbulence sets
in; generally the study of turbulent flow proceeds by a close link between
experiment and theory because it is very difficult to do completely a priori cal­
culations of turbulence in complex flows, beginning from the Navier-Stokes
equations. In some other simple flows, the pattern of transition to turbulence is
more complex. At a critical Reynolds numher in a Couette flow (for definiteness,
with a rot Cl.ting !f!!'!er cylinder aud a s tationary ouier cyiinder) a steady secondary '
flow sets if! having the f0rm of toroidal vortices (Fig. 10. i). As the speed or the
inner cylincier inrre ~. s~s (9.!1d cCr!$eq~~i1t!y :;ic R\,;yuoius number increases) the
flow becomes more and more chaotic until it ultimately begins to look more like
channel turbulence. Thus the transition to chaos proceeds in at least two steps in
this case. In this chapter we seek to look at the effect of non-Newtonian fluid
properties on instabilities, and also at the effect of Don-Ncwtonian liuid pro­
perties on turbulent flows . Readers most interes ted in turbulence may go directly
to Section 10.9.
The instabilities in Newtonian flows are characterized by a critical Reynolds
number. Jfwe regard this number as the ratio of inertia to viscous forces, then we
see instability when the inertia forces become large relative to the viscous forces .
One naturally expects to see, in a viscoelastic fluid characterized by, for example,
a relaxation time A, that the flow transition would occur when
j[(Re) , (Wi)] = 0, (10.1 )
where (Wi) is the Weissenberg number, AVid, say ; the Reynolds number (Re) is
pVdlT/. Similarly, the characteristics of a turbulent flow would be expected to
depend on both (Re) and (Wi) .
. Generally, in polymer processing, one does not get inertia-driven instabilities
because (Re) is very small ( << I). However, there is the possibility of instabilities
arising when (Wi) comes to a critical magnitude; if we can find these, then we
have a special non-Newtonian effect, not present in purely viscous flows; this is
an elastic instability where elastic forces dominate viscous forces . Conversely, at
least one purely viscous [(Re) = 0] instability in fibre-spinning can be damped out
 492 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE 10 . 1 FLOW [NSTABILITIES 493

As a si mple example of instability we can consider the shearing motion of a

i I
OI
purely viscous fluid. Let

i
} r
-i--L-,
Rotating.
irii"il:;i cylinder
r = 1"](i)i. ( 10.2)

We suppose the (unidirectional) velocity field is

0 u(y, t) = 1'oY + E V(y , I), (10.3)

~ ~'---<)~
a nd that the motion is confined between the planes y = 0 and y = h with velocities
of zero and l'oh respectively. The equa.tions of motion reduce to

1~~k~:~
)
Length
of
1--1§1
~
.,,"';0, '~ , ~:n"d" p 8t
ou or
= 8y· (10.4)
ce·1I 0 Inner
cylind er
Using (10.3) and (10.2), assuming E« I, we find
SeCO ndary~
nows Fixed
outer
cylinder
(~ p
8V 8 V{. 2
7ii = 7J2 1"](-yo) + ""Yo a:-. .
81"]1 }
. ( 10.5)
y ""Yo """10

(b)
Now Clssume
yOI I

00
V = '~...
\ ' " a", I sIn n17ry
~
.
- -- ( iO.6)
m=1 h '
(a)

Fig. 10.[ Sketch of Taylor--COllelle vortex flow field showin g post -c ritical second<lry fl ow . which satisfies the boundary conditions at y = 0, h. Using (10.6) in (10.5) we find
(a) Flow between two cylinders showi ng periodic seco ndary flow cell s a lo ng ax ia l direction­

)
superimposed on basic Couelle mOlioo . (b) Details of cell. m 2 .,.2 r . 8Tj]
Om =- p!J 2 l1"] + ""Y 81' . . ( 10.7)
. '10
)
Thus the motion is unstable if the bracketted telm is negative; this gives as a
by elastic effects and consequently care is needed in making predictions about the
criterion for stability
general effects of viscoelasticity on stability.
)
dr > o. ( 10.8)
d1'
10.1.1 Instability built into constitutive models
We have noted already an inbuilt instability in the second-order fluid equation Ifa real material exhibits a flow curve in which dr/ d1' < 0, it will rapidly become
(Section 4.5.1) and there is the possibili ty of a work-producing cycle with the unstable; one must avoid violating (10.8) if one wishes to have a stable material
single integral model [eqn (4.63)] unless an elastic potential exists for the hi and model.
h _ I fun ctions in thi s equation; when such a potential exists then one returns to a When applying the numerical methods described in Chapter 8 one frequently
form of the KBKZ model , eqn (4.54). Tanner and Simmons (1967) reported an finds that convergence is not attained beyond a certain Weissenberg number
instability when working with a special form of the Oldroyd equation (4.13) in a (Wi )c. If the flow itself is unstable with the chosen constitutive model, then the
steady shearing flow disturbed by an orthogonal sinusoidal shearing flo w. None compu tation should reflect this behaviour; a program that can only compute
)
of these insta bilities is expected to reflect real fluid behaviour and o ne must steady-state solutions may fail to reflect the complexity of the real flow . On the
) be careful to distinguish such spurious modes of instability , due to poor or other hand, lack of convergence is most often just a numerical artifact. We now
inappropriate modelling, from real instabilities. consider the stability of some basic flows.
)
)

)
494 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE 10 .2 PERTURBAT!ONS ABOUT A STATE OF REST 495

10.2 Perturbations about a state of rest and T is the extra stress tensor, which is assumed symmetric. The mass­
conservation equation is
The method of stability analysis usually adopted consists in applying an infini­
tesimal perturbation to the ba sic flow as demonstrated above. The more complex \1. v = 0, (10.10)
is the basic now', the iiJOre difficult is the stability aiJa.:Y:iis. The simplest pc.!:isib:e
basic 'flow' is a state of rest, and the next most complex is a state of rigid body and the energy equation, ignoring viscous dissipation and otber small terms,
.m Qt iO·r:l·. We osha l.Lconsider .the -[or.mel'; !or-.r..igid -body-m olions-oC ¥isCO-l.ls. Cluids ·Fed.uces ·t·o
one can prove that the motion is stable (Huilgol and Phan-Thien 1997).
An incompressible, isothermal fluiJ in a state ofn:sllllust be stable, and smaii DT = ~\12T, (J 0.11)
disturbances must die away for all reaii stic constitutive equations. In order to Dt
feed a potential in sta bility with energy , a driving force is needed . A simple phys­ where ~ is the thermal diffusivity and T is the temperature; in the above
ically interesting case is the Benard problem (Fig. 10.2) where a fluid is contained D/Dl == a/at + (v· V) as usual. In eqn (10.9) the variation o f density op is
between two iarge planes spaced a distance d apart. if the iower plate is hotter assumed to be given by
than the upper pl a te, thermal expansion lowers the density of the fluid there and
the hot fluid tries to rise. At a certain critical temperature-difference motion sets op = -poOt(T - To), (10.12)
in and this motion inten sifies and develops as the temperature difference
increases. The motion is thus buoyancy-driven . An account of the Newtonian where at is the coefficient of volumetric expansion and To is a properly chosen
problem is given by Busse (in Swinney and Gollub 198 1). The viscoelastic case mean temperature a t which all fluid properties Po, ~,and at are evaluated. For the
may be treated in a fairly general man ner (Sokolov and Tanner 1972) and illus­ constitutive equation we assume the fluid is an incompressible simple fluid
trat es many aspects of classical stability theory . [ego (4.29)], so that the stress !1 t a particle is 2. functicr:a] o .. ly of the hislory of
The anaiysis foiiows that of Drazin and Reid (I y~ I) for the Newtonian case. In the strain seen by that p~r(icle; the strain is conven ien tly measured relative (0
particular, we assume all fluid properties, except the uensity, are constant. The the present configuration as reference . In order to make an analysis of a given
usuai Boussinesq approximation is aiso used; this means that except in the viscoelastic flow problem it is usu a lly necessa ry to ha ve, in advance, a good idea
buoyancy lerms we assume the density is constant; any resulting flow is thus of the flow field to be expected before choosing a relevant approximation to the
assumed to be incompressible. Hcnce the equations of motion a re general simple fluid constitutive equation. In the present problem we are con­
cerned with small velocity perturbations about a state of rest and it is thi s fact
Dv ( iO .9)
Po 01 == -vp + \1 . T - (Po + op)gk, which makes the problem tractable. In stability problems it is often found that
one may assume the smail test di sturbance to be of the separated form
where Po is the undisturbed fluid density, g is the gravitational acceleration, k is
a unit vector pointing along the z axis, v is the velocity vector, p is the pressure, v = eO"ff(x,y, z), T == eO"fg(x,y, z). (10.13)

The analysis then seeks to find any eigenvalue CT which permits a non-zero
solution of th e disturbance equations, and hence a bifurcation from the zero­
velocity pure conduction basic solution. Several possibilities exist for CT, which is
in general a complex number:
T,------t----,---­

'. 7 -,
(a) The real part of CT, re(CT), is grea ter, equal to or less than, zero.
tI
(b) Similar choices exist for the imaginary part of CT, im(CT).
For stable disturbances, which die away, re(CT) < 0; for re(o) > 0 the dis­
·turbances will grow until arrested by non-linearities; thus the case re(O') = 0 is the
interesting one as it signals the onset of instability. When im(u) is zero, one has a
steady disturbance flow as in the classical Taylor vortices (Fig. 10.1), otherwise
Fig. 10.2 Coordina te system for Benard problem . Lower plate tempe rature To exceeds the upper the eigensolution is oscillatory. In the former case it is usual to refer to an
plate tempe rature T , . 'exchange of stability' and the latter is termed 'over-stability'.
 496 STABILJTY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE {O . 2 PERTURBATIONS ABOUT A STATE OF REST 497

) In the overstable case each particle undergoes a small-amplitude vibration
about a mean position and strains in the fluid are small. In the exchange of
stab!jity case the strains are no t necessarily small , but the s train rates are,· and
in these circumst<lnces the simple fluid with fading memory behaves like a
Newtonian fiuid; the important idea here is that no large strain is undergone in a
time comparable with the characteristic memory time of the fluid. These argu­
ments may be formalized as follows . The general simple fluid constitutive
equation for incompressible fluid s, may be represented in thc form (4 .29)
I
T(X, I) = t=:F- oo IC(I' )].
Here, T is the ex tra stress tensor a t the Eulerian place x <l t the curren t time I which
is a functional of th e whole past history of the strain tensor C. The particle which
) Let the disturbed quantities be denoted by a prime, the steady (primary) values
arrives at x a t time I was at the coordinate station rex , I' ) at time / ' (I > I' ). Then,
the relative deformation gradient matrix F is defined as
ar (2.28)
F = ax '
memory function C is chosen to coincide with the value of this function at the
mean temperature To; it is not otherwise assumed to be a function of tempera ture.
Although this assumption wiil affect the deta ils of the analy sis ii will not make
qualitative changes, and it simplifies the analysis g,ea t! y; however, it is not very
realistic, see Chapter 9 for discussion . Consistent with the assumption of small
motions about a state of rest we may drop the convective term (v· V)v in the
momentum equations.
The stead y-state (primary) solution is now wriUen for the situation in Fig. 10.2
where we have a slab of fluid, infinite in the X, y directions and of thickness din
the z direction; there is a con stant mean-temperature gradient (hot below, cooi
above) of magnitude fJ, the stress distribution is hydrostatic, and the veio6! y is
zero ; aii aj ax, a/dy are zero for the static field . We now consider small velocity
and temperature perturbations on this state of rest.
by an overbar. Then , we ha ve
v = v ', T=t+T ' , p = fi+p', p = p + p' , T = T '. (10.14)
Thus we find, from (10.9)- (10. 14)

'Nhence C is defined 3$ FTF ; no te that fT is the transpose of F. Le t r - x = U(! , x) , 8-. ' - go: 'r
n- , K
" -IV
Po
"
P -;- Po
- In ,
- Y ' T , (10.15)
so that U is the relative dispiacement. We now suppose that aU /ax ~ I , so that <.II
squares and hlgheT powers of aU /ax may be neglected . Thcn , the sm a ll-s train ,(' ,(av.'(t ' ) aV; (I ' )\ ,
l ij = J G ( I-I ) I -~-'-+ --)dl , (10 . 16)
tensor becomes . -00 \ a~ fu i

DU+
2£ = -
ax
(au)
-
ax
T jDUj2
+0 -
ax
(2 .77)
which we can write as a convolution product Tij = C * Aij for convenience;
V ·v ' = 0 (1U.17 )
)
Now, if we a ssume that depends linearly on E at small enough strain s we get
) the linear form (2 .81)
T
(:1 - 11;\72) T' = fJ(v ' . k), (10.18)

) where fJ = -aT/ az. By twice taking the curl of(lO. 15) we eliminatep' and two of
T(I) = l~ C ( I - I' )A(/ ') dl ', (2.81 )
the velocity components to obtain the following equations for the z component
of velocity (v: ) and the perturbation T' :
where C is the memory functi o n describing thc fluid <lnd {he components of
the Rivlin- Ericksen tensor A (= 2dE/d/ ' ) in thi s case are given in terms of the
velocity v by
(:1
a
POIC * \72)\72"iJ', -- get (a T' +a-­T')
--
2
ax
2 2
ay2 '

( 10.19)

av;
AU="'--+-a .
aVj (2 .35a) (-al - 11;\72) T' = fJ vz'
' (10 .20)
UXj Xi
We now look for non-trivial solutions of (10.19- 10 .20) with appro priate
Here again, I is the present time and I' is a time in the past; no te that (2.81) is an boundary conditions. Assume solutions of the form
isotropic linear functional of the hereditary type, so that the argument of G
is I - / ' , and not I, I' separately. For steady motions, where A is not a function of v: = ~f(x,y) w( z)ea"
( 10.21 )
( ', eqn (2.81) redu ces to the Newtonian case . Provided I E I is sm<lU (2. 8 1) holds
irrespective of the size of I A I , so that we are not confined to slow flows. The T' = fJ df(x,y)e(z)e"' ,
(10.22)

'\
 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE 10.2 PERTURBATIONS ABOUT A STATE OF REST 499
498

where a is a complex parameter. According to linear stability theory the sign of
the real part of a governs whether the motion is stable or not . Evaluation of the
term involving the convolution product in (10.19) shoVJS that, setting l - [' = 5,
._ rOO
eigenproblem; see Vest and Arpaci (1969); Sokolov and Tanner (1972). To
illustrate the process of solution when this is not necessary we shall assume a no­
shear stress boundary condition at (~O, i so that we set w = &w/a(2 = 0 on these
planes (instead of the no-slip conditions). Equa tions (l 0.28) and (1 fL 29) can now
be combined by operating with [a' - (D2 - a· 2)J on both sides of (10.28) and

- POIG * ~4V; = -PO l ~ ~4(fw)ea, Jo G(s)e -

aS
ds. ( 10.23)
substituting in (10.29). The resulting equation is )

It is advantageous to define the dimensionless complex quantity q(a), where [D2 - a· 2 ][a· - (D2 - a· 2)l[a· - q(a)(Pr)(D 2 - a· 2)Jw
= -(Pr)Ra· 2 w.
7](a ) == 7JOq«(J) == 1 00
S
G(s)e - o- ds, (iO.24)
For the no-shear boundary conditions we can assume a solution of the form
( 10.30)

7]0 is the zero-shear rate reference viscosity and q(a) is dimensionless . In the case 00

when a is pure imaginary, a = iw say, then w = LWnsinl17r( n = 1,2,3 ... . (10.31 )

. 11=1

7](iw) = 7]oq(iw) == 7]/(w) - i7]"(w). (10.25)

Substitution of (10.31) into (10.30) gives the characteristic equation for R:
Thus , 7](iw) is the complex viscosity as usually defined in linear viscoelasticity (see
Chapter 2). When (J = 0, the Newtonian values are recovered and 7]" = 0, (n 271'2 + a* 2)(n 271'2 + 0. 2 + a')[a" + q(a)(Pr)(n 271'2 + a· 2 )J
7]/(0) = 7](0) = 7]0 After substitution of (10.21) and (10.22) in (10.20) and separ­ = R(Pr)a· 2 . (10.32)
,Hing v<lria b!es, we fi no
For the free boundary condition, if a' = 0 (exchange of stabilities), Ihen we
"'2r :.>2r\ .•2Q ... _
f - I ( v J V)' e- I "V 'v u 2 (10.26) recover tlle Newtonian problem and we can immediately show that for free
- \3x2 + oy2 ) = d z2 + d2e - -;: = a , boundaries

where c? must be a (real) constant with the dimensions of (length)-2 Thus, we R :=:::: 657.5, (! 0.33)
may eliminate}; note that the equation for f, governing the eigenfunction (cell
shape), is the same as in the Newtonian case. The problem offinding cell shapes is which is the minimum R occurring when n = I, 0' = 71' //2 . However, in the
discussed extensively by Chandrasekhar (1961) and will not be repeated here. We viscoelastic case we should not assume a' = 0; it is of most interest here to
make various quantities non-dimensional in the following way: investigate overstabiJity. In the Newtonian case it can be shown (Chandrasekhar
1961) that a' = O. In the viscoelastic case q(a) = q(iw) and this can be expressed ,
z a 3
= ad 2 lk , (Pr) 7]0 1PoK., a' = ad, (10.27)
from (10.25), in terms of 7]'(w) and rt"(w), the components of the complex
(= d' D = d az = 8(' a' =
viscosity, which are the commonly measured quantities in viscoelastic Ouids. In
terms of these quantities , on equating the imaginary part of (10.32) to zero and
and find from (10. 19) and (10.20) after using (10.26) letting

[a* - (D 2 - a' 2 )}e = w,

( 10.28) a'2 + n2~ = b~ , ( 10.34)
la' - q(a)(Pr)(D 2 - a<2)][D2 - a'2Jw = -(Pr)Ra,2g,
(10.29) b~ = w' [7]0 + (Pr)7]' (w)J I (Pr)7]" (w), (lO.35)
4
where the Rayleigh number R == ga!3pod /K.7]0. Note that (Pr) (Prand tl number) is from the real part of (10.32) we find , in terms of w',
based on the reference viscosity; conveniently this may be taken as the viscosity
for motions in which a = O. We now need to consider boundary conditions on . R(Pr)a· 2 = b~{[(Pr)b~/7Jo](b;'7]' + w'rt)} - w· 2 (JO.36)
wand e.
The boundary conditions on e, the temperature perturbation, are that e= 0 2
We could now find R = R(a· ) by eliminating w' and then minimizing with
on ( = 0, I . The no-slip boundary conditions on (= 0, I are IV = aw/a( = 0 on respect to a· 2; however, it is easier to obtain R = R(w') and then find the )
these planes. Generally, one needs numerical methods to solve the resulting frequency of oscillation which minimizes R; a'2 can then be found from (10.35).

)
)
 500 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE 10. 3 CO UETTE FLOW STABILITY 501

) We lind that 11 = I gives the lowest value of R: Finally, one asks whe th e r viscoelasticity is a stabilizing or destabilizing
influence, In the Ben a rd problem, when (J = 0 (exchange of stability) there is no
mw*3 77 '(m 2 + (Pr 2)r/'2) change in the critical Raylei g h number, and hence there is no influence of visco­
R=-,--~------'.--.i-:-- (10.37)
( Pr 2 )7701]',2 [LV' m - 7T 2(Pr )1]"1 ' elasticity on s tability. In those cases where over-stability occurs (oscillatory
transition) then viscoelasticity is destabili zing, in that the critical Rayleigh
where m = 7]0 + (Pr)7]' and number is less than the (7 = 0 case, which is the Newtonia n result.

2
a;; = [w* m /( Pr)1)//]- 7T ( 10 .38) 10.3 Couette flow stability

For rigid boundaries no simple ex ac t so lutio n corres pondin g to (10.31) exists The classical s tability problem of flow between two long cylinders has much in
but we may use the Gaierkin method o f soiution to lind an approximate vaiue of common with the Benard problem ; the flow is destabiiized by centrifugal forces
.R.. This process g!ves eigenvalues differen t from the free-boundary case; see Vest acting on a fluid particle in much the same way that the Benard problem was
and Arpaci (1969). The numerical results of Sokolov and Tanner (i 972) lor the des tabilized by buoyancy forces. A survey of progress for Newtonian fluids was
rigid wall Maxwell case a re in error. given in Swinney a nd Gollub (1981). Here we will confine attention to the sim­
) plest case where the cylinders are supposed to be of infinite length and where the
I n mos t cases we need to assume a s pecific form for 1) ' , 7) " , but ill case the
3
Prandtl numbe r of the viscoe la s tic fluid is hi g h [0(10 ) ] a look at the limit diffe rence in th e cylinder radii (R2 - R I ) is very s mall compared with the outer
(PI') -; 00 is interesting. Then , for the free-boundary case we get radius (narrow-gap case). We will a lso consider in detail only the case where the
) inner cylinder rotat es; when the ou tel' cylinder rota tes in the opposite direction to
2
ao2 = w' 1)' /77// - 7T , ( 10.39) the inn e r cylinder th e tra ns ition mode is more like the channel flow transition
(Section 10.4) . Figure ( lO . !) shows the type of steady secondary flow (exchange
) o[stabiiities) c haracterist ic of the fi o w just beyond the critical rotation rate of the
R = (./ 3!7) ,!2(7)'2 -I- 1]//1)/TJo!ri//!2(r../ 7)' - 7r rn
2 (, I04())
. -, iJllIe r cyiind er. We wiii assess til e effect of viscoelasticity in iwo case-first, as an
addition to the cl assica l irierti ~l-uri ven problem, and second, in the case where the
Letting tan 0 = 77'/TJ" (0 is th e loss angle) we see that (10.39) implies tan 0 > 1f<"/
effects o f inerti a arc negligible and o ne ha s purely elastic instabilities.
for oscillation to be possible, or, in te rm s o f dimensio nal qu a ntities .

tan 0 oscillation time I /w 10 .3, I Couelle flolvs wilh inertia and viscoelaSlicily
-- > =- ­ (10.41)
2 7T thermal relaxation time d L / ri, . Some of the lirs t pa pe rs to consider the s tabilit y of these flows date back to
about 1962 (see T a nner and Walters (i 998) for a short history). The so-called
)
For (PI') -) 0 , the heat conductivity o f the fluid must be very large and the fluid Dean problem , the Taylor- Couette problem, and the analogue of the Orr­
ca nnot su pport la rge te mpera turc gradients . As a result the re will not be any Sommerfeld equati o n for e lastic liquids of the Oldroyd ty pe were investigated.
strong buoyancy forc es and the fi e ld will always tend to be sta ble. This fact can be Early work genera lly used the assumption of exchange of stabilities (Miller
) observed mathe matically by le tting (PI') ---' 0 in (10,37) , the re s ult of which will be and Goddard 1967; Goddard 1979) and we s hall initially make this assumption.
R -> 00 for free (and also rigid) boundaries. Beard el al. (1966) showed that overstability was a possibility with the upper
A further refinement of thi s proble m permits the free surface to deform so that convected M ax well fluid but one can justify the choice of (J = 0 by noting that
the upper surface is truly fre e. The critical Rayleigh number then drops con­ observations of transition in Couette flow of viscoelastic fluids often show the
s id erably from the value found from (10.37). exchange of stabilities pattern . Miller and Goddard (1967) used an unusual co­
There are a great many papers on the Be nard problem (Larson 1992), but most rotation a l integral constitutive model expan sion which wa s general enough for
consider the constant property case, as we have done , More realistic variations, the fl ow under conside ra tion to give the same results as if one had begun from the
includin g va ri a ti o ns of 1)0 with temperature, usually need computation for simple fluid case, eqn (4 .29) , There are a number of unidentifiable coefficients in
sol ution . their analysis, however, and hence we shall proceed here by considering an
The analysis o f the Benard problem is typical of classical s ta bility theory . We analysis based on the KBKZ theory, eqn (4.54). Since the flow under con­
shall therefore omit d e tails in later problems where possible . Generall y, it is no t sideration is a small deviation from a viscometric flow, it is expected to give
possible to complete solutions and find the relevant critical condition as easily as accurate result s. It should be mentioned that Da tta (1964) and Rao (1964) used a
in this m o del problem. second-order fluid theo ry to s tudy the s tability of the flow , and they showed th a t
)
)

)
502 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE 10 .3 COUETTE FLOW STABILITY 503

the sign of N2 is important for stability. The present analysis follows that of ~-QR

Karlsson el at. (1971).

<\ \' "
Vie suppose that the KBKZ constitutive relation for the stress tensor can be
written as

(J" j t [aU
= - pI + 211sd + =00 aLB B(I ') - ole C({' ) J dl
aU

Here, B = C- J and 211,d is the solvent contribulion; U is a function of IB and I e,

1 l
(10.42)
R~X~=-n
I Z I
--R
J
I
R
I

the traces of Band C, respectively, and of 1 - I '. In Chapter 5 we used a special

Fig. 10.3 Notation for Couelte stability problem .
form of the KBKZ theory in which a memory funclion m(1 - I') was factored out
of the kernel U. This form arose naturally in some concentra ted solution theories
and it enabled us to find (aU/alB) and (aU/ole) from viscometric flow meas­
urements and small-strain experiments. We shall not need to ma ke this In the classical Couette sta bility problem the base flow (Fig. 10.3) is repre­
assumption here. We will denote the integral part of eqn (10.47) by T . For small sented, in the narrow-gap case treated here (h/ R J « I), by
homogeneous strains T becomes a linear functional; aU/alB and aU/ole beco me
functions only of ( - I' , hence
V(y) = -0. . RJ (I + by/h), (10.49)

= l~ m(1 (10.43) where v is the azimuthal (0) velocity component, and

T - I') E(I ' ) dl ' ,

I b == . j + D. 2 Rd0. J R!. fl() ,11.\

\ IV.-'Vj
)
'"vhere E i:; a multiple o f the il1Gilitcsimai sti"ain l ~iisor used jiJ classical claS:jcity
theory (sec Chapter 2); usually ;n(;) is chosen to bc of the fornl J
!I It is a visco metric flow . We now assume a small perturbation of the flow field,
' \ ' Un so that
m(/) = LA2exP(-I/An), ( 10.44)
" "
where the an are conslants, so that a series ofdiscrele relaxation limes An a ppea rs; v = {V + u(y,z), a1./J o'l/J }
oz' - oy , (10.51 )
we shall not need to specify m here .
For steady homogeneous flows T reduces to where 'l/J = 'l/J( y,z). This velocity field satisfies the mass conservation equation in
an incompressible fluid; it is an axisymmetrical perturbation and later we shall
[aU B - -au]
T =
1- 00

o 0 18 ole
C ds = T(L),
where the LT is the constant velocity gradient matrix ov/ox and s = I - I l I f we
( 10.45) assume that it is periodic in the z direction .
To calculate the B, C matrices in eqn (10.42) we note that

are interested in a basic shea r flow, v = (iy , 0, 0), then usin g known results for B C = FTF , B = C- J , ( 10.52)
and C, we easily find
where [see Chapter 2, egn (2.28)]
. [00 {aU aU ) ( 10.46)
T xy = l'jo S OIB + ole J d s, F = or/ox. (l0.53)

NJ == Txx - T 21 =
.2
I
['X>
Jo S
2{OU au)
alB + ole f ds , (10.47) II may be noted that C and B are measures of particle and material plane
separation, respectively, in the incompressible fluid; thus they represent related
measures of the strain undergone by line elements and area elements in the fluid.
.2 ( 00 2 aU The position vector r is connected to the velocity vector: )
N2 == Tyy - T21 = -, Jo s ole ds, ( 10.48)
dr
2 dfI = vCr, I ' ) . (10.54)
where oU/olB,e are now functions of i S2 and s in general. ")
)
504 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE 10 . 3 C OUETTE FLOW STABILITY 505

In genera l, the solutio n of eqn (10.54) is difficult . For a sm a ll steady perturbation where i/ = dul dy, Vi = d vl dy . It is now s traightforward to calculate the
fr om a visc ometric fl o w , we m ay set stresses fr om eqn (10.42). In ge neral Ca se we n o te that
.1O)
r = rIO) + r tl), ( 10.55) IB ,e = ' 's.c + 6.ln,e, ( 10.6 1)
where r eO) is the ba sic visco me tric flow and r(l) is the perturbation. We will ignore whe re r:,~ refers to the visco metric base flow and 6Js .c are smali devi a tions.
squares o f r(l) and a ll higher p o wers. Then , using eqns ( 10 .54) a nd (1 0. 55), we Thus

find , using the bounda ry co nditi o n x = r at I ' = I

DU _ DU ' 82UI a2 u ' 2

r = x i - (I - I ') V(y) i + r (l), ( 10.56) 0 18 - 010 10 + ol b 06.18 + 8180 I C 10 6.1C + 0 (6./ ) ( 10 .62)

where 'Hhere the subscript 0 re fe rs to the ··/ iscometric ba ::>t:: uuw. in ihe present ca se we
easily find tha t

o'l/}
d VcJ1!J( / - I, )2 _ ( / _ 1') U(y,z), - (I - I I ) - , ( I - I
r(l) = { dy oz ') -ow }
.
2 oz oy IlO) = I~O) = 3 + 1'2i
( 10.57 ) 6.1 B = 2ii( Vi + 1'si/1 2) cos AZ ( 10 .63 )
2
Now we suppose u and '1/; a re peri odic in the z direction , so th a t 6.le = 2is (ii ' - 1'su'12 ) co s Az.
u = v( y ) cos AZ. 1/} = u(y) sin AzI"\ . ( 10. 58) l "hus, the complete exp ression fur the s tresses invoives fiv e parti e-II d e ri vati ves
of U in the form o f m o ments with respec t to s. Knowled ge o f these fiv e pRrtifll
This is (,X8clly th e 1923 G . .I. T ay lor form. Ca lculati o n o f th e B a nd C co mpo nent s
deri va tives wili enable us to write down a complete express ion fo r the s tress
is now straightfo rward , giving the foll owin g fo rmulas, where s = I - I '; we a lso
perturba tio n in terms o f ii, ii, and their deri vati ves. U sing th e equ a ti o ns of
d efin e th e bas ic shea r ra te
moti o n, we m ay no w elimina te the stress perturba ti o n and the press ure, finall y
dV o bt aining two equations for ii , v.
1' :; dy = - Sl l Rlbl h (a co nstant ) ( 10.59) One find s
) 02U
1°
00
u(l ) = 2 1).< d ( l ) + - - - (- 6.fB C [O) + 6.l e B (O» d s
C II = I
a / c Olo
C I 2 = C 2I = -s1' + s cos "\ z(isti ' 12 -- i/)
2
+ t X> (8 U6.18 B (O) _
2
8 U6./c C (O» ) ds
el3 = C 31 = "\s(v - "\ ilsI2 ) sin /\ z
./0 olJ 8/~ '
Cn = I +s2i2+SCOS AZ(2iii ls-2i1 I-i2 u'S2)
+ roo (DU B ( I ) _ oU C(I» ) ds ( 10.64 )
C n = C 32 = "\s(u" 1,.\2 + U - 1'vs + 1'2iu12) sin AZ ./0 Ol D ol e

C 33 = 1+ 2i1 ' scos"\z

1°. (8 U
( 10 .60)
8 = I +i 2s 2 + 1's2(2i/ + iii's)cos"\z
11 u (O) = - pI + 21)5 d (O) +
00
_ B (O) - OU
- C (O) ) d s, ( 10.6 5)
BI 2 = B 21 = is + s(ii' + ~ u' is )cos"\z 81 8 ole
8 13 = 8 31 = -_~s( V + 111'sl2 + u"";'-sl,.\2) sin"\z where a ll the pressure terms are lumped into eqns (1 0.65). u(l) m ay be put in the
~~ .
B 22 = I + 2u 's cos "\ z
B23 = B 32 = - AS( U"1,.\2 + u ) sin AZ U ( I) =A ( I ) ii" sin AzliA + A (2) u' cos Az/1'
B33 = I - 2i1 ' scos"\z + A (3)14 "\ sin Azli + A (4)ijl cos Az/i + A (S)ii,.\ sin Azli, ( 10.66)

)
506 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE 10.3 COUETTE FLOW STABILITY 507

Table 10.1 Stress- perturbation matrices 2

; - ( "" (. )i a U d' Um _ ( 00 (. )m aU d
The values of the shear rate-dependent (i-dependent) symmetric matrices in eqn (10.66) Un {J = Jo , S a1e.aI{J S, e. = Jo , S ale. S (10.67)
are as follows in terms of the moments (0., /3 = B or C, i = 0, 1,2,3 ... ),

ui =
B -
riO aU
J.() fJIs (isy ds,
. 1
usc = .0 &Ia. B UJC (is)'. ds,
2 00
where all the derivatives of U are evaluated at the viscometric history. The
equation s of motion, ~f!er eIiminatirt££! gi.~eJwith .t~e_not~!i!?I! ~(.ll). = O'. xx, ~t~.,
iind a()lay ~ (),y , etc]

etc. [eqn (10.67)]

O'yz ,y y -+: Uzz,zy = -2pVAV sin Az / R + O'yy ,zy + O'yz ,zz - ~O'xx,z (10.68)
0 0 -u~ )
0'XY,y + O'.n ,z = pu cos AZ(1' + V/ R) . (10.69)
A ( I) = 0 - ( u j+UJ:.+'7s'r) ~

{
o J Here, R is the mean radius of the cylinders ~(R I + R2)' Note that the component
-a~~ of A(I) is equal to 0'1~ == 1'1](1'). This gives the value of viscosity 7) used in
defining the Taylor (Ta) and Reynolds numbers (Re) below.
It is now straightforward to write down the equations for the disturbances u, v.

{
U~+Ulo-UJc U;/) - U~c + ~ U~ - ~ Ul

~oJ
= We normalize y with respect to h (== R2 - R 1) and write d/dy == D, {= hA, finding
A(2) 2U~ + U~ + 2U ~ + 2'7s'Y - Ulc + U ~c
-2(U; + :U! +
(/3ID 2 - /2) v = (~(?R~a), + /32D2 - /33/2 lu
V,- e) /
(l 0.70)

A ''l ~ r o
o
~(U~- U~)
-(Ui +~ul+uk+ 7]s i) (
o
1
I
(D

where
d

=
/34/ 2 D2 + 2/39 / 2 h: +

/2 ( /36 D2 + /38 /~ + /37/ 2 -

t3si~)u
2(Re)(J + bY») V (10.7 1)

2( u~ + U~8 + U~c) + UJ:. + Uj + 2Ut c + 2U~o + 4U~c (To) = _ 2R (Re) 2 (n2 - nl)
:}
7]s i

A(4) = -2(U't + u~c + uric

h nl
(10.72)
{ (Re ) = pn 1h /1],
2
(10 .73)

A' 'l ~ r o - (Uj+UJ:.+T}Si»)

o Ut
o
where b "" (n2- n I)/nl from eqn (l 0 .50); note (Ta) and (Re) are not independent.
Here the small-gap approximation has again been used in eqns (l0.73) and
(10.74) and the term VI R neglected ; clearly this will not be valid for n 2 very close
to n I· Goddard (1979), following M iller and Goddard (1967), finds the complete
set of equations for the simple fluid case to be, in our notation

2 2 - [ (To) hD] _
(/31D - { )v = 2(Re) + /32D 2 - /33(
2
+ /310 If u;

where the components of the matrices A(n) (/1 = 1- 5) are given in Table 10.1; note { D 4 - /34{2 D 2 hD + /3s{ 4 +. 4/311 {2
+ 2/39{ 2 If (hR22) }u
that these matrices are not the Rivlin- Ericksen kinematic matrices denoted
previously by A(II) All elements of the A(n ) matrices are function s of l' through the = P {.(hD2 + /38 ~D + /37/ 2 - 2(Re)( I + by) } V. (10.74)
two integral fonns, each having the dimensions of stress
)
508 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULEN C E 10 .3 C OUETTE FLOW STABILITY 509

The te rm s with odd derivatives m a ke little co ntributi o n to the result and ma y This yield s the following relatio n between (Ta) and I
,
+:2b)":
be igno red providing their rheological coefficients are not too large (Goddard
1979) . If we do thi ~ an d also igno re ine /3 i I term as being of o rder (h / R)2 tim es 2~
(Ta) = 27 / 2
(
I
a rheo logica l coefficient, then (10.70-71) and ( 10.74) ag ree a nd one has seve n
coefficients (Loc kett and Rivlin (1968) also ignored a te rm co rrespo ndin g to the (504 + 12/34 / 2 + (35 / 4 )( 10/3 , + 12)
x - - - --- .. - -­
,8 11 term here, as we h ave done, justifying the omission for the s mall -gap case). {i - 2(Re) (If/32 + /33/ 2)/(Ta)}{ 1+ (If /36 - /37 /2}/2(Re)(J + b / 2)}
Table 10.2 shows th e relati o n among th e KBKZ coefficients, Goddard's (1979) (10.77)
coefficients, th e viscome tric quantities 1/i, N I , and N 2 , a nd th e moments VB ' etc.
W e thu s see th a t the number of coefficients appearing in our specia l theo ry equ als Thus, to a first approximation ,88 and /39 d o not have any effect on the stabilit y
the numbe r found from the general simple f11lid an alys is fo r the small-gap case. o f the fl ow. It may be confirmed numeri cal!y, using a second term in the Galerkin
The va lues o f the coeffi cie nts in the Newtonian case are also given in T a ble 10.2. represe ntation th a t very large values of /38 a nd /39 (order 102) have a very small
The boundary conditio ns fo r eqns (10 .74) are elrect on the critical T ay lor number, mos tly because of the mUltiplying fac tor hiR;
both of these coefficients will be ig n ored henceforth ; T ab le 10.2 shows that the
u= D ti = 'u = 0 on y= 0, I, ( 10 .75)
coefficients /34 and /35 cannot be found from viscometric data. W e now exp ress the
definin g a n eigenvalue problem for (Ta), (I). The Gal e rkin method provides a change in th e c ritica l T ay lo r numbe r in the form
convenient me thod for es timating (Ta) for a given / (see C hapter 8); then we
search {'or th e I which minimizes (Ta), giving the fir st appearance of the type o f (Ta) = (Ta),v{ 1+ g,6./3, + O(6.0,f)' ( 10.78)
)
secondary flow pos tulated. Beca u se o f th e complexity a ri sing fr o m the nine where 6./3, is the c hange o f /3, from the N ew toni a n value.
coefficient s /31- /39, it is co nvenient to take o nl y one te rm in a pol yno mi al The coe fficients gi are given in T ab le 10. 3 wh ere we also give th~ sign of 8 ij
expansiu JI am.! u~e the Gaierkin method; Den n ( 1975 , p. (34) shows ihal fo r Sl2i 06./3,. Looking at Tabies i0.2 a nd i 0 .3, we see that fo r the case when1' > 0 , /3" /32>
n I> 0 o ne ter m is adequate fo r the Newtonian case. Let ami /3) are iess than th e Newtol1la n va lues and a re th erefore des tabili z in g. The
0 - y( ! - y), it:= c~fl , ( i O.76) d evia tiO n> in /3. - /37 depend on 8Ui8i e and EiU/8 JodIc, ()2 U/ ol~ Since aU/ol e
is small an d positive (corresponding to N2 nega tive), we find, ignoring the second
in the cq n s (1 0 .74). These form s sa tisfy the boundary conditions. MUltiplyin g the deri va tives a 2 U / f)J~. , & U/oI 8ul e, th a t the c hanges in 04, /35, a nd 07 a re positive
fir st equati o n by y( 1 - y) a nd the second by i (l -
y)2 and integratin g over Ihe
gap gives two equa ti o ns to determine C fi nd th e eige n va lue (Ta).
Table 10.3 lnfluence of Tayior number (Ta) a nd wave number of s mall
departures o f ,8, from th e Newtonian va lues (Ta)N ~ 1,760/ ( I + bj2), IN = 3. i 2
) Table 10.2 Stability coefficients in differential equations
Parameter i?; = (8(Ta)/8t::;.{3il/ 8 1/8t::;.f3i Expected sign Rem ark s
) Coefficient Value Value Value
(New toni an)
(Ta) N (b
(t::;.!3i) < 0)
(KBKZ) (Simple fluid )
{3 , +0.505 + Destabilizing
1 + d In17/ d In h i I
!3 ,
!32 C
y
, N)( I_dln (N I + 2N2»)/.
I + din TI/ d In l"rI
undetermined 0 !32 +0.222 /G) (2+ b) ( - b)
0 Des ta bilizing
+ 2 + 2 d In h i m
+0.233/ (i) C+ b)
) !3J undetermined 0
- (NI
T+ N)) /m. !33
( - b)
Destabili zing
) undetermined 2
!3~ 2 + ( U~ - 2U~c + 2U~c) /217",' .8 . +0. 140 prob. + Stabilizing if N2 < 0
) !3s +0. 114 prob. + Stabilizing if N2 < 0
,6:, I + U~./ 2TrY und etermined
+~IY!I)
!36 N2'( _ I + dlnlN21) N) (-I
TrY d In h i
0 (36 -0222,/1 ~ 11/ C2 -:b») 0 Stabilizing if N2 < 0
rfr d In hi
N) N2
0
{37
rfr rfr .6 7 +0232,/1 ~ 11/ C2 -:b») + Stabilizing if N2 < 0
* Note: See eqn ( 10.67) for the definition of u1c, u~, etc.
 510 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE 10.3 COUETTE FLOW STABILITY 511

and those of /36 are negative rela tive to the Newtonian case. All of these changes It is not difficult to see that if N2 < 0, then it is easy to obtain stabilization as
are stabilizing. The effects of /37 and /33 can be inferred directly from eqns (10.74) R /h -- 00. Unfortunately, in most reported reliable experiments the asymptotic
by noting \~lhether or not the additional terms add o r subtract frem th e inertia limit R/h -- 00 applies only for much la rger R /h vaiues ihan ihose actuaiiy used.
effect terms. In case U is no t a function of Ie , then /34-/37 have Newtonian values
and it is dear that a KBKZ fiuid is iess stable than a Newtonian tlUld of the same
I For example, there are few experiments on dilute solutions for wpjch both the
Taylor and wave numbers were observed; no drastic change in wave number
density and viscosity (at the mean shear rate). Thus a dependence of U on Ie is has been observed experimentally, but it is predicted theoreticaily by Fig. J0.4. In
essentialfor How stabThzation~ that rs, N2 must he negative. -rh-e- wofK-b-r-De nn -et at. -(T971faiia of Balley-U9(9) -no -measurements of wave
In the limit h/ R -- 0, "r fixed, we see that /36 and /3 7 are the only terms of number are given .
importance for very dilute solutions (concentration -- 0). This is because all 6. /3i Denn and Roisman (1969) used a second-order theory to explain the stabilizing
are multiplied by the concentration, which is small, but for the ,8 6 and /37 terms effect of polymers but since some terms were omitted there, the work of Sun and
there is also the large multiplying factor J( R / h) . In this limiting case if we drop Denn (1972) is preferred . They permitted viscosity and normal stress difference to
all non-Newtonian terms except /36 and /37 in eqn (10 .77), we find vary with shear rate, but still some of the terms in (10.74) are omitted. Using their
experimental da ta and Tables 10.2-3 one finds that the /37 term in (10.74) dom­
28 . 504 + 24[2 + [4 inates and that a value of N2/ NI of about - 0.05 explains their observation ofa
( 10.79)
(Ta) = 27/ 2( 1 + b / 2) {I + C~/36 - /37 / 2 )/2( Re)(1 + b / 2)} . 29 per cent increase in Taylor number. However, the 3 per cent increase in wave
number remains unexplained; Sun and Denn (1972) advanced the idea that this is
For the case when b = - I (outer cylinder at rest) and setting d In I N21 / a finite amplitude phenomenon. One can note that the infinitesimal amplitude
d In hi = In in /36 (Table 10.2), we find the results shown in Fig. 10.4. It is clear case is a nearly-viscometric flow, and the viscometric constitutive equation and
from eqn (10.79) that a negative Nd'rft is stabilizing. Figure lOA shows the cri­ the KBKZ analysis are almost equivalent here as expected.
tical Taylor number and wavelength as a function o f (.f\'2/Q}) J( R / h) fo r va riou s Jones ei at. (I Y76a) have investigated the sta bility of t.hree poiymers !11 fairly
m values. dilute aqueous solutions for three values of the ra dius ratio (R;/R 2 ), namely 0.9 ,
0.925, and 0.95 . The concentration of polymer was up to 500 p .p .m. in e:;lr.h case _
It is not easy to draw any conclusions from these results as the uncertainty in
10' the Taylor number changes (± 4 per cent) is of the same order as the changes
.IE.... in Taylor number. There appears to be a slight stabiiization effect of less than
Ta N I per cent on average over these results, but it is hard to pick a trend with the
param eters. Similarly, it is hard to pick trends in the wave number changes.
Ii More recenl experiments with dilute soiutions of xanthan gums in water (Yi
and Kim 1997) have shown a decrease in cell size (increase in wave number) and a
m~l.O very slight increase in Taylor number for dilute solutions. The ga p/ radius rati o
1.8 ~ / 1.5 was 6-14 per cent in these experiments. There was also evidence of a decrease in
2.0 (Ta) in some of their cases, especially at higher solute concentrations with
~ 0.1
1.4 polyacrylic acid solutions. They also inferred the values of N 2 / HI which would be
I needed to explain their results, and found va lues of about -0.015 , - 0.03 for
'N 1.0 polyacrylamide and xanthan gum respectively; for polyacryJic acids the ratio was
~ j 10- 1
0.6
°
about -0.03 for a molecular weight of 450000, about - 0.05 for a molecular
weight of 750 00, and approaching - O.i for a molecular weight of 1.25 x 10 6
We see that the analysis of this problem is fairly satisfactory, but that more
0.21=: =--, , , , , 10- 3
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 careful comparisons with experiment , using independently-determined material
60 40 - 20 0 20 40 )
properties, would be welcome . The question of whether or not viscoelasticity is
(a) A(~) (b) A(~l) stabilizing (see Table 10.3) is clearly more complex than in the Benard case. Also,
Fig. 10.4 Ta ylor number (Ta) and wave number (/) as a fun c li o n of .jRjhN z/ r
the problem of the relation between computed and observed wave numbers
for various values of m, where m = d In IN21 / d In hi . In Ihese res ulls Rj h = 23. 1, b= - I (hence r remain s somewhat unsati sfactory; it seems possible that effects due to finite gap,
is posili ve), /3, = I, /3, = 2, (35 = I. finite amplitude of the disturbance or finite cylinder length are important in

)
)
)
512 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE
)
setting this wa ve number (Swinney and Gollub 1981 ) and preventin g la rge
changes from the Newtonian value.
) Denn e! al. (19 7 !) ha ve ccnsidered a no n-linea r ana lys is of thi s pro blem a nd
"'I have shown that when the onset of instability is delayed, so also is the post-onset
torque reduced relative to the Newtonian case . This is in agreement with
') observation.
10.3.2 Purely elaslic inSlabililies
In 1966, Giesekus st udied the Taylor- Couette flow ex perim entally at very sm a ll
R ey nolds numbers, so that the inertia-dri ve n insta biliti es di scussed above did not
occur. He co ncluded tha t there might be a purely elas tic instability, and La rson
el af. (1990) la ter predicted such a result using a n Oldroyd-D model. Avgousti and
Deris (1993) have obtained numerical results for th is case a nd the results are quite
complex. Larso n (1992) and Shaqfeh (1996) ha ve given surveys.
Unlike the cla ssica l case, it has been fo und th a t axisymmetric disturbances may
)
not be the most un stable. For the UCM model [eqn (4 .25)] Avgousti and Beris
"'\
(1993) showed that this was indeed the case unde r certain combinations of inerti a
and elastic parameters. Also, an overstability (oscillatory instability) was found
by Larson el al. (1990) using the Oldroyd-B mode l, and this was confirmed by
Muller el af. ( 1993). !n common with the classical problem result s <1bove, it W(lS
fO l lnri Ihal (rOSili ve ) Ni is ri eS I;.lbilizing. and (nega!i ve ) N2 is st abiliz.ing.
) sidered the s tabilit y ora plane s hea r flow o f a U C M model, and found tha t bo th
10.4 Parallel shear flows
Much of the classical theory of hydrod ynam ic sta bilit y is concerned with parallel
shear flows a nd related nearly viscome tric flow s (Drazin and Reid 198 1). In the
) Ne \vtonlan case, sim ple shea rin g and Poisc uill e fl ow in a circular tu be are stable
against all sma ll di sturbances. By contra st, plane channel flow does exhibit a
") critical Reynolds number p V mhlTJ equal to 5772.2 , where Von is the maximum
velocity on the centreline and 2h is the channel width ; using a definition of the
critical Re ynolds of
)
( Re)c = 2pVh/77
where V is the mean velocity in the c hannel, we find (Re)c = 7696, which is a large
number. For finite di sturbances, one finds (Denn 1975) a lower value of the
critical Rey nold s number; ex perimentall y the values fo und a re 1-2000.
In these flow s there is no obvious dri vin g mechani sm , like gravity or centri ­
fugal force , and intuiti ve arguments are more difficult than in previous cases.
Aiso, the onset of in sta biiity occurs when a is complex , in stead of zero as in the
Couette and Benard flows. Ho and Denn (1 978) ha ve reviewed the ea rlier
computations on plane Poiseuille flow for a convected Maxwell fluid a nd have
confirmed that viscoelasticity is destabilizing . Ca reful numerical work was
') necessa ry to avo id spurious eigenvalues; so me pre vious work contains erroneo us
results . For a Reyno lds number pVmhlTJ equal to 2320 (that is, less than half tha t
10 .5 PARALLEL-PLATE AND CONE-PLATE FLOWS 513
causing ins tability in the Newtonian case) Ho a nd Denn (1978) fo und that a
Weissenberg number (), V ml h) of 2.28 was sufficient to cause instability.
Jones e l al. (1976b) have studied the stability of diJute solutions of poly­
acrylamide and have concluded that the a ddition of polymer did not change
the critical Reynolds number for stability of flow when the mean shea r rate
(ul R) was less than 650 s- I; for (ul R) from 890 s- J to 1500 s- J they saw stabil­
ization, and destabilization above tha t. It is difficult to correlate these results with
theory becau se the relaxation time of the materia l is not given. The changes in
Reynold s number were o f order + 10 per cent (stabilizing) to -50 per cent
(destabilizing).
For lower Reynolds numbers extensive co mputations by Ho and Denn (1 978)
using, ev·en eigenfunctions failed Lo fillJ un~i a bie modes; for p Vmh /TJ equal to 500
no instabilities were found at a Weissenberg number (),V mlh) of 70; large values
of the product Weissenberg number x dimen sionless wave number would be
required for in sra bility. It appears that unstable wave numbers of order I Ih o ccur
in practice, so that large un stable wave numbers are unlikely to be important.
Hence it was concluded that plane channel convected Maxwell flow is likely to be
stable to infinitesimal disturbances at this Reynolds number. The work of
Rothenberger el al. (1973) is now con sidered erroneous . They found instability
at zero Reynoids number and quite iew (O(i») Weisscnberg number in both
tube and channel fl ow for Maxwell fluid s. Gorodtsov and Leonov (1966) co n­
inertia and viscoelasticity was needed to tri gge r instabi lity, but no numerica l data
were given .
For the ze ro-inerti a l case of (UCM) plane Couette flow , Rena rdy (1992)
proved th a t the flow was stable at all Weissenberg numbers. If the Oldroyd-B
fluid model is used , then iinear sta bilit y is assured only in the presence o f inertia
(Guillope and Saut 1990). It is hard to forecast the effects of inertia and la rge
amount of elasticity on the stability of thi s class of flows for other models. For
example, Ganpule and Khomami (1999) studied the effect of transient viscoe­
lastic properti es on interfacial instabilities in a two- fluid pulsa ting channel fl ow,
as part of a number of articles studying this kind o f instability . They used mUltiple
mode Giesekus a nd White- Metzner mod els in this complex problem , and found
that the choice of model a ffected the sta bility bo undaries, although the steady
s tate viscometric responses of the model s were essentiall y identical.
In connection with two-fluid layer plane shearing problems, it is known that
for Newtonian fluid s a difference of viscosity between la ye rs can promote
instability. Y. Renardy (1988) ha s shown that a jump of N J across the interface
can produce a purely elastic instability in thi s geometry .
10.5 Parallel-plate and cone-plate flows
Because of their widespread use in meas urements, it is important to discover if
inertia-less instabilities in such flows exist. As a step in this direction Phan-Thien
 514 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE 10.5 PARALLEL-PLATE AND CONE-PLATE FLOWS 515

(I983) has analysed the flow between coaxial discs (torsional flow) of infinite shows that the kth mode has a critical Weissenberg number (Wi)c.k of
extent separated by a distance d along the z-axis.
'-fhe ~r\le\lJtonian flo'.'-/ '>las solved by von Karman in 1921 and has been wid ely 7rk
(De)c ,k = 1M'"> 0 ..,\ (i 0 .85)
discussed .
Phan-Thien (i 983), using an exact solution in the von Karman form for the
M axwell fluid , studied the stability of the flow . We follow his di scussion here, The mosl unsta ble mode, (Wi )c, is when k = I, hence if
-omitting-1nerti-a: .
Suppose the plane z=O rotates at an angular speed Do and the plane z = d (De) > 7r
rotates at !ld. Both plates are set in motion at t = 0 +, and the flow is transient. ..j(3(2(3+3) (l0.86)
The constitutive equation used is the Oldroyd-B fluid:
the flow is unstable to infinitesimal disturbances of the form assumed; Note that
r = 277sd + S, (10.80)
(De) -> 00 as f3 -> 00 (Newtonian case) which is consistent with expectations .

where Sis <1 Maxwell s tress [eqn (4.25») a nd 77, is the (Newtonian) solvent vis­ When (3 = I (Maxwell case). (De)c = lAOS.
cosity; when 775 = 0 we return to the Maxwell case. We let the viscosity associated Note that the (steady flow cr= 0) instability is a purely elastic one (no inertia)
with the M a xwell element be 17p and the associated time constant be ).; let and that N2 = 0 in this model. More details are given by Huilgol and Phan-Thien
17 = 17p + 17,· The retardation time is then ( 1997).
The steady flow is in the fonn of secondary vortices between the plates,
).2 = ).7)s / rl = (I - (3)., (10.81 ) increasing the measured torque.
and (3 is the retardation parameter (17p(T/) ranging from 0 (Newtonian) to i Phan-Thien (1985) considered the (infinite) cone-plate flow in a similar way J
(Ma xwelI). and found a critical Weissenberg numher in this case also.
Th e ste8dy-state solution in gcner~l! Onc!uding inert: ti) uses a vc !ociry field of
Experimentally, Jackson PI a/. (\98 4 ) observed what appeared t o be an
the form unexpected 'anti thixotropic' shear-thickening in experiments on Boger fluid s.
Up to that time, the attraction of Boger fluid s had been their almost constant

02 " IG - 2H) ,
(/!J!" shear viscosity. The group observed that, at high shear rates, measurements ofthe
v = ( 10.82 )
torque and the normal force in a Weissenberg Rheogoniometer increased steadily
a t a fixed shear rate over a long period of time; the data for torsional flow
Where G, H are functions of 2 and t; in the inertia-less case H = 0 and C is linear in (reproduced in Fig. 10.5) showed nearly double the torque expected for the final )
III 2 (torsional flow). We assume a form (10.82) and a development of the solution in long-term 'equilibrium' values. Jackson et al. noted that halving the rheometer
series gap, keeping the maximum shear rate constant, removed the 'antithixotropy'.
Research by Magda and Larson (1988) and McKinley et al. (1991) showed that
g= ~ + gl + higher-order terms}
the anti thixotropy was a manifestation of an instability, similar to tha t predicted
h= hi + ...
(10.83 ) by Phan-Thien. However, the flow patterns did not resemble those of the analysis
TOO = 2(3(Wi) + Ii + ... and so they concluded that the agreement between the predicted and observed
TO z = (3 + iz + ... Deborah numbers was fortuitous. Further work by Avagliano and Phan-Thien
(1996), who an alysed the stability of torsional flow between plates o ffinite radius,
where ~ = z(d, [' = (Dd - noll, G = (Dd - Do)g + Do, and H = d(Dd - Do)h; h gave more satisfactory agreement with experiment. See Huilgol and Phan-Thien ')
and g are functions of ~ and I '. The Deborah number (De) is defined here as (1997) for further details and comparison with experiments.
)'(Dd - Do) and the stresses T8I) and T82 are dimensionless; they are formed by The form of the disturbance flow-field found by Avagliano and Phan-Thien is
dividing the relevant components by 77(D d - Do). Substituting the forms (I 0.83) in very similar to that observed by McKinley et al. (1991), except that in this work,
the equations of motion and the constitutive equations and linearizing a bout the the disturbances are large near the outer edge and small near the centreline. In the
steady solution one finds a set of eight linear ordinary differential equations . A linearized stability region the roll cells would first be seen at the outer edge and
normal mode Fourier analysis of the form then appear to travel inwards, as the amplitude of the inner cells increases
exponentially in time. In the work of McKinley et al. cells of large amplitude are
hi = h!exp (27rikO - I], (10.84) observed initially at both the outer edge and at the centreline. A possible reason
)
)
516 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE 10.5 PARALLEL-PLATE AND CONE-PLATE FLOWS 5 17

~
3
) 10 r Mt w w
i'll.l-" 'ill/
",21.
I

f I~~
2h
'
I
\ J
, \
• r
~~
,b~i>~~~R
~ f'

)
1] Slope I
To""2 Normal force

Slope 2
l~~~~R
(a)

Fig. 10.6

(b)

Edge fraclure in rheometry.

)
I
I l
0.01 0.1 10
y'
W = ih, v=u=O
Shear rate i(s- I) B j/L / / / / /L/L/(L//J/
Zcro stress

Fig. 10.5 Torsional-now dala for a Boger nuid obtained from a Weisscnbcrg Rheogo niomet~r. surface

Here, i is the shear rale (from Jack son er 01. 1984); nole (he increase in torque and normal force al AB

~l-" x
II critic.:<tl shear rate or aboul 2 s ­ I.
h

A b/7777T/77~
) for this discrepancy is the presence of inertia , or some shear-thinning, not HI = -7h, v=u=O
accounted for III the a nalysis. Fig. lU.7 Uo undary values for IV; a is Ihe 'notch' radius.
These results show that elastic insl<thililies can OCClir in very common flO'NS .
) Hence, in these cases numerical schemes may find steady solutions where no such
s table solutions exist. Physically , it appears that the large roo is the cause of the Far from the 'crack' (x -. oc) the flow becomes a simple shear flow of mag­
insta bility; there is no such insla bility in the corresponding (stable) plane she;;ring nitude "y.
flow where roo is absent. From our considerations in Chapter 4 we know that

p = ~ N2 -+- co nst;;l1t , (4.108)

/0.5.1 Edge fracture
Frequently, the fluid in a cone-plate or p;;rallel plate device ' fractu res' at a certain where the constant is set by boundary conditions on the straight edge (AB,
shear rate ;;nd one observes a lessening of the measured torque, often followed by Fig. 10.7). For a small crack , h» a, one finds, in polarcoordinates (pi) (Fig. 10 .7)
ejection of the sample (Fig. 10.6). Although it is completely different in kind to the
cases so far discussed in this chapter, we shall regard it as an instability; it severely w = ipsin 0(1 + 0 2jp2).
limits the shear rates measurable .
Typically, [Fig. 10.6(b») a n indentation appears in the surface and grows in Note that when p --> 00, this reduces to a simple shear, and on the surface p = a
) towards the axis. one ha s ow/an = 0, or no shear stress. The tensile stress on the circle p = 0 is
An early attempt to explain the phenomenon was made by Hutton (1965) on
the basis of elastic energy associated with the first normal stress difference N 1 • applp=a = !W2i2(1 - 4cos 2 0). (I0.87)
Tanner and Keentok (1983) put forward an alternative explanation starting from
the idea of a semi-circular 'flaw ' at the edge; we follow their analysis. When a pp is positive, the groove surface will tend to open up against the pull a/a
Near the edge of the plates it seems reasonable to ignore the curv-ature, so in of the surface tension a; if '*'2 = 0 (no N 2 ) then the 'crack' will disappear because
Fig. 10.7 one has (R/h » I) a simple shear flow with a notch on groove of of surface tension. The maximum tensile stress occurs when 0 = 0, since '*'2 is
semicircular form in it. The groove radius a is supposed to be much less than h. assumed negative. Hence the crack will deepen if
Using the second-order model eqn (4 .30c) we assume the disturbed flow is of the
form w(x,y), a parallel flow . IN21 > 2a/3a. ( 10.88 )

)
\
518 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE
If we assume that a = kh then it follows that there is a critical N2 when
2a (10.89)
IN 2c l = 3kh
Elaborations of this analysis are given by Huilgo! and Phan-Thien (1997) and
K:een-tok--a-nd-*ue-E-I-999-), -buHhe-essentla-ITesult tW_89}i-sUllchan-gea . Tne-nrne r
paper suggests that fracture be used to measure N 2 ·
Aithough Tanner and Keentok (1983) provided some experimental evidence
for the theory, a more definite proof was given by Lee e t ar
(1992) , who found
that N 2 did control the phenomenon. See also Keentok and Xue (1999)­
This instability might be termed a static instability, because two 'static' forces
are compared .
10.6 Non-viseometric flow stability
So far we have concentrated on viscometric flow stability. We now turn first to
general homogeneous flows and then to the case of fibre spinning. The first case
has been investigated by Lagnado et al. (1984) for Newtonian fluids and by the
same group (1985) for Maxwell- Oldroyd-B and more gen eral fluids . Let the basic
flow be
v = Lx,
where L is independent of x. We will also assume L is independent of time.
We can select a coordinate system where
L=!::l-
2
I+Jt
-( I - Jt)
I-Jt
- (I+Jt)
0]0_
(10 .90)
o o 0
standard library programme, and then to use extrapolation to obtain the limiting
Here, L 2: 0 is the magnitude of the velocity gradient and Jt is a parameter varying
between + 1 and - I. The cases Jt = - I, Jt = 0 and Jt = I correspond to pure
rotational flow , simple shearing flow, and pure ex tension (pure shearing)
respecti vely. For the inertia less case the flow is sta ble bu t there are insta bilities for
inertial cases (Lagnado et al. 1984, 1985). For the Maxwell fluid, the Weissen berg
number is AL and there is no steady base solution for (Wi) > 0.5. For the other
cases [( Wi) < 0.5] the n:sults depend on the ratio A2/ A) , where A2/ AI is the ratio of
retardation to relaxation time for the Oldroyd-B model. If the disturbance wave
number is Q, where Q lies across the axis of stretching, then there is a critical value
of rp2/ pL below 'which the flow is unstable. Hence as p -+ 0, the flow is always
stable , since Q # O. These results show the importance of the flow kinematics on
stability; the method of solution is also interesting since the decomposition
(10.13) could not be used (Lagnado et al. 1984).
10 . 6 NON-VISCOMETRIC FLOW STABILITY 519
10.6.1 Stability offibre spinning . Draw resonance
We now turn to a now that is non-viscometric and also non-uniform in space.
We shall distinguish between stability and sensitivity. A system is unstable to
infinitesimal di.sturbances if a steady state cannot be maintaim:u loiiowing any
arbitrarily small disturbance. The sustained oscillations characterizing draw
resonan(;C_{fig. 7,Q)~ which _m:~:ur LepLooucLbly.at-3-cIOi-tica.l-d-r-aw-Fa-t-i-o; -represent
such a process instability. Sensitivity is a reaction to the propagation of dis­ )
turbances through a stable system. If the system shows high sensitivi ty it may not
be practical to operate such a system even if it is sta ble in a formal sense. We shall )
mainly be concerned with instability here . Spinning instabiiity has been reviewed
by Petrie and Denn (1976), Pearson (i 976), Denn (1980), and Denn and Pearson
(1981).
It is possible to identify the onset of an instability using computer simulation
methods. Kase and Denn (1978) have shown that stability can be analysed in
terms of the frequency response relation (transfer function) between velocity and
lension at the solidification point. However, the traditional way of studying
sta biJity is through the type of stability analysis discussed above.
A set of spinning conditions is stable to infinitesimal disturbances if all
eigenvalues have negative real p{lrts, since the perturbations then decay to zero.
The spinning conditions are ullslabie if anyone eigenvalue contains a positive
real part. Thus, in p. i'lCiple, aU eigenvaiues in ihe infinite set must be examined.
In practice, the stability beha"v'iour ofihis system seems aiways to be governed by
the eigenvalue with the smallest mod ulus; however, this is not a general resul t for
non-self-adjoint operators, and counter-examples exist (cf. Porteous and Denn
1972).
Several approaches have been used for solving the eigenvalue problem in these
non-homogeneous flows. One method is to replace the spatial derivatives by
finite differences, leading to a matrix eigenvalue problem that can be solved by a
value as the number of discretization points tends to infinity . A sequence of such
calculations for the eigenvalue of smallest modulus gives the critical value as
20.218 for DR in the Newtonian spinning case.
The orthogonal collocation approach to the transient equations used by Gupta '­
and Ballman (1982) is quite similar in concept. Here, the discretization is done )
first by transforming to a set of linear ordinary differential equations at the
spatial collocation points . The eigenvalues of the system matrix then detennine
the stability characteristics. Gupta and Ballman found a transition at a draw ratio
between 20 and 21 using 7 approximating functions in the collocation expansion .
Chang et al. (1981) have directly integrated the equations for non-isothermal
flow both with and without viscoelasticity, using a Runge- Kutta method, the
equations being formulated as an initial-value problem. Iteration to the eigen­
value satisfying the downstream boundary condition was done interactively, and
convergence was rapid. The interaction is aided by the observation that the real
)
)
520 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE
)
part of the first eigenvalue is nearly linear in DR. A stability 'map' of the critical
draw ratio (DRJ as a function of Am .. W(O)/L is shown in Fig. 10.8 for low speed
) isothermal spinning of a P'TM T m ode! fluid. Here one or two time constants "'Jere
used (N = I , 2), the modulus for each relaxation time was the same (that is,
G 1 = G 2 ) and AJi A2 = :, (Ch ang and Denn 1980). The values of the parameters c
) and f; are shown (see Cha pter 5). The stabilization at large values of Am" W(O)/ L,
an'd at large draw rali'os'is in agreement with experiment. Some questions in the
application of linear stability theory to spinning have been discussed by Denn
and Pearson (198 1) .
Gupta et al. (1996) showed the profound effect of temperature variations in the
spinline for glass fibre drawing . They show that cooling along the spin line is
) stabilizing, bUI nOI comp1ete1y so; much higher ~iraw ratios are possible than in
the isothermal case. They attribut ed previous results which appeared to give
unconditional stability to inaccurate numerical work. Schultz el al. (1996) also
permitted their fibr es to be non-isothermal and viscoelastic, using a UCM model.
) They compared exact, G a lerkin and finite difference methods for finding critical
10.7 GENERAL REMARKS ON STABILITY 521
draw ratios. They found that the combination of viscoelasticity and cooling was
sufficient to permit draw ratios > 10 3, which is close to the practical range
4 5
(i 0 - i 0 ). There seems to be some questicn that gla ss is viscoelastic (at the low
stretch rates involved), but the results are of interes t.
The stabiiity to finite disturbances and the approach to a limit cycle with draw
resonance has been studied numerically by Ishihara and Kase (1975, 1976) using
~he dynamic simulation methods discussed previously . Fisher and Denn (see
Denn 1980) have used an approximate method based on an expansion in the
spatiai eigenfunctions of the linear system , using the method of weighted
residuals to obtain a set of ordinary differential equations for the time-dependent
coefficients in the expansion. A procedure described by Hyun (Denn 1980) for
stability to finite disturbances does not reduce Lo the resuit oltne iinear theory as
the disturbance amplitude becomes vanishingly smaIL
In spinning flows viscoelastic effects stabilized the system. Hence it is difficult
to generalize about the effect of viscoelasticity on stability; often it is destabil­
izing, because new degrees offreedom and greater possibilities for instability are
opened up, but when a Newtonian-like ins tability is found, then viscoelasticity
can be stabilizing.

iO' ,­
" ' 11 11 1,\, ,1'"'1/1 ":Tn~ Gener~~!

i
lO.? remarks on st3bi!ity
'" J "4 J In non-Newtonian sta bility analyses neither Squire's theorem nor energy

~~'X I~,,
l
methods , which are commonly used in Newtonian fluid mechanics, has proved to
be usefuL (Huilgol and Ph an-Thien 1997.) On the other hand, some guidance is

",f
~
~ needed to avoid very difficult and delicate analyses and experiments wherever
:-..1
i \ '­
possible. The work of McKinley e t at. (1996) offers some hope of simplifying
matters. For pureiy ei astit: inslabiiities, they proposed a new dimensionless
III criterion .
)
Let the critical Deborah number (D e )c be Anc where nc is the inverse of the
.> 10 1'o-~ '--' -'--'-,
J.JIiul__' " , ,,! critical dwell time of a particle in the system, and let the critical Weissenberg
10- .1 10- 2 0.1 number be Ai'cC= AUeri' / L) where i e is the critica l shear rate; A is a suitable
Am" W(O)/L relaxation time, U and L are mea sures of velocity and length respectively.
) Fig. 10.8 C rili ca l draw ra tio for o nset of draw rcsonnncc as a function or Wcisscnherg number McKinley e l al. conclude, from studying various elastic instabilities, that the
>' W(O) / L for iso lherm a l spinning of Phan-Thien- Tanner nuid. Either one or two relaxati o n times combination of streamline curvature and large normal stresses is sufficient to
we re used (N= I o r 2) and the parameter E controlling the extensional behaviour was either 0 or cause elastic instability . The flows considered include the Taylor-Couette flow,
0 .015 . In all cases the she"r parame ter E; was 0.1. cone-plate and torsional flow, eccentric rotating cylinders, cylinder in a channel,
) Th e co mbin a ti o ns used a rc indicated below with a key to the rciev<lnt curve.
the planar contraction, and a lid-driven cavity problem. The la tier is a rectangular
Curve N E
box in which plane flows with closed streamlines occur; two side walls are of
length H, the bottom is of length L , and a sliding lid of length L moving with
I 0 speed U completes the geometry_The (De) and (Wi) numbers are not always
2 2 0
0.015
independent-for example in the cone-plate flow (angle a) (De) = An whereas
\
4 2 0.015 (Wi) = An/a. The 'aspect ratio' (1\) of the flow is the ratio (Wi) / (De) = a - I in this
) case. For other flows an appropriate geometric ratio A can be similarly defined.
Thus £ has a majo r e ffec t o n s labilit y (from Chang and Denn \980). The dimensionless criterion proposed is, simply , that the dimensioniess product
)

522 STABILITY OF' FLOW AND TURBULENCE
below exceeds a critical value, so one has
)"U Tr M2 (10 .91 )
--. > c 10.8
p< no,
for the onset of instability, where M e is a critical value . Here Ps is the characteristic
radius of curvature oTtnes "ireamli'nes ana 'i[-iSthe extra stress In- t1'le now
direction; -'y is a locally relevant shear rale . The criterion uses the concept of local
stability, which is sometimes difficult to appreciate: when a portion of the flow
goes unsta ble, it usually spreads rapidly throughout the flow. In eqn (10 .91)
I Melt fracture instability occurs when a critical throughput rate occurs in a
it is supposed that Ps and -'y are both functions of the geometry through the
parameter 1\. .
One can apply these ideas to problems where the answers are known. For the
Taylor-Couette flow , .w ith a narrow gap h and an inner radius R j (Fig. 10.2),
I\. = h/R j ; the radius of curvature Ps = R i , assuming h/ Rj « I . (For wider gaps
there is an additional dependence on h/ R j .) The stability criterion 10.91 then
reduces to (assuming Tr = 21)O),,-'y 2)
2A 2 S1 j -'y > M~
or
(2(De)( Wil ]!! 2 > M e,
where (De) = Ani and (Wi) = AniR;/ h. Hence one fmds
AI /2 (Wi) > Me/fl .
For the UCM model Me c:::: 8.37 ± 0.03. This is a considerable simplification of
the problem , since one has covered a whole range of geometries and Weissenberg
numbers in one formula, The extension to the Oldroyd-B model is almost
immediate . Let Bbe the ra tio of solvent viscosity to total viscosity; when e = 0 one
e
ha s the UCM model; when = I. the fluid is Newtonian. The result is
(10.92)
v'(De) (Wi) 2 Mcl12(1 - 8)]1 /2
which is a crude, but reasonable approximation to the full stability computations ,
especially for B---> I.
McKinley el al. (1996) further develop these ideas for the flows described
above , and discuss their application to more difficult flow geometries. They draw
an analogy with the Gortler number (Go) for Newtonian boundary-layer flows ,
where Go = l(Re)b/ ps]1 /2 Here the Reynolds number is based on the local
boundary layer thickness b, and is equal to Ub/ J.I , where v is the kinematic visc­
osity and Ps is again the radius of curvature of the streamlines.
)
10.8 MELT FRACTURE MECHANISMS 523
There are problems as yet unresolved-the role of N2 as a stabilizing factor, for
example, needs further developments.
Melt fracture mechanisms
Ga-l3iUar-y -Of' ·die. -Petrie-and -Genu- '(-1'916) 'a'n-d- Oel1Il -(T9'9DT fia ve reviewed the
extensive literature on this subject; see also Boudreaux and Cuculo (1978),
Tordeiia (i 969), De Kee and Wissbrun (1998), and Wang (1998). Inertia is not a
plausible cause of instability; instability has been noted when (Re) was 0(10- 15 ) .
The term melt fracture was coined by Tordella because of noises associated with
gross extrudate distortion; these noises do not always occur, nor do very large
distortions always occur. However, Legrand e t al. (1998) have seen cracks at
the die exit. It seems likely that the term melt fracture will continue to be applied
to various instabilities (Fig. 1.6 shows some typical phenomena) . Sharkskin is a
high-frequency roughness on the surace which appears to begin at the die exit; in
contrast, melt fracture also may occur within the die (Petrie and Denn 1976).
_ Much experimental work on these and related stability problems appears in the )
literature and one can trace significant reviews and sources through the articles
cited above.
Most observers agree that extrusion now insta bility occur$ 3t " critical value o f
the recoverable shear SR, where SR is defined as
SR = AT w ! 1), ( 10.93)
where)" is a time constant and 1) is a viscosity; the ratio 1)/ )" is a modulus, from
whence the term recoverable shear comes . Clearly, SR is equivalent to a
Weissenberg number (equal to A-'yw for a Maxwell fluid) and we can consider that
a critical Weissenberg number exists for stability, The critical value of SR appears
to lie between I and 10 usually; 5- 8 is the most common range . The existence of a
critical Weissenberg number is a result of dimensional analysis. Ifinertia, gravity,
and surface tension are ignored, then it follows that the critical average velocity
)
We depends only on the die size (d) and relevant fluid properties (,\, 1)) for the
isothermal case. Hence (Wi)e = constant. We shall not consider themlal effects;
they can be used to mitigate instability (for example, by heating die lips) but do
not provide a convincing explanation for instability. If'material failure' occurs,
then we have some explanation for the grosser forms ofdistortion (Fig. 1.6) but it
is not an explanation of the onset of instability.
The possibility that melt fracture is initiated by slip a t the die wall deserves
careful consideration; if slip does occur then a powerful mechanism for inducing
instability exists (stick-slip mechanism) but it is clearly not the only source of
instability since various workers have noticed irregular flow before the onset of
slip. Opinion remains divided on this issue . Other factors possibly leading to
instability are shear acceleration waves (Coleman and Gurtin \968) , but there is
no evidence tha t these waves are important.
 524 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE 10.9 TURBULENCE 525

) EI Kissi el at. (1997) consider that sharkskin can appear when the upstream diffusivity Q. We find (Tennekes and Lumley 1972, Chapter I)
flow is stable, with polymer adhering to the wall, and that it is an exit effect, with
cracking under high tensile stress. Tm ~ L 2 !Ot. (10.94)
Ghenta el at. (1999) extruded a linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE)
through capillary dies of brass and stainless steel. They confirmed the result of \Vhen L ·-...I 1 in and (X '"V lO-B m 2/ s \ve get Tml"V i0 8 s. In a turbujeni fiow in [he
Ramamurthy (1986) , that sharkskin can be eliminated by using a brass die. same channel, where the mean speed is V, then the turbulent fluctua tions of
However, their re~ults d epended crucially on a nitrogen blanket at the hopper velocity, which transport and mix the salt, will ol'ten ee (}f order 0.1 V. Hence t-he
(intake to extruder) and on the application of an abrasive to the die before mixing time T, is of order 10L! Vin this case. The ratio of T miT, is thus 0.1 VL!Q,
) extruding the LLDPE; this probably removed oxide layer s. Above a wall shear a Peelet numbe r, which will gencraliy be very iarge. The liow probiem is more
stress of O. 17 MPa sharkskin appear~ llsing the steel die; the brass die flow compiex than diffu sion, but is similar; in this case the relevant molecular diffu­
) curve deviates from the steel die cur ve at this stress. Stick-slip flow in the steel sivity is the kinemaiic viscosity TJ/ p(-= [.I) and the ratio Ton /T, ~ 0 . 1 (Re) , which is
iarge (~ 10 ). The length-scale at which viscosity is important is usually smaller
4
) die occurs at r w =0.37MPa, but the brass die shows siip without oscillations
at thi s stress, and has a much larger throughput. Thus these results do not than tbe scale of mixing, which is on the order of L. One can estimate the viscous
) support Ramamurthy's (1986) conclusion that brass inhibits slip. These and length-scale I by noting that the viscous term in the Navier- Stokes equation is of
Ramamurthy's results do indicate, howcver, that surface chemistry and/or order TJV/p, while the inertia term is of order pV2 /L. Assuming they are equally
) important at so me point , we get
condition is important in considering sharkskin. See also Yang el al. (1998) for
) some discus sion at the molecular level.
_/2 _ TJ
Evidently, the sharkskin phenomenon is not yet fully understood . Beyond thi s U - pVL = ( Re)-I. (10 .95)
) point , where gross ex trudate distortion se ts in (Fig. 1.6) the instability is clearly
) 'J oul or the range of linear stabiiity theory; Ihe flUid ·spurts ' out. However, 1n turbulent chanf!e! flo\v (Re) is large, so the ratio of the length-sca ies is sOlal1.
approximate de scr iptions can be given. Den Doelder el at. (1998) produced a
,.1... n1ajor difficulty ~n ~~!rbulent nov...' ana lysis js the follo\,vi!1g. S'utJpuse we ~piit
simple quantitative model of ,spurting' in capillary tubes, and compared it with
the velocity and press ure fields (Vi , p) into a mean part (VI ' s.D) and a nuc:uatjng
experimental data on H OPE. Compressibility of the melt is assumed. A switch part (v:, p') so that
from a no-slip to a slip boundary condition over a range of shear rate is postu­
) lated , and melt elasticity is neglected . Good agreement is shown by this complex Vi = Vi + v;, p= p + p', (10 .96)
one-dimensional computer model with experiments.
) where

) 10.9 Turbulence Vi = lim -i

T~oo T.
f 10
'O
+
T
Vidl = Vi, ( 10.97)

Beyond the stability limit turbulence rapidly develops; the flow becomes more
) defines the averaging process. We shall only consider mean values which are
and more chaotic. Each particle therefore undergoes a rich kinematic experience.
independent of 10 (steady turbulent flows) . Substituting (10 .96) into th e Navier­
) We shall not look into (grossly) different macroscopic flows; we shall concentra te
Stokes equations and averaging over time yields the Reynolds equations
on turbulent pipe and channel flows . These are the most studied cases, but they
may be somewhat special kinematically. [)V i oP 0 {8Vi OVj } 0 -,-,
Turbulent flow s are irregular, diffusive , three-dimensional and dissipative; pVj ~ = --;:;-: +11-D. -;:;-:- + ~ --[). (pvjVj ), (10.98)
) ux) uX, x) ux) uX, x)
turbulence is a flow property, not a fluid property. Scales of structures in tur­
bulence range from lengths much greater than molecular size (even with macro­ where the overbar on the last term in (10.98) denotes a time average [see eqn
molecules in solution) to scales of the order of the flow-channel. No complete (10.97)]. Equati o n (10 .98) shows that the macroscopic quantities (Vi,P) depend
I
analytical theory exists and frequent recourse to experiment as a check on on the details of the v: field via the averages. The quantities -pv!v; are called the
) hypotheses is necessary. One of the characteristics of turbulence is the rapidity Reynolds stresses; in general they cannot be simply expressed in terms of the
with which mixing takes place. For example, in a static fluid or parallel macroscopic variables.
') laminar flow we can consider the time (Tm) taken to mix (for example) salt and The simplest approach to this problem is to assume the Reynolds stresses
) wa ter by molecular diffu sion in a channel of characteristic dimension L with a are proportional to the ([) V;/8xj + 0 Vj/OXj); one has then a viscous fluid with

)
526 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE 10 .9 TURBULENCE 527

(possibly non-Newtonian) augmented viscosity, usually termed the eddy vis­ Integrating, we find a linear profile
cosity. This can be a useful calculational device especially if the eddy viscosity
y, u2 z
varies from point to point in the flow, but it is not a fundamental approach to U =-'­ ( 10.103)
// '
turbulence .
One can illustra te the use of(l 0.98) in the case of fully developed plane channel or
flow. Suppose the channel is bounded by the planes z = Oand z = 2h and the mean
U u"-z.
'-m)\V is iO
n-the a'ikcTion x;-alrmean values excep t Pare funcrionsofzaJone. Tnei1 (1O.103a)
u.... 1/
(10.98) reduces to(Xi->X, y,Z, Vi-V, V, W,etc.)
or, defining new dim ension less quantities,
a - '­ I ap 02V
P az (u w ) = - ax + ry oz2 ' U+ = z+. (10.103b)
0= - ap Experimentally, this relationship only holds up to z+ ~ 5. If we remain near the )
oy' wall so that the shear stress is constant, but sufficiently far away so that the
ap 01'.1'2 viscou s st ress ry(d U/d z) is small compared with the Reynolds stress, then (10.102)
0= - - -p - (10.99) becomes
az oz '
- u'w' ~ u:, ( 10.104)
where P and V are the mean values of the pressure and the x-component of
velocity respec tively. The second and third equations in (10.99) can be integrated when z/h « 1, as hypothesized. Thus the Reynolds stress scales with the friction
to give velocity sq uared in this region . In this conslant-stress iayer we argue that if the
iength-sca le is I, and the velocity scale is u., thell Ihe mean veiocity variation
F + pw'2 = Fo(x ), ( iO.100)
)
dll
- ex u.ll. (10.105)
and, since the fluctuations are zero on the rigid walls, Po is the measurable wall dz )
pressure. The first equation yield s, for th e shear stress r(= (J xz )
The wall cons trains the turbulent motion so that transpon of momentum
av -,-, dPo downwa rd from some level z is restricted to distances smaller than z. Thus one
r = 17 az - pu IV = rw + z dx ' ( ! O.! 01) expects ihe scale I io be proporiionai to z itseif. Eiiminating I from (10.105) we get
the equation for thc inertial sub-layer
where rw is the shear stress at the wall. We define the friction velocity u. as
dU u,
dz (10.106)
u. = J rwlp· "'z
where", is the von K arma n constant. This equation has also been deduced from a
Then , from (10.10 I) we find , since the shear stress is zero on the centreline, Z = 17,
turbulent energy balance (Townsend 1980). Integrating, we find , for large z +
and dPo/dx is constant,
u. = -UU,..
1·
1
= -In z + constant. (10.107)
_ u' w' + "1 dV = u: (I _:).
p dz h
( 10. 102) K

One cannot determine the conSiant by se tting U = 0 at z = 0 because (l 0.1 06)

We can divide the region near the wall into three parts, a viscous sublayer. a does not hold in the viscous sub-layer. One can scale z as we did in (10.103) to get ')

buffer layer a nd a n inertial sublayer. The no-s lip condition near the wall means the main result of this section, the logarithmic profile law

that u'w' is ze ro when z is zero. In the viscous sublayer - u'w' and z are very small U+ =A Inz+ + B, (10.108)
so that we have
where A and B are constants and
dU 2
(10.102a)
v-
dz
= u.... A = ",-I (10.109)

)
)
)
528 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENC E to . 9 T URBULE N CE 529
)
30 1­ Viscou s Jn en iai
also found to be logarithmic and o ne finds
su b- laye r su blLiyer
)
20 f- U+' ~ z+ u- Vo = 2.S InG) . (!o.112)
) u,
u+
) Agreement between theory and experiment is g09 d (Tennekes and Lumley 1972).
We ca n integrate ( 10. I 12) over the cross-section to get the mean speed ii; we find ,
ignoring the thin viscou s and buffer l::lyers near the wall, where the logarithmic
law does not h o ld ,
10 30 100 10.1
z+ Ii = Vo - 3.7Su •. (10.113)
Fig. 10.9 Velocity p rofile nea r the wall for Newl o ni a n turbu lent pipe now showin g sub · laye r s.
In the intermedi a te range, (10.108) a nd (10.111) must overlap, and hence, from
(10.J08) with z= R ,

Although we ha ve discu ssed a constant-stress laye r, simila r arguments ma y be

a pplied to t he near-wall regio ns for smoo th tube flow , with a similar result for the
Ii = 2.Sln -
-
u.
(RU.)
v
+ 1.7S. ( 10.114)
velocity (Townsend 1980). In Newtonian nuids A ~ 2.5 a nd B ~ S.S. To join the
regions where (10.l03b) a nd (10 . 108) hold we have <l buffer laye r. The various Now from (10 . J 10) V = (u./ii)2, hence (10 . 114) becomes
regio ns arc sh ow n in Fig. 10.9 th e viscous su b-I<lyer or wall la yer, the buffer l<l ye r,
) ?nd t he ir. e n; ~d sub-! ?t yer. EventuaUy, \vhen z/h ...... t, \ve rnusl have 2 dependence
,~ = 4.07 ioglO[ (Re) v!j - 0.60. ( 10 . IIS)
on zj h; thi s is in the core region (not sho\vn on Fi g. 10.9). Thi s \vi1l be further
di scussed in the nex t sub-section This is close to the ex perimen tall y-observed line
We have n o l considered rou gh walls where the visco us sub-laye r is removed ;
for thi s and other aspects of turbul ence see Tennckes and Lumle y (1972) and I
.jJ = 4 .0 10glO [(Re) vJJ - 0.4. (10 . 116)
To w nsend (1980).

(If we had chosen A = 2.46 in (10. J 12), we wo uld h ave factors of 4.0 a nd - O. S in
10 .9. 1 Friction factor as a/unction 0/ Reynolds number 10. i IS .) The analysis can be re peated with the law of the wall in the fo rm
Measuremcnls on pipe and channel-flow yield rel a tions between the mean flow
speed u, the pressure drop, a nd the tube dimensions and fluid properties. We shall -v = A In (zu*)
- +B, (10.1 17)
consider tube flo w, a nd use the wall shear stress ,was a co nvenient parameter u. v
for analysis. The Reynold s number (Re) is pud / "7 and the fri ction coefficient (/) and t he velocity defect la w (10.112) written as
) is defined b y

) -v= A In - (Z) +B ,. (10.118)

/= '",/1pTP (10.110) u. R
) We then find
We need to reiate ii to the turbul ent velocit y field . In the core region (away from
the wall) we find the velocit y defect law (Tennekes a nd Lumley 1972) U I Ru.
- = B - I.5 A = A In - , B-- I.S A, (10.119 )
.~ U.. 1.1
Vo - U = u.g(z/ R), (10.111 )
or
where R is the tube rad ius , z is the distance from the wall and U o is the centreline
I I
velocity. Equation (10 . 111) asser ts th a t cur ves o f velocit y distribution plotted vJ = v'2 {A In[ (Re)vJJ + B - A[I. S + In(2 V2)]}. ( 10.120)
against z/ R condense on to a single curve for all Re ynolds numbers. This curve is

)
 530 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULEN CE 10 .9 TURBULENCE 53 1
)

Thu s, from the logarithmic velocity pro file the von Karman form (10.115) is
recovered . Because of the a pproxima tions made there are minor differences in the
cons tan ts but these are orten within experimen tal variability~ and \ve sha ll accept
the classica l view of the turbule nt sca ling la ws given above .
10.9.2 Power-law fluids
We now co-nsiderhow non-New to nian niJ-ict properties affect turbulent flow.
Because a hig h Reynolds number is usually necessary to get a turbulent flow
(hence we have excluded low Reynolds number instabilities) ine rti a forces are
consid era bly larger tha n viscous forces over nea rly all of the flow. Near the wa lls
the viscous properties are important and one can readily modify the standa rd
Newtonian correlations by using a modified Reynolds number. For the viscous
sub-l aye r we fo und u + = z + for the Newtonian case. In the powe r-law case, for
exa mple , we would replace (10. 102a) by
The modified Reynolds number (Re)c was introduced by M etzner and Reed
(19 55) and has the advantage that in th e laminar flow regio n the N ewto nian rule
f = 16/(R e)c is recovered; when n = 1 (10 .124) reduces to the famiiia r Newtonian
correlation. It is not the only possible definition of Reynolds number (Cho and
Hartne tt 1982); for exa mple, one might use the viscosity a t the wall to form a
Reynolds number, or even the solvent viscosity, in, for example dilute solutions.
Th-e-c-orre-t-a-tion (rO .12~) -seenfSTo oe aaequa re- ( ± 3 p e r ceo-t) forlnei<istic s~lu­
tions in turbulent now (Wilkinson 1960). For nuid s no t obeying the power-law
relation , o ne may use va lues of nand k appropriate to the wall shea r stress .
Extensio n of this work to ro ugh pipes is a lso ava ilable (Wilkinson 1960). Onset of
turbulence in all cases seems to occur a t ( Re)c ~ 2-4000, not very different from
the N ew tonian value (Wilkinson 1960).
10.9.3 Drag-reducing /Iuid~

~ (~~r= T; =u;,
Addition of quite small amounts (typically 5-100 weight p a rts per million) of
( 10 .121 )
long-chain polymer to turbulent flows in a tube can red uce the pressure-loss )
dra ma tically (Virk 1975) . This pheno m enon was discove red in ·the 1940s and an
or account is given by Tom s (J 977) who published the first pa per on the subject in
1949; see Tanner and Walters (1998) fo r an historica l accoun t of drag reductio .. _
U 2-,,) II " In o rder to describe the physical c ha ngp.,> in the now associated with polymer
ii+ = U. = T t
( (lZ"
ii
, J =
1/"
Z+ , (iO. i 22)
drag-red uc tion , comparisons with o rdin a ry turbule nt flow will be made. For \
flow in pipes the solid lines in Fig. 10. 10 give the dependence of/ on Reynolds
which defines z + in thi s casco number, (R e), in lamina r now and turbule nt flow for smoo th walls. F or ordinary )
For the inertial sub-layer we wo uld aga in find eqn (10 . 108) fluids th e transition to turbulence is al most always complete at (Re) = 4000,
unless specia l efforts are made to remove di sturbances, a nd the turbule nt friction
U+ = An in z+ + Un , ( iO . i 23) factor for smooth pipes is related to the Reynolds number b y the semi -empirical
w where th e cons tants An a nd Bn depend only o n 11; the a rgument leading to this
von Karman equation (10.116).
Drag-reduction is indica ted by a red uction of the fri c tion fa cto r such that the
foml was independent of the viscous forces. pressure drop for a solution at the same flow rate is lowe r tha n that for the solvent
Given the ex pression ( 10.123) fo r the mean velocity one can find the total itse lf. F or polymer so lutio ns, fri c ti on factors are shown by the dotted lines in
ave rage bulk velocit y u over the whole tube , and then find (see Section 10.9. I) the Fig. 10. 10 which indica tes typica l behaviour for redu c tion of friction factor for
Karman-type relation ship derived by Dodge and Metzner (1962) various pipe diameters. If negligible viscosity increase occurs when the polymer is
dissolved in the fluid, the 'degree of drag-reduction' is given by one minus the
gI = (40) 2j - 0.4/11 12 , ratio of solution to solven t friction factors at th e same R eynolds number.
I
110.75 IOglo[(Re)J -n
/ ( 10 . 124)
Howeve r, with a viscosity c ha nge, the comparison must be made at the 'solvent
R eyno lds number', the Reyno lds numbe r computed using the solvent viscosity.
where/is the fri cti on factor a nd The degree of dra g-reduc tion is a function of both fl ow a nd fluid variables.
Flow variables are flow ra te, pipe di ame ter, and roughness . Fluid variables are
(Re )c = pD"/1 2-n /8 n- l
k' (10.125) viscosity, density, and viscoelastic properties. The viscosity and viscoelastic
properties are function s of the po lymer type and conce ntration , a nd of the
with the modified powe r-law consis tenc y interaction between the po lymer and the fluid (solvent) . Velocity profiles for
turbulent flow in pipes are as shown by the solid line in Fig . 10.11 from the buffer
k' = k[ (3 11 + 1)/411]" ( 10. 126)
regio n to the core region . Each profile has a slight hump above the straight line

)
)

532 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE 10 . 9 TURBULENCE 533

0,'[
,
I
l -"
h
k L~m'n~r
L
I
5 mm !Om,r, 20mm
Onsel for
~i" ~,;;' ~r~g 0'h p. pe
redu c llon
I wf i
0
_' [' '--... '- , , 60t' / Ullimal e (MORA) ...... ~
pr~:~-:~~:l
I ..... '-" , ' .......

r . . . . : :,."'"'-.. . /-"-'>.,,-~,-
. _. . . . . . . . . . . . -. . :::i
I
................. , .......',.................. ....... .......
_____........................
50mmdla
. . . . .......

I
U+

J
40 ,..----­

~:~~=:;:;:-~;;;;;~~
' , 0 -1
'v ~ MDRA

I - - - =-=,=-=.=.:::..=..-----1
) 10-4 10) t 10 4
(R e) 105
I
10· 01
U+~2.51n z+ + 5.5
I
10 20 40 100 200 400 103
Fig. 10.10 Typical friclion fa c ior behaviour of a drag-reducing polymer solution showing effect of z+
pipe dia meter on onsel and maximum <lrag reduction asymplole (MORA). Fig. to.I1 Typical velocity profiles corresponding to resulLs of Fig. 10.10. As one moves up from
the Newlonian line one sees increasing drag-reduction without c ha nge of slope in the core region .
Ultimate maximum drag-reducing profile is also shown.

correlation. The hump always occurs at the pipe centre and is, therefore, at a
value of z + which depends o n the flow v3.ri(] bles. Thompson (1977) and 'r ieder-man et al. (I985) for ~ di SCussion of bursts in drag­
The huffer region is the tr3Dsition from the visc o us subla yc r on the vvall :0 the reducing flo\v.
) turbulent region, represented by the stn~!gh! line. The equ a ti on for the turbulent The l.ernpOfcd and sp!t ti aJdistribution of the turbulent burs ts ha ve been widely
region is, in the Newtonian case studied . It has been found that the non-dimensional frequency of bursts at a given
location is about 80 to 100 when expressed as IBU~ / 1/ where IB is the time between
) u+ = 2.5 Inz+ + 5.5. (10.127) bursts. The lateral spacing of bursts is close to y + = 100, where y + = YU.jl/. For
cases of drag-reducing now of polymer solutions, evidence shows the rate of
> Velocity profiles for drag-reduced flow of polymer Solulions are shown by the turbulent bursts decreasing with drag reduction, and lateral burst spacing
) dotted lines in Fig. 10.1 I . These lines correspond to the dot ted lines in Fig. 10. I 0 increasing with drag-reduction (see Achia and Thompson 1977 and Tiederman
of the same pipe diameter and at the indicated Reynolds number. It is evident that el al. 1985).
) the degree of deviation from the ordinary fluid velocity profile increases as the The burst rate and spacing findings suggest that the intensity of turbulence
degree of drag-reduction increases. At a low degree ofdrag-reduction the velocity defined as r.m.s. (root mean square) velocity nuctuation divided by a referencc
)
profile curves seem only to be displaced above the solid curve, but at a high degree velocity, is generally reduced for drag-reduction. However, other evidence (Virk
)
)
I of drag-reduction the curves show an extension of the buffer layer until a limit
[Virk's (1975) drag-reduction asymptote] seems to be reached . As the level of drag
1975) shows that the changes taking place near the wall are more in the na ture of a
'decoupJing' of axial and radial turbulent flow components rather than a simple
reduction in intensity .
red uction increases, the buffer layer increases in thickness for most observed
) i! cases. This is considered to be a result of the viscoelastic alteration of the tur­ One of the 1110St important phcnomenological observation s for drag-reduction
bulence near the wall. is the maximum drag-reduction asymptote (MORA), (Virk 1975). The MORA is
The movement of fluid in turbulent flow was previously thought of as a given by:
completely chaotic motion , best described by stati stical quantities and a sto­ 1
chastic theory. Research has shown , however, thal organized events of a 0= 19.010g lo (Re)vf - 32.4. ( 10.128)
it describable nature are present in the seemingly chaotic nuid movements. Some of
these events are frequently called ' burslS' , but are beller described as a sequence The corresponding velocity profile is
of processes all of which contribute to a burst. In a burst there is a sudden
uplifting of low velocity fluid near the wall into the main stream; see Achia and u+ = 11.7 Inz+ - 17.0. (10.129)
534 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE 10.9 TURBULENCE 535

The MDRA effectively gives the minimum friction factor one expects for a The converse transformation is:
given Reynolds number. Few observations of lower friction factors have been
fAl fO .615 o 1 r1
lDJ
r
reported, and many of these eouid be explained by norma! experimental error.
However, Berman (1977) has queried the idea ofa maximum drag-reduction by lB J = l1.562 1.414 J (10.133)
pointing out that at very high concentrations the buffer iayer can continue to
expand and it may ultimately reach the centreline. Then the flow will consist of From the above it can be seen that 6B = B - 5.5.
-large ·eddies which-do -not -resemble a normat turbulent How . Under these con'" If-the -tmnsfor-ma·tio·FJ of-eqfl-{-I'()-;-I-3-3~ ·is ·tJsed, however, the resuhingveJ"6cily
ditions one does not expect a natural limit to the drag-reduction . Nevertheless, profile eq ua tion does not correspond to experimen tal da tao The slope A increases
these cases are regarded as abnormal and for more dilute solutions the MDRA is significantly in drag-reducing cases if determined by (10.133), but experimentally
a useful concept. it remains about equal to the 2.5 of the Newtonian case in the core-Dow region.
Another observation made by Virk and others is that there is an onset wall Values of 6B may be computed from the following relation ship from Virk
shear stress , i.e., a lowest shear stress a t which percepti ble drag-red uction occurs. (i 975):
For a given polymer the onset wall shear stress is essentially the same for pipes of
6B = (6Cj1.626) In [(Re)fI / 2/( Re)'rI /2 ]. (10.134)
various diameters. Virk found that for polyethylene oxide solutions in water and
b em'ene the following correlation holds:
The computation of 6C, (Re)' and r
are explained in the following passages;
(Re), and f* are onset-of-drag-reduction parameters.
<v = 4.4 x I 0
6
1Rb (10.130) Virk has correlated what he calls the 'slope increment' for drag-reduction with )
polymer concentration and molecular weight for a given polymer. The 'slope
'Nhere r7" is the onset shear stress, . R. ..G is the r.m.s. radius o f the polymer molecule increment' is the increase in slope of the I! ,/l ordinate on a plot of ! 1-.jJ vs.
(see Ch~pter 5) and the constant has units of (nm/ Ni m 2 For severa! other logioU~e)-!7 for a dragr ed~ce . over the slope fur an ol-~inary iluid. if the
nlDdomiy-coiiing pol ymers in soiution, the constant ill eqn\.i O.IJO) was 13 x 10<­ equation! 1-.jJ = C log ;o(Re)v1 + D ajJplie~ , iheo ihe siopc increment, DC, is
(nm)3 N/m? C - CNc\Nj- The slope !!1crement correlates as foUows:
The velocity profile in turbulent flow is directly related to the friction factor, 2
both for ordinary and drag-reducing fluids. A simple way to quantify the effect of 6C= 70 X1O- 6(~)1/2( ML )3/ , (10.135)
drag-reduction on velocity profiles for moderate amounts of drag-reduction (not Mmono
close to the MDRA.) is by use o f 3 modified equation. \Ve incorp ora :e a modi­ )
where C is the polymercol1centration in weight parts per million, M is the average
fication of the intercept constant, indicating a line s hifted upward as follows:
molecular weight, L is the number of chain links per monomer unit, and M mono is
the monomer unit molecular weight.
v+ = 2.5 In z+ + 5.5 + 6B. (10.131) As discussed above, the onset of drag-reduction may be correlated for many
polymers. Through use of the onset shear stress, ':' which is related to the onset
The value of 6B depends on the degree of drag-reduction which occurs. As the friction factor as follows:
MDRA is approached. the velocity profiles plotted as V+ versus In Z .~ become
curved, and have increased slope near the viscous sub-layer, so the above r = 2,:lpT/ (10.135a)
approach is inadequate ; Virk (1975) has given the velocity profile for MDRA
flow as U_f- = 11.7 In z+ - 17.0. it is possible to determine the equation for the friction factor as a function of the
Values of 6Bforthe velocity profiiesshown in Fig. 10.11 can be found. For any Reynolds number ror drag- reduction by many polymers. The resuit is:
given velocity profile of the logarithmic form V+ = A In Z ., + B, the constants
I r C 1/2 ( M L \ 2'1
3/
of the friction factor equation, 1/,jJ = C 10glo(Re),jJ + D, are given approxi­
mately by:
17
v'f
= 14.0
L
+ 70 x 1O-
6
(M ) -M )1 J
mono

X [loglo (Re) yf- (II VT- + 0.4)/4.0] + I I g., (10.136)

[~] 1.626 0] [A] (10132)
[ -1.796 0.707 B·
where r is given by eqn (I 0.135a) and,;:' is given by eqn (10. 130).
 536 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE
The detaiied mechanism of drag-reduction remains elusive; some progress on
the Newtonian problem was given by Perry and Chong (1982) who consider a
) vortex-stretching model of the turbuient boundary layer; a less refined, but
similar idea was applied to drag-reduction by Black (1969). Drag-reduction has
also been considered by Goldshtik et 01. (1982), who give a theoretical develop­
) ment for the Iv[axwell fluid. In this paper there is a recognition of two lcngth­
scales- -the viscous scale v/u. and the elastic scale AU', wnere A is tne relaxation
time. There are some arbitrary assumptions in the paper (for example, the
assumption of maximum stability of the turbulent flow) but it does give the right
trends in behaviour.
McComb and Ra bie (1982) have considered the drag-reduction resulting from
injecting polymer solutions into the wall region; thus a gradient of polymer
concentration exists in the Oow. They were able to demonstrate that the region
15::; Z -I- <:::: 100 is the important region for initiating drag-reduction. Sellin and
Ollis (1983) show the difficulty of scaling up drag-reducing turbulent pipe flows
from one pipe size to another. Further aspects of turbulent flow behaviour in
various geometries are reviewed by Sellin et 01. (1982), Gyr and Bewersdorff
(1995) and Hoyt (1999).
A review of heat transfer for turbulent tube and channel flow is given by Cho
and H a d nett (i9R2). ivlost anaiyses have foiio'l-/ed a similar patb to that of the
Nev·/tonian case.
The turbulent heat transfer performance of drag-reducing viscoelastic fluids
flowing through circular tubes is characterized by thermal entrance lengths as
) long as 400-500 pipe diameters (Cho and Hartnett 1982). This is in contrast to
Newtonian fluids in turbulent flow, which have thermal entrance lengths of the
order of10-15 pipe diameters. Many of the early investigators were not aware of
this critical fact, and accordingly most of the experimental turbulent heat­
transfer results for viscoelastic fluids involved reiatively short tubes. In such
J circumstances, the experimental data are in the thermal entrance region. See also
Metzner and Friend (1959), and Wilkinson (1960).
10.9.4 Computer simulation of drag reduction
Dimitropoulos et at. (1998) performed a direct numerical simulation of drag
reducing flow using a FENE-P constitutive model [eqn (5.97») and a Giesekus
) model (eqn (5.111». They investigated a plane channel flow, but with three­
dimensional time-dependent motion. The friction velocity u, = .Jrw/ p is used as
a velocity scale; vo/u. is taken as a length scale and I/o/u~ as a time scale; Vo is
the kinematic viscosity (Chapter 9) of the resting fluid. The extra (polymeric)
stresses are made dimensionless using (I - /3)rw, where f3 is the ratio of the solvent
. viscosity (TJ') to the total solution viscosity at zero shear rate (170)' The Reynolds
number is defined as (Re) = hu./vo, where h is the channel half-width and the
Weissenberg number (Wi) = Au:/vo. The computation was stabilized by adding
a stress diffusion term to the constitutive model, which is assumed, from previous
work, to have only a small effect. However, this may need further investigation,
J
REFERENCES 537
since the results show a reduction of the streamwise vorticity even for a f3 (= TJ,/TJo)
value of 0.98874. A critical (Wi) was found for the onset of drag reduction,
somewhere in the range 12-25. The mean flow profiles {(u/u*) VS. yu",/vo = y+}
show little deviation from the Newtonian results, even though the fluid model
with f3 = 0.9 is highly non-Newtonian. It was concluded that the extensional
viscosity was very important in drag reduction, as we have mentioned in previous
sections. The numerical experiments used- two f3 values (0.9-and 0.'18874) with
different dumbbell maximum lengths, respectively 10 and 30 units, so that the
elongational viscosities were the same. The computed drag reductions were about
44 per cent and 10 per cent respectively, and the important role of elongational
viscosity was confirmed. Clearly, this complex and difficult study does not
e<?ntradict, but rather compiements, the experimental work on drag reduction.
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PROBLEMS 539
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Problems
I. Consider a rigid-body motion ofa Newtonian fluid . Show, by considering the kinetic
energy of the motion , that a small disturbance will die away .
2. Do an ana lysis of the class ical Taylor problem for the second-order fluid model.
Show that the results are a specia'l case of those given in Table 10.2.
3. Show that the inviscid Couelle problem produces the equa ti on
2
-d </> +1 2 [ - I + -2 -Mh
( I - M y ) ]
dy2 (12 R
UI
where e is the time-dependent pari of the infinitesimal disturbance, M = I - O 2/0, , and
the radial velocity u is
u = eOleil' </>(y)
where y = (r - R,)/h.
Show that O 2 >;1, is the necessary a nd sufficien t condition for stability .
 540 STABILITY OF FLOW AND TURBULENCE

4. Sun and Denn (1972) experimented with a Couette now and found, for RIll = 32.52
and a stationary outer-cylinder that the Taylor number went up from 3230 for a New­
) tonian fluid to 4060 for a non-Newtonian fiuid . The criticai shear rate in the lailer case was
38005- 1. Assume r = ki'°85, Nt = ai'!.04 and N 2 =,6N" where Ie, a, and (3 are constants.
Suppose r = i20 Pa and N t = 4200 Pa when l' = 4000 s-!. Estim ate ihe vallie of(j needed
to explain the stabilizing effect. Comment on the observed wave-number change from 3.10
APPENDIX

to 3.22.
FORMULAS IN CARTESIAN, CYLINDRICAL,
) 5. Find the equations equivalent to (10.99) in a fully-developed turbulent pipe now. AND SPHERICAL COORDINATES
6. Using the logarithmic form (10.108) for the veiocity distribution in the entire pipe,
)
find a relation for the friction coefficient/similar to (10.115) in terms of A and B. ALTHOUGH there are many possibilities, the bulk of rheological work uses Car­
tesian and cylindrical (r, B, z) coordinate systems, a few papers use spherical
7. (i) Examine the stability of the rest state of the first-order, single-integral fluid
(r, B, 1» coordinates, and other systems are rare. Spherical systems will usually be
) most advantageous when the problem in hand has a symmetric, r-only depend­
1" = oA, + roo G(s)AI (/ -
./0
s) ds, where A, is the first RivJin-Ericksen tensor. ence, and this case only will be se~ out here; for the full spherical polar equations
see Bird et al. (1987). Cartesian and cylindrical forms are given below; some are
(ii) Let the base motion be rigid; that is, the velocity field has the form v = w x x, where w is difficult to find in the literature.
the constant angular velocity. Examine the stability of this motion [or the nuid model To begin we nominate unit vectors i, j, and k in the (Cartesian) x, y, and z
) above. directions. In the cylindrical (I', B, z) system the unit vectors are in ie and k. The
) rates of change of these unit vectors are zero except in the l1-direction, where one
has

d(i r ) d(i&) = -i
Je - = iB;
de r
.
(A I)
)
) Al The gradient operator
) The Cartesian gradient operator is

.a .a k a
) V = 1-+1 -
ax ay + -az . (A2)

I In cylindrical coordinates (r, B, z) we have (Jeffreys and Jeffreys 1956)

)
) V=~ - +--+k-
.a ~a a
(A3)
~ r~ fu
)
Conversion from Cartesian to polar coordinates can be effected by using
') !l a a sin B­ a
ax = cos B-
-
ar - - I' -·aB
a . a cos(J a (A4)
II -ay = S10 (Ja-r + - r - aB'
The definition (A3) can be used to find any operator in cylindrical coordinates;
one must respect the relations (A I).
)
)
 '\
542 CARTESIAN, CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL COORDINATES A4 VELOCITY GRADIENT 543

A2 Mass conservation A4 Velocity gradient

For the incompressible case V . v = 0 (ovJ ox; = 0 in component form) and one In this case LT = Vv , is a tensor. In Cartesian form L,j = OVi / OXj, and writing L
has, if v = ui + vj + wk, as a matrix, one finds

AU
_-ox +. _-
avow
+ - =0
0.Jl . _. az. . '

and if v = uri r + Volo + uzk in the cylindricai case, applying (A3) gives
(AS)
L =
I

tox ~;
au

ox

av ov
oy
:1
ov
oz . (A8)
oW ow ow J

L OX oy oz

OVr Vr 1 avo OV,

-+-+--+-=0.
or r r oe oz
(/\5a)
L is generally not symmetric. In cylindrical form, the result is conveniently
represen ted as a matrix:
One ca n compute V . V 4>(= 02<p/ ox;ox;) using these results.
OVr I oVr Vo oVr
Fr -;. ae - -; a;
A3 Acceleration L = avo !2. + ~ avo avo
(A8a)
ar r r ae oz
The acceleration vector a, written Dv/D l, is defined as

OV; . oV; 8v .
r"- 8;
av, lov,
rae
OV,
Dz -'
Ui =-,-+ 1ik - -; or a = - + (v. \7)v . (A6)
or as a dyadic
al 8Xh 01
L = Lrririr + Lroirio + Lrzirk + LOrioir
In Cartesian form
+ Looioio + Loziok + Lzrkir + L,okio + Lzz kk . (A8b)
AU au au au
The form (A8b) is often convenient when doing further gra dient operations.
ax = 01 + u ox + v oy + w oz
By taking the symmetric and antisymmetric parts of (A8) we may find the rate
of deformation and vorticIty tensors; the Rivlin-Ericksen tensor
ay = '"
ul
8v
+ u",
uX
+
OV OV
v",
UY
OV
+ IV",
uz
(A6a) = =
A I 2d L + L T One finds, using 2d = L + L T,
au au ov au ow
ow ow ow ow
2- -+-
ox oy ox
- +­
az ox
az = tii + u ox + v oy + IV oz '

I ov avow
d=2 + 2- -+­ (A9) )
oy oz ay
and one can compute the results in cy lindrica l coordinates.
aw
The term (v. V)v becomes + + 2­
02
a Vo a a) . . where + denotes a symmetric entry. In cylindrical coo rdinates
= ( vror+-;oe+v,oz (IrVr+IOVo+kv,)

2 aVr avo 101)r OVr OV, 1

Vo
_ .{
- Ir
oVr VOOVr _ ~
Vr or + ,. oe
aVr}. { AVO VOVr voavo avo}

r + Vz az + 10 Vr or + ,. + r ae + Vz oz
d =~ I
.ar
+
-ar + -
2(vr
--­
r 08
I avo)
-r + - -
r oe
r
&+8,j
avo + ~ av, .
oz roe (A9a) )
OV, Vo av, OV,} (A 7) 2 OV,
+ k { Vr 8r + -; ae + v, a; . + + az
 544 CARTESI A N, CYLI NDRICA LAND SPH ERJ CA L COOR DINA TES A5 OPERATIONS ON TENSORS 545

Using 2w = L - L T , one has the vorticity tensor:

The steady-state components of the acceleration vector a are given in (A 7) and
)
the components of the body-force vector f are usually known. Now Jet A be a
r" au av au _ aWl tensor, not necessarily symmetric, and \' be a vector (v"VIJ,'U z ). Define a scalar
[}z ax'
, 'J
oy ax operator
)
w I
="21 -
I av Dw I (AIO)
~ ay I a a
0 ~a
az Q ~ ~-+ - -+ ~ -.
~ r~ fu
L- v -'

where - indicates that therc is anti-symmetry about the diagonal. Clearly ,

Then v . V A in cylindrical polar coordina tes (r, e, z) can be written as
L=d+w.
v . VA = QA + -vo M, (A .13)
r
AS Operations on tensors-the UCM equation
where M is represented by
Consider a second-order tensor A, not necessarily symmetrical. The value of
V . A (== aAkj/aXk in component form) is, written out in Cartesian coordinates: - (A,o + A e,) Arr - Aoo
= [ -Aazl
) M Arr - Aoo A,o + AOr Arz (A.13a)
. (aA xx yx xy o
) ~ -aA -+ -
aAzx)
- +j. (aA fJAyy
--+- -+ -DA­ 1!') -A zo Azr
)
oy oz . ax oy f}z .
where A,e, etc. are the components of A.
+ k (8A" -I- o~.vz + (lA ,.: \). I " 1 I \
\ rl. J I ) Th~ V . (Vv) ( == &v)fJX/1x, in Cartesian components) hecomes quite complex
\ ax oy oz / in cylindrical coordinates. We find

, The corresponding cylindrical form is:

(V · Vv) = -
,
a (I- -a (rv,) )
or r a,.
Ia 2 2
a
+ - _ v, + _ v, __ _avo
r2 ae2 az2
2ae
r2
.[Ia 10Aa, Aoo.DA zrl
V .A = or (rA,,)
I, -;: +-; of) - -t- az J
- r-

) (
V. - ~ (~ ~ I
~ a2ve a2ve ~ av,
Vv)o- ar rar(rvo); +,.2 ae2 + az2 + r2 ae (A.14)
+10 -
. [aA,8
- +
A,a + AOr + -
I oAlio oA zaJ
-- + -­
) ar r r ao az
I a (av z ) I azvz a 2vz
(V . VV)z = -;: ar ra; + -;:2 f}e2 + az 2 .
Ia I aAoz aA "= ] (A 12)
+ k [-;: ar (rA rz) +; ---ae + Tz .
These operations arise in the Navier- Stokes viscous components
We can use (A.12) to write the equations of motion (2 .60) in cylindrical (Problem A2).
, coordinates if we set A = (1, the (symmetric) stress tensor: By using formulas (A .I3) and (A.13a) one can construct the second-order fluid
operator, A 2 , [Eqn (4.30c)]. Similarly, the Maxwell model (4.25) can be con­
I
--a
a
(ro,,) + -ae
I a a
CTrO + 7> °,z - - + pi, = po,
aBO structed in cylindrical coordinates from eqns (A.13) and (A.13a). We have, for
r r r uZ r this model, after dividing by A and setting TJIA = g,

I a 2 I aCTee a aT T
) - - (r 00,) + --- + -oOz + Pie = paO (2.60a) or+(V,V)T-TL -LT+T/A=2gd, (4.25)
r2 ar r ae az

I a I a a
and so the (symmctric) components of (4.25) in cylindrical coordinates become,
--a (razr ) + -ae O rO + "ozz + pi, = paz·
r r r uZ since T is symmetric, those set out in Table A.I.
546 CARTESIAN, CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL COORDINATES A6 STRAIN MEASURES 547

Table A.I Upper convected Maxwell model [eqn (4,25)] in cy lindrical A6 Strain measures
coordinates
To find the deforrc.atioii gradient F (2 .27) in cyiindricai co-ordinates we can
rr-componem express dr in the form
aTrr aTrr Vo aTrr aT" 2( aVr TrO aVr aVr ) dr = dRi r + RdGi ll +dZk,
8t + VI' 8r + --; Be + Vl 7!h - Trr 8r + -; af) + Trz 7h (A21)
aV r where R, e, and Z are the components o( the coordina te r in the cylindrical
+ Trr/ A = 2g -,:;- , (A,15)
vI' system; R, e, and Z are all to be regarded a s functions of 1', e, z (the components of
x in the cylindrical system), Hence,
r(}- co mponenl
oR oR oR
oTrO oTrO Vo oTrO oTrO (TOO oVr oVr aVO dR = -dr +-df)+ - dz (A22)
Or of) oz
--,,-
vI
+ VI' --,,-
vI'
+ -I' ""
vu
+ Vz-,,-
OZ
- - r v"'e + TRz ~,,-
uZ
+ Trr --;:;­
vr
and similar expressions for dG, dZ, So we can write
+T,-z-aVO - TrB -oV z - -Va TTl' ) + TrO / A = g (avo
- + -I -OV,- - -Vo ) , (A.16 )
OZ oz I' or r of) I' loR

dR r Or
8R I'oe oz 1

aR
~ rRde 1~
rz-componenl

aT" CYrrz
8r + VI' 8r + --;
Vo aTrz aTrz ( TO, oVr oVr oVz Tre aVz

af) + Vz aZ - -;:- oe + Tzz 02 + Trr a; +-;-7iii

d,
dZ
Rae
or
Roe
r of)
ae
oz
dr
,dBR~
dz

r 1~ Fdx . (A ,23)
~ , az 10Z az !! L

( VI' love \ '\ / \ ( OV, ov, \) L or of) oz J

- I --;:- + -;: --;;;-() )Trz) + Trz /\ = g ! ~ t ~ , (A,17) I'
\ ' . u / ' \ VI.. v, J
By computing F 7 F, W~ can f! nd the strnin tensor components as shown In
ee-camponelll Table A2,
choo
- (hoo Vo aTOO v -aTOO
- +v --+---+ --2 (ave
TO--T o- Va +TOO ( -
VI' +1-aVo
­ ) Table A.2 Components of C in cylindrical polar coordinates
at I' or r ae z az I' or I' r r r oe

+ Toz ave)
az + Toe/A = 2g (VI' I avo )

--; + ~8e ' (A,18) Cll = (~A~r+R2(~~r+c:r )

()z-compOl1 enl
C
l2
= C21 = ~ oRoR + R2 aGoe + ~ oZ oZ
I' or of) ,. or oe r oe Or
OTO Z ,OToz Ve GToz aToz _ ( avo _ va _ OVr aVo
a t + VI' or + r of) + Vz aZ Trz or Trz r TOl Or + T~: az
oRDR 20eDe DZDZ
C 13 = C ll =--+R - -+ - - ­
avz Toe ovz) /A_ (elVO ~ OVz) (A,19) Or oz Or oz or oz

+TrO or + I' of) + TO z - g OZ + I' of) ,

I ( OR) 2 R2 (oe) 2 I (oZ) 2

C 22 = -;:2 De +?" oe + -;:2 of)

zz-compone/1l

OTz; OTzz Ve OTzz OT;z ( oVl TOzavz oVz) 10RDR R2 oeae 1 az DZ

Cn = C 32 = --- + - -- +- - ­
8t t- VI' ar + --; of) + V; 7!h - 2 Trz or + -; oe + Tn 8z oe oz
I' I' of) az r ae oz
avz 2
Tz ,
)
+ Tzz/A = 2g (A.20 oR)2 R2(DG)
- 2+ (DZ)
C33 =
( -o z + OZ
­
oz

)
548 CA RTESIAN, CY LI NDRICA LAND SPHERICA L COORDINATES PROBLEMS 549

) From these results the inverse strain tensor C- I can be found, if required , by and the velocity gradient matrix is
matrix inversion .
) L-LT
- = d'lag 1-,
rdv r -,..!.
Vr V'
. I (A.26)
L dr r rJ
A7 Spherical coordinates
For the spherical p_Ql.a r system (r,O,¢) (0 = 0-7r; ¢=Q-27r) defined by The operation (v· V A) under these conditions is vrdA /dr where A . A(,.) only.
x = r sin 0 cos (jJ, y = r sin 0 sin (jJ, z = rcos 0, the V -operator is The strain tensor for a purely radial displacement which brings a particle from
R at time I' to a place r at time I is
. 0 io 0 i,p 0
1 - + -- + - -­ dR\ 2 (R) 2 (R\ 2]
r or I' oB r sin f) (}¢ , (A.27)
) C = diag [ ( (1;)',,--; ' " -;) .
and one has
(}

or (i" ie, i",) equals (0,0,0),

References
o
BO (i" io, i¢) = (ie, - i" 0),
Bird, R . B., Armstrong, R. c., and Hassage r. O. (1987). Dynamics of complex fluids,
Vol. I, Fluid mechanics. Wiley, New York.
Jeffreys, H. and Jeffreys, B. S. (1956). Melhods of malhemlllical physics. Cambridge
and University Press.

Prohlems
:: (ir, ill, i.;;) = (i¢ sin e, i", cos e, - ir sin e- io cos 0).
o~/)
) 1. \Vrite the energy equatio n (2 .62) in cylindrical coordinutcs, inc!uding the dissip:u:on
term.
) For the spherically symmetric case where D/DB = D/D¢ = 0 for all quantities,
we get, for a symmetric tensor B a nd a vector u 2. Write out the Navicr-Stokes cquations in cylindrical coordinates.
)
1 d 2 coUI 3. Compute V x v in cylindrical coordinates.
\7'11=--(,. Ur)+-- Uo (A.24)
~ 1'2 dr r 4. For the spherical polar system, develop the conservation of ma ss equa tions in the
') general case.
\7. B = ~~ (,.2B ) _ (Boe + BdxI> - Brocot B).
r2dr" r Ir

I +~ d (,.3 BrO) + ____

ill dr (B e(J - B!J~'1>".!.)--=c~
ot"O10
.
r
)
. d
+ ~_
I d,.
(r 3 B "') + 2B.;;0 cot B.
r r I ",.
(A.25)

In the case where the velocity vector v is

v = irvr (r)
one has that the acceleration vector a is
)
) dv,.
a = (v. V)v = irVrdr ,
)

)
)
 INDEX 55 1

Picard procedu res 39 1

convecti o n tra nsfe r 44 7- 8

soiutio n procedu res 390-4

coo rdina te in variance principles 52

computer programmes
INDEX accuracy o f solutio ns 393-4

corn syrup, fil ament drawingexperimenl s 346-7

coro tat ional m odel 252

ca libra tio n 344

correspo ndence principle 7 !

for instabil ity onset sln1uiaiiuns '> I ~ Coue tte Jl ow 10 1-4

po lyme r fl ow simulations 4 39-4 1

critica l R eyn o lds number 49 1

test p ro biems 394-7, 395

elasti c in stabilities 5i2-13

__ .£V~~e: Xig~res and Tabi!!.~E~ Lndi ca t~<LQ):1!_q((c_ D um Qc rs __ _ concenrrat ed-poly merso luti-o ns, m icrostruct ure
enaeffec-t -e limin ation 100

theo ries 242

ine rtia a nd viscoe lasticit y 50 1-1 2

accelerat ion
bou ndary-eleme nt me thod. fi el d discre tiza tio n
co nducti vit y tensor 449
s,abW iy no tat ion 503

form u las 542

scheme 38 1-4, 383
cond uc tivity tra nsfer 448- 9
stability problem 501

streamlines 41
bo unda ry-layer no ws 327-30, 330
co ne a nd plate device 104-6 , 193
sta rt up 69

A ciern o model 236- 7, 252

inelastic case 330- 2
geo metry 104
see also Tay lo r- Co uette fl ow

a ffin e defo rm a tio n hypo thesis 245-6

M o rl a nd-Lee hypo thesis 46 1
cone-pla te n ows 5 15
Coue tte viscomc ter 100, 10 I, 102, 189

affine P1T mo de ls see PIT models, a ffin e

viscoelastic nuids 33 2-3, 333
co nfigura tio n s pace 21 2
c reeping fl ow

alm ost-elongatio nal no ws 340

Bo uss inesq a ppro ximatio n 494
co nservatio n o f en e rgy 51
in circ ul a r tu be 469

so urce and sink nows 340-5

Brinkman number 47 1
conse rva tio n o f m ass 10, 49--50
Ne wto nia n 183

amorph o us p o lymers 455-6

Brow nian dyna mics ( BD) simulati o ns 440
fo rmulas 542
UCM m o d e l 396, 39 7

A ndrade fo rm 458, 460

Brownia n mot io n fo rces
conser va ti o n o f momentum 10, 50- I
in viscoelas tic m a te rials 22- 3, 148-9

a ni so tro pic fluid theories 276-7, 44 7

dumbbell mecha nics 22 1-2, 227,239
co nsta nt velocity g ra dients, n ow
c urt ain coa ter 3 11

a niso tro pi c fl ow 266

p o lymer mo lecules in so lution 21 I
classificatio n 223-6
C urti ss- Bird theory 264

antithix o tro py 5 15
sphere suspensio ns 265-6
co nstilUtive equ a ti o ns 10-13, 10
c urvilinear sh ea rin g mo ti o ns, steady 83

a scendin g free siphon 8

bubble fo rm a tio n 360-1 , 36 1, 364
applica ti o n to experiment al meas urement s
cylinde r in ch a nne l, n ow pro blem 402-3

as pect ra tio, fl o w 521

Butyl 035. elo nga ti o na l now experime nt s 114 ,
182-5
cylind rical coo rdina te sys tcms, fo rmulas 54 1

ax isy mmetric pl asticit y 154

/14 _ 115
approxi ma ti ons ! 82

classica l fCrIDS 54
V ea n prob lem 501

C rimina le-Eri c k.e. n--Filbey 163

D cbo l it !1 !!uIT!be r j 12,225 . 2:20-"1 , 5 14

B~g !e y en d cc rrcc ~ icn ! 00 (<Ji t.:n da ring p roce s ~ 303- iO dilute dumbbell solutions 2 16-20

high-densi ty po lye th yle ne 416

effec t o n sta bilit v 521

exit fluid behaviou r 302

equi va lent intcgrai fo rm 2 1~

Ba tch elo r- G reen formul a 26 7, 268

materia l thickness 308-9, 309
lu brica tio n fl o w; 297,298

exac t a nd a pprox ima tio ns 232-6

squeeze film n ow 324, 326

bead -ro d mo de ls 238,239

pressu re d istri but io n 306
multiple rela xa tion ti mes 2 18- 19

bea d -ro d- sprin g mod els 238

definiti o ns I , 2

se pa rati o n pro blem 302

fo r N ewtoni a n nuids see Newt o nian nuid s

car boxyme th ylce llul ose (CMC), bo un da ry defo rma tion, rapid 167- 8

bead s
O ldroyd type 157-60, 335

conservat io n equatio n 2 12
d efo rma tion gra di ent 42-3

la ye r fl ow 333
princi ples 52-4

du "" bbe!! (two- bead) mode! 212--!4

Carrea u equ ai io n 18 , 19, 250. 259
defo i ma tio n tensor 42

seco nd o rde r n ows 182-5

d ensit y d a ta 466, 466

inte ractio n effects 2 10

Ca rtes ia n coordinate systems, fo rmulas 541
conslitu !i ve models
bea d-s pring mo lec ul a r m odel 21 0,21/ ,263, Casson (So lid) equati o n 18
determini sm p r inciple 52

entry n ow 4i 5- 18
DEVSS- bascd m e thods 387

264, 465
Caswell theo rem 406
KBK Z see K aye-Bernstein- Kea rsley-Za pas

bearing lu bri ca ti o n 302, 303, 306

Ca uchy-G ree n stra in te nso r, ri ght rela ti ve 4 3
die design , extrusio n 43 7-8. 438

(KBKZ) mo del
die-entry cxpe riment s 11 6

Bena rd pro blem 494, 500, 50 I

cav ita tio n en'ects 454-5
no n-linea r co nvected Maxwdl 334
die- fillin g fl o ws 3 19

coo rdin a ti o n system 494

Cay ley- Hamilt o n theo rem 39 , 168
re la tio ns for po lymer fluid s 278, 279

bi ax ial fl ows see two-dimensio nal elo nga ti onal

chain s, as li near springs 24 5
die swell see swelling mec ha nisms

use fo r enginee rin g pro blems 277 , 280-1

d iffu sio n equ a ti o n 2 14, 21 7. 240

fi e ld
Chi lco ll--R a ll ison mo de l 23 1- 2, 24 1, 402
co nt ac t source see s urface fo rce
Bi ngham nuid s 146, 148
ci rc ula r tube now 51 2
diffusi o n of m o me nt um 73

co ntinuum mec ha n ics 8,9, 10-1 3, 10

dila ta nt fluid s see sh ea r-thic ke ning fluid s

n ow rule 146, 152

circu la r viscome tric fl ows, stead y 82 , 88
co nserva tion o f energy 51

plas tic 15- 17

coa t i ng process
dilute dumbbell so luti o ns, constitutive

conse rva tio n of mass 49-50

equa ti o ns 2 16-20

shear stress 16
ex it fl u id beh a viour 302
conserva tio n of momentum 50- I

unyielded regio ns 153- 6

disturba nce fl o w fi eld 515

n ows 3 10-11
d efo rma tio n 42- 4

yield surfaces 152- 3

see also cu rtain coa te r; ki ss coa te r; ro ll
DNA mo lecules , a ft e r strai n ing 241 , 241

mo tio n 40-2
D oi- Edwa rd s (O-E) theory 242, 244. 262-4

bi-viscosity liquid s 149, 152, 153

coa ting
pla na r elo nga tio n 46-7

bl ow-u p ratio , film blowing 361, 36 1

complex m od ulus 60
d o uble re ptat io n concept 264

ra te o f change of strai n 44-5

do uble-step st rai n 27,27,170- 1, 171, 280

bo dy fo rce 34
complex viscosit y 60, 498
Reyoo ids tra nsp o rt theorem 47-9

Boge r fluid s 161, 515, 516

co mput a tio na l rheology 369
W agne r approach 176- 8 1, 179

shear elonga tio n 45

d o ugh rheology 15

Bo ltzm a nn , theory develo pments

bound a ry co ndition s 389-9 0
stress concept 33-40

Bo ltzmann's constant 208

d isc re tiza ti o n schemes see field di scre tiza tion
drag coefficient s 232

co ntro l volume 47-9, 48

drag-reduc tio n m echa nisms 333, 531-{i

b o und ary co nditi o ns 10

sche mes
co n vected M axwe ll model , up per see upper

geometry 12
H W NP solutions 392--3
com pute r simul atio n 536-7

co n vected M ax well (UC M) mo del

slope increme nt 535

in lubrica ti o n fl ow 299-301 ,300,30 1

mesh sizing 393, 409

typical exa mples II

Newton it era tio n 39 1-2

in v iscoel astic n ows 389- 90

n on- New tonia n fl o ws 369- 70

 552 INDEX INDEX 553

)
draw r~tio 5 19,520
extrudate swe ll 350, 418, 438
first no rmal stress diffe rence 130, i 3 1, 132,
Gaussian spring assum ption , relaxation 250

fibre spinning 345, 347

ra tio 422, 483
133, 192
General Ne two rk M o del 249

draw resonance 347

th ennali y-induced 482
Fisher- Hirschfe:der-TayJor models 204
Giese kus model 228, 240, 390, 403

) dumbbell end-t o-end veclor 221

ex trusion process 421--5
Oow
four-mode 257,25 7, 403

dumbbelllnechanics bOl!!1dary conditions 419

a long edge 4 I 2
no n-iso tropic drag 232

) dilute solutions 216-20

die geometry 430-2
around sphere in a tube 397, 399-402
no n-linear effec ts 46 5

with limited extension 227- 31

Oo w instability 523
circular 80
glass tran si ti o n temperature 455-6

non-linear reSlJ/ts 229

inela stic non-Newtonian fiuids 425
in cir<oular tubes 512
Goddard' s coetTi cie n(s 508

rigid 238-40, 239

loca ting free boundary 419-·'21 , 420
etfects of pressure 469
Gortler number 5-22

) two- bea d model 212-14

Newlonian Ouids 421 --5
effects of temperature se~ tem pera ture eITects
gradient operator, formulas 541

weak and strong fiow 22 1-3

probie ms 4 i 8- i 9
on flows
Gradz number 47 i, 473, 474, 476

Reynolds number problem 422

entry see entry flow
Green-Kubo mcthod 440

·square die design 438

helical 80,83,88, 101
Green-Rivlin expansions 165-7, 172

eccentric-disc Oow 195-8, 196

three-dimensional Oows 437-9
he licoidal 83, 88
Green's theorem 381

) edge fracture phenomenon 516-18,517 th ree -dimensi o nal planar contraclion

inlet see inlet flow
Green- Tobolsky ne twork 262

EEME (Explicitly Elliptic Momentum geometry 439

near corners 404-5, 405
simul?, tion 440

) Equatio n) method 397,402

tria ngular die design 438
near singular points 407

Einstcin relation 266, 267, 268

using short dies 430-1 ,431
no n-circular tubes and cha nnels 190- 2

elastic beh avio ur

viscoelastic eITects 427-30
parall el plate 80,5 13- 16

heat transfe r coe rrlc ient 364, 447

insta bilities 512

Eyring equation 18
parallel shear 512-13

heat transfe r mechanisms 364-5, 447-9

mechanical model 26
pa st junction in channel 408

Hea viside un it step func tion 20

for ra pid deformations 167-g

in plane channel 512, 526

recovery 128
FENE-L evolution equations 235 - 6, 235. 237
Hele-Sh aw Oow 319-20

separation points 404,405- 6

FENE-P function 233 , 235, 236, 237

helical Oows, viscometric 83, 88, 101

solid 73
skew 80, 81-2, 88, 93-4, 313

fibre dra wing, effect of tem peratu re 520

helicoid al Oows, viscornetric 83, 88

) e!astic-plastic Oow 150, 450

in square tubes 191

Hencky strain 176

ei3stic-s!ored energy ! heory 45 i

fibre-fi bre !nteraCl!O!lS 275
s iick-siip see slick-slip probkm
Herscf;el- Bulkley fluids 146, !4X, 402

elllptica l tubes, now pallerns 191

fibre spinning 345-6
stro ng se~ strong fi ow

) C:)is eqti rt i ion 1R cxpcrimcntul ccmpa , ison s 355 . 356. 357

:c.:;ional SCE :or :;io~(il n O\VS

equation 17

110 w ruie i 52

elongational Oow, tra nsic nt 231

experi mental observations 346-7, 346
turbulent see turbulent Oows
" elonga tion al Oows I I 3·- 16
Oow stabilit y 519-20
viscome lric see viscometric flo ws
s~ .cs:;·· st r ain cu rve 147, 150

high density polyethylene (HOPE)

almost - se~ almost-Iongational Oows

geometry 345
wea k we wea k Oow

) biaxial 117-1 8
inelastic Ouids 347-50
Oow acti va tion ene rgy ratio 458

elo nga tio na l Oows 173

ex perim ent al behaviour results 127-9

with large Weissenberg numbers 354-5
extrusion si mulati o n 429

fl ow instabilities

) KBKZ models 172-3

viscoelastic Ouids 351
slip veloc it y 137

in constitutive models 492-3

,high Weissenberg number problem (HWNP)

unsteady extensions 116-! 7

f! bre suspensions 27 5-6
inertia-drive!1 49!
extru sion process 427

in viseometric models 165

field discretization schemes 370--1
Newtonian 491

solutions 392-3

elongational reco il ex pe riments 17 3-5, 174

boundary-element method 38 1-4
non-Newlonian 491-2

Hinch and Lea l closure approximation 272

') elongational (Tro uton) viscosit y 57, 114, 116,

fini te differences meth od 371-6
shearing motion 493

historical development 2-5

I 17 , 220, 250, 258

finite ele ment methods 384-8 , 384
Oow rule, in plasticity th eo ry 152

Hookean sp rings 227

end correction , Bagley 100,416

I'nite volume method s 376-8 1
Oow stability 521-2

dilute dumbbell solutions 218-19

energy eq uati on 449-50

spec tra l methods 388- 9
analysis 494

Hooke's law 57 209

for hea t tra nsfe r in laminer flo w 474

fil a ment s, dra wing see fibre spin ning exchange 495

) energy fun c ti o n, other fonns 450-1

film bl ow ing 356-9, 357
in fibre spinnin g 5 19

Hurwitz-R o uth criterion 224

enginee rin g Oow problems 277,280- 1

h yd rodynam ic forces, in polymer solution

experimental result s 366

no n- viscometric 5 18- 2 1

209- 11

entry Oow 41 2-17 , 412,417

further analyses 365- 6
see also Oow instabilities

hyste resis eITec t 13, 13

geom e try 413

geometry 358
Ouid , definition 2 1, 23

non-Ne wto nian Ouids 332

Maxwell Ouid with tempera ture variation
Ouidity function 93, 98

viscoelastic Ouid s 333, 415

364-5,366
Fourier'S law (heat conduc tio n) 447, 479

) e n try length , pseudo-plastic power-law fluid s Newtonian solution 360- 1

free boundary conditi o n 193
injecti on mOUlding 483-4 , 485

332, 332
non-Newtonian solution 362- 4
free-surface coating 312
Oow orientation di stribution 487

Euler Oo w 162
Finge r s train tensor 44 8
free-volume concept, viscos ity variations 451,
ga te designs 484

evolutio n-rate eq uati on 260, 26!

finite diITerence method
456
idea li zed resu lts 486

EVSS method 397

field discretiza tion scheme 371-6
freeze-line, film blowing 360--1,365
simulati ons 484-7

exitOow 414
grid 3'72
freq uency dependent functions, experimental
inl et Oow see entry flow
extensional stress grow th 258
fmit e element methods
results 120-1
insta bility

) exten siona l viscosity see elongational

error analysis 394
fric tion fa c tor, as functi on o f Reynolds number
in melt fracture 523-4

(Tro uton) viscos ity

field discretization scheme 384-8, 384
528
oscill a to ry 512

extensio ns /14-16
successful eiements 384
purely elastic 5 12

unsteady I 16- 17
flOite volume method s, fi eld discretization Galerkin solution method 38 1, 386, 500, 508
see also Oow instabilities

) see also elongational Oows

scheme 376-81,3 77 gap-setting errors 194
interaction coefficient 275-6

J
554 INDEX INDEX 555

intrinsic viscosity 212

polyethylene melt example 65, 66
molecular dynamics (MD) simulations 440
Orr- Sommerreld equation 50!

inverse Langevin laws 209, 242 , 242

polyvinyl chlo ride example 65-6, 67, 68, 69
molecular movement see polymer molecule
O seen raeto r 334

inviscid fl o w 55
liquid crystals. Leslie-Erickse n theory 277
molecular simu!at!on theory 4-40
overshoot phenomenon 326--7

isotropic fluid behaviour 55, ! 6 1

loca l action principle 52
molten polymers see polymer mclt s
overstable conditions 495-6,512

Lodge's rubber-like liquid 2 18,220.245,24 7,

M ooney ma terial, shear derormation 168

252
M orla nu-Lee hypo thesis 461-2

jet shapes, Newtonian 423

Lodge-Yamamoto ne twork theory
motion
paraliel slider, lubrication flows 299-300

jet-thrust experiments 116

see Yamamot o-Lodge network theory
equations 40- I particles

Johnson-Sc:.gaiman model . 252

long-ey linders;-stabi\ity-problem- 5fH
genm-etry- 4'(T · definition -47

long tubes. exit and entry losses 415

multiple relaxation limes, dilute dumbbell geometry errects 273--5

loss mo dulu s 60
solu!!c ns 2~8 · !9 path li"e 41

Kaye- Bernstein-Kears!ey-Zapas ( K BK Z) Pearson- Petrie sca ling, wa ll slip 135-6

model 169-72,171 , 177,249

ex perimental results 121, 122

low-density polyethylene (LOPE) 179, 18 1

Peciet numbers

Couette flows 501-2

Nahme-G rimth number 471
local 380

derect 175
elongational and ~ he arin g flows 173, 182,
Nat syn 410, response curves lI5

428
suspension of spheres 265, 266, 268, 269

and elo nga ti o nal flow s 172-3, 184

Navier- St okes eq uations 55, 144, 165, 186,
in turbulent now 525

ror inbuilt instability 492

experimental res ults 119, 125 , 126
197 ,3 50

sp innin g experiments 355

perl u rba tions

irrever~i ble 198

Navicr's wa ll cond ition 134
a bo ut state of res t 494

ro r non-iso thermal case 462

see also linear low-den sity polycthylene
nearly-clonga tio nal fl ow, continuum models

lubrication st udies 286--7

pla ne a nalyses 291

single- integral 264

181

ball and roller bearings 310

series solution ro r small elacticity 332

Kaye model 248

ne o- Hookea n potential 261

boundary conditions 299-3 0 I, 300, 301

Phan-Thien- Tanner nuid 190, 520

molten polymers 259, 262

ne twork- ru pture the ory 172, 24 9, 250
draw ratio 520

Kelvin-M eyer solid 3, 64

fl ow dyn amics 297-9
network s, creati o n/destruction rates 24 8- 50

inelastic fluids 289-92

see also PIT model

mechanical model 26, 27

Newtonian creeping jet 425
phase space 212

Kelvin- Voigt fluid model 3

Newtoni an shorl -bearing theory 3 13-15 ,
NewlOnia n nuid ~ 56--7

314
Pica rd (successive s ubstitution) procedures

Keunings's L-di stribution 234, 235, 241

constitutive equations 10, 10, 55
387, 39!

¥-;irkwood-Z!mm ~heory 210

New ton ia n theory 28 7-8
creeping now see cree ping nuw , New tonia n
no~-Nt: ""' t o n:a:1 nuics 290- 2. 3 ! 9

pipe en try now see enilY flow

kiSS cor.:cr 3! 1, 31 1
gcneralized 145

no rmal strcsses 296

Pipkin 's cla ~f;; ifiC:!l (i on d i?g!"?n1, shc« rin g nO\vS

Kreiger- D o u£hr:rty rorm\.ll n 267

shoJi-bl::urir!g theory J 13 - : 5

pl a ne journal bea rin gs 294-5

J 11-12, lI3, 168, 198, 226

stick -Slip problem 407-9 , 4118, d fO

piane channei now 5 12,526

pi a n~ siider bearings 28&- 9. 290

swelling f'dtio~ 422

Lame constants 58
press ure/ viscosit y res ult s 453, 454
plane extrusion, rigid-pla stic material 155, 156

L;t ngevin function , in verse see in verse New ton iterati on process 39 1-2
pia ne journal bearing ~

seco nd-o rder nuids 29 2-4

N ew ton- Raphson method 390, 39 1, 392- 3

Langevin laws
thrce-dime nsiona l 312-13
geo metry 295

LBB condition 387

no n-amne derormation assumption 250-2
lubrication 294-5

two-dimensio na l geometry 287

non - linear spring ca lculati o ns 238

Leonov model
viscoelastic nuids 292
planc slider bearings, lubricat;.o" studi es

no n-Ne wtonian fluids j 45

extrus ion process 42 7

viscosity as runctio n or position 318
288-9, 290

molten polymers 178, 180, 184, 259-60, 262

o bserved erreCts 5-7

lubri c~ tion - t ype theo ry 153

PL (Power-Law) schemc, ror structured mes h

Leslie coefficients 277

time-independent 14-19
sys tems 379, 380

Leslie- Ericksen theory, liquid crystals 277

non-simple fluid s 161
Poiseuille flows 94-102, 191

Leveque approximation 473 , 475

mass conservalion , rormul as see conservalion no n- spherica l panicles 273-5
in channel 255--{)

lin ea r c reep compliance 24-6, 25

o r mass, rormulas
shape ractors 274
end errects 99- 100

linear elastic behaviour, constitutive equations

ma te rial objectivity principle 52-4
normal stress dirrerences, experimental results
polyacrylamide solutions 513

57-8
max imum drag-reduction asym pt o tc (MDRA)
125
cxperimental dat a 13 1

line ar low-density polye thylene (LLDPE)

533- 4
Nusselt numbers 471 , 473 , 473, 474
polye thylene melts

shark skin erreCt 523

Maxwell flu id 64
example 65, 66

slip velocity 137

co nstilUti ve equations 62-3
Oldroyd models 157-9
lOW-density, experimcntal data I 19-29

linea r stress relaxation 169, 170

e ntry/ exit losses 414
-B type 159, 160--1, 402-3
pOl y(ethylene oxide) chain , model 204

experimental results 119, 120, 121

lubrication flow s 299
Couette now zero-inertial case 513
poly(ethylenc tc rephthalate) (PET) fibre ,

modulus 24-6, 25
mechanica l model 26, 27, 157
creeping flow 396
processing variables 345, 347

linear viscoelastic behavi o ur

model see upper convected M axwell mo del
for elastic instabilities 512,5 14,5 18
polyisobutylene

Boltzmann studies 4
(UCM)
flow near corners 406--7
double step shear response 179

constitutive equations 58--<i0

slfess history 174-5
Renardy dilemma 390
dynamic viscosity 3 17

sinuso idal 60-4

Ma xweli liquid 64 , 73
solvent viscosity 390
experimental data 130, 13 1,131, 132

linear viscoelastic bo undary-value problems 66

constitutive equations 64
constitutive equations 335
shearing n ow stresses 463

quasi-static 67-71
melt rracture 7, 9
Rayleigh problem 335
viscosity runction 86

sinuso idal oscilia tion 7 1

instabilit y 523-4
Oldroyd type liquids, Co uelle fl ows 50 I
po lymer nuid s now )

wa ve propaga tio n 72-4

melt ~ pinning process 345, 345
Onsager relationships 277
constitutive relations 278, 279

linear vi scoelastic materi als

Michell thru st bearing 288
open channel me thods , ro r viscometric flo ws
direct simulation 439--41

data fitting 64-5

models, development 12- 13
107-9
polymeric stress ten sor, Acierno model 236--7
 556 INDEX INDEX 557

poiymer melts modified 259, 427

rigid particle microstructureS 265
shift factors 464

deformation behaviour 168

non-affrne 250-2
fibre susnensions 27>-6
polymer 457-9, 457

elongational flows I 13
Poiseuille flow in a channel 255-6
particle geometry effects 273
short bearing theory

rJ,icfostii.iclure theor:es 242

response in squeezing flow 326-7
suspensions of spheres see sphere
friction and Sommerfeld number 316

thermal conductivity 467-8, 467, 468

stick-slip corner and edge problems 410,
suspem.ioDs geometry 314

viscosity and molecular weights 243

411,412
rigid-plastic material inelastic' 316

polymer moIecuks
swelling.ratio .429. .
limit 15>-7 Newtonian 313-15

chain models 205

and temperature variations 462
mO'del 14'7, -149- 50 vjscoelastic 316

in dilute ,olution 209-16

pure shearing see two-dimensional c1ongational rigid regions, in nows 152-4
Sieder- Tat~ 'c orrection factors 41'S

distribution function for lenglh 207

fidd Rivlin-Ericksen exnansions 161-4, 181
silicone (silly) pully 22, 113

dynamics in dilute extensional flow 241-2

PYA latex, experimental results 148,149,150 behaviour in un;teady sllearing mol ions
simple !luids 16;

mean end-lo-end lei1gth 205--6 164-5

simple shearing flows 5,5

structure 203-4, 205

objectiveness 54
kinematics 56

tension in chain 208

QUICK scheme, for structured mesh systems
Rivlin-Ericksen tensors 44, 496, 543
lemperature effects 00 nows 476-9

) polymers
379
firs t 44-5,58 , 183
singular points of now 404

amorphous 455- 6
second 45, 158
numerical results 407-12

critical temperatures 456

rod-climbing effect see Weissenberg effect
sink nows 340-5, 341, 343, 344

density data 466

radiation transfer 448
roll coating 310,311--12,311
sinusoidal linear viscoelastic behaviour 6{}-4,

drag-reducing fluids 531-·6, 5.?2, 533

random-vector molecular model 206
Rouse relaxation time 263
479

glassy 468
Rayleigh number, in stable nows 500, 50 I
Rouse theory see bead-spring theory
phase shift 61

semi-crystalline 455-6
Rayleigh problem 72, 333, 334-5, 335
rubber elasticity theory 243-4
skew rectilinear viscometric nows 80, 81-2, 88,

shift factors 457-8, 457

reaction-rate concept, viscositY variations rubber-like behaviour 168, 172, 173, 451
93-4,313

polymer solutions
451
wall slip 133
slope increment, drag-reduction 535

behaviour in vi"cometric flows 85- 7

recoil experiments 173-5,174
runaway see thermal runaway
Society of Rheology 4

exper:mC!Ha; date.! 129-31

fe-entrant corners see salient corners Runge--K!!!la-·Gill inlegratioo melhod 355,
solid, deflllition 20- 1, 23

hydrodynamic forces 209-11

Reiner-Rivlin nuid model 144-5, 146, 259
363
solution viscosity 2; 2

polystyrcl;e, s pinning experiments 355

rchaiye deformation g!"C!uic.!)i 43
solvent viscosity 212

poiyvinyi t:hiul idt r('}ilx;,\linn ) single-step 253

source flows 340-5

example 6>-6,67,68,69
relaxation modulus 458, 460
saiienl COrners 4ij) sp('~i::tli~l journals 5

viscosity data 464

relaxation spectrum 63
secondary nows 190- I, 191
specilic heat 467, 467, 468

potential flows, steady 216

relaxation limes second normal stress differences 132, 133
spectral methods, field discrctization scheme

) Powell- Eyring equation 18

mean 25
second-order flows 5, 292-4, 545
388-9

power, law fluids

mUltiple 218-19
constitutive equations 182-5
sphere now

) behaviour 146
fc(;oii alief elongalioi1 174, 174
round corners 406
drag factor/coefficient 398, 399, 400, 403

calendaring 307, 3118

Rouse 263
self-heating shearing now 470, 477
craeei of tempcf3ture 481

) in circular tube 97- 8, 98

Renardy dilemma 390
semi-cry stalline polymers 455-6
problems 402

flat plate flow 474-5

response functions, in viscoelastic materials
sensitivity 519
in a tube 397-402

') Hele- Shaw flow 319- 20

23-6
separation poilits 404, 405- 6
sphere suspensions 265-72, 269

parameters 18
retardalion time spectrum 63
sharkskin phenomenon 523, 524
constilutive model 272

) in square duct 371,-388

turbulent flow 530-1

Reynolds equation 313

genera lized 3 18

shear non-Newtonian effecls 268

shear velocily dependence 270

cessalion effect 112

) viscosity 17

Prandtl number 18,471,498.500

Reynolds numbers

Couellt e now 507

deformation in Mooney material 168

material behaviour IJ-14

viscosity formulae 267

viscosity-shear rate data 270

pressure critical 512

in parallel nows 512-·J3
spherical coordinate systems, formulas 548

) effects on flows 469

eccentric disc nows 197
Pipkin's classification diagram 111-12, lJ3
spinneret conditions 349-50

effects on viscosity 453-4

extrusion process problem 421
recoverable 523
spinning dala 469, 470

) pressure-hole errors 101 , 18>-90. 188

and friction factor 528
in stcady nows 5-6
experiments 114, 116

flow formulas 189-90

modified 531
step 112
see also fIbre spinning

geometry 186
Newtonian jet shapes 423
stress as function of time 15
spring conslant 227

.... pressure-viscosity exponents 453

pressure-hole errors 186, 187
in time-independent non-Newtonian nuids
spring constants, molecular 242

) pseudo-piastic fluids see shear-thinning fluids for small molecules 210

14-19
spring-dash pot models

P1T models 252, 390

for sphere suspensions 265
unsteady see unsteady shear flows
alternative forms 64

9-mode 259
using solvent viscosity 531
in unsteady nows see unsteady shear nows
for viscoelastic materials 2fr-7, 26

affrne 252-6, 309

Reynolds stresses 525
in viscoelastic malerials 20-9
spring laws 209,210, 241-2

steady elongation 254-6, 255

Reynolds transpon theorem 47, 47-9
viscosity experimenlal results 124
square tubes, flow pallerns 191

steady shearing 253-4, 255

rheometer, eccentric disc 195-8
shear-rate-dependent viscosity 5, 85
squceze film now 153, 320

experimental data 257, 25 7, 259

rheopexy 14
shear relaxation modulus 120
experimental evidence 324

extrusion process 428

Richardson extrapolation, convergence rate
shear-thiCkening nuids IS , 16, 19
geometry 320

now near corners 407

393
shear-thinning nuids 5,6, !5, 16,17-19,132
inelastic nuids 322

)
)
1
 559
558 INDEX INDEX

squeeze 111m flow (ConI.)

use of Oldroyd-B model 522
stick-slip comer and edge problems 410,
steady shear 25, 116

load capacity 324

use of UCM model 522
411,412
zCio-shear 1 j 9. 229

Newtonian solution 321-2

vortex field 492, 495
velocity boundary layer formation 327
viscous l1uid

p ure action 325

Taylor numbers 507-11,509,510 velocity field 7-8
equation 72

unsteady overshoot action 325-7,328,329

temperature effects on flows 469-71
velocity gradient 42
mechanical model 26

viscoelastic effects J22-4 in circular tube 471-4

formulas 543-4
Vogel equalion 452 0

Squire'S theorem 521

in a cooling rod 481-3
velocity profiles, drag-reduction efrecls 528,
von Karman constant 527,5 3

stability see flow stability

extrudate sweli 483
- 53~-2·, .)-3-3, -534-5'
von Mises crilerion ' 1-51

SHtbilily-coefficients-508- .
on Hat plaieS47~
velocity streamlines see streamlines
VOrlicily tensor 42, 544

steady-state isothermal theory, inelastic fluids

round a sphere 481
viscoelastic fluids

odel 175, 264

347-50 , 350
simple shearing fiows 476-9
boundary condition flows 389-90, 389
Wagner's irreversible network III

step shear strain 21, 280

thermal runaway 479-· 80
creep 22- 3
double-step resporise 116--81

s tick-slip problem tensor opera tions

definition 20-9
modified 177,178

Newtonian 407-9,408,410 formulas 544-5

effects in spinning 351 , 521
wall slip 133-5

PTT model 410,412 isotropic functions 39-40

libre suspension 273
critical waH shear Stress 138 ~8
UCM model 410,41 1,412 thermal conductivity 467- 9,467, 468
instabilities 513
effect of wall conditions 136­
Stokes's law of resistance 210
thermal diffusivity 468
linear behaviour 58-64
key factors 136

storage modulus 60
thermal runaway, viscoelaslic slab 479-80
non-linear behaviour 4, 74
length scales 135-6

experimental results 121,122

thermodynamic pressure 449
properties 22
slip speed 136, 137
l
strain, recoverable 176
thixotropy 14
response functions 23-6
Uhland's analysis 138-9

strain tensor 43-4

thrust bearings, lubrication 288-9
spring-dash pOI models 26-7
Walther equation 451 4 154
,)
Cauchy-Grcen 43
time-dependent studies, experimental results
stress relaxa lion 20-2
WallOn- Bittleson flow 153, 15 ,

Finger 448
125
superposition 27-9
Warner-Fan calculations 23 0 733
241

formulas 547
time-independent non-Newlonian fluid s,
viscoelastic slab, Ihermal runaway 479-80
Warner spring 209, 227,22 8 , - '

streamlines 41 , 389
shear 14-19
viscometers
weak flow 221-4, 225.227

5t ress
iitll~-iemperature shifti-ng 458·-61, 46U commerci~l1 types 102

Weber number 112 .

cOr!cep! :!'! c on !int~:..;i,; mechai1ics 33-40

non-iinear materials 462- 5
Couette type 101
w~b-strelching operat jon 35 1

lIelds in viscomet ric flows R7-R

time-truiisla;:;"n-inv<triant Je~ ~t.I!! :>~ 27
paraiiei-pialc 90, 100
Weissen herg
notation definition 35-6, 35
torsional flows 192-5 ,5 15.516
'!is~o:netric nows
hypothesis 190 104 , 108

3iress--per,urbaiion matrices 506

viscomelric 90-2
al walls 406
rod-climbing effect 5, 6, 10J·

stress relaxation 458, 460

traclion vector 34,35
constitUlive equation 163, 183
symmetry arguments 74 , 85

after cessation of flow 126

Troulon viscosity see elongational viscosit y controllable 83-9
33

wall slip capillary analysis 1 _ 6

integral 28-9
Iube losses, exil/entry 415
deformation history 84
Weissenberg numbers 112, '},'}, 5

in viscoelastic materials 20-2,23

turbulent flows 531
experimental data 118
fibre spinning 354-5

Stress relaxation modulus 170

boundary !.ye~ 332
helical 83, 83
in film-blowing 362, 363

stress tensor 33- 5

bursts 532-3
helicoidal 83, 88, 90
flow resislance funclion 396

invariants 37-8
see also drag-reducing fluids
kinemalics 79-80,80,81,83-4
and inslabililies 513

isotropic function 39-40

two-dimensional elongational licld 220- 1
nearly 286
lubrication flows 297, 298

in polymer solutions 215-16

lests 118
open-channel 107- 9
transienl shear flow 230
Jl1be r problem
properties 36-8
partially-controllable 92--3
see also high Weissenberg CJ \.I

stress vector see traction vector Poiseuille 94--101

(HWNP) 515,516

strip biaxial extension see two-dimensional Uebler effect 7

polymer solutions behaviour 85- 7
Weissenberg Rheogoniometef" 257

elongational field
Uhland's analysis of slip 138- 9, 139
response in viscomelric fluids 165
White-Tokila model 176,25 7 ,) shift factor

strong flow 221-4,225 ,227

unsteady shear flows 109- 11
skew reclilinear 81-2, 88, 93-4
Williams-Landel-Ferry (WLf'"

Styron 666, bubble shapes 365

sinusoidal strain-rate 111
steady circular 82, 88
456-8,457,460, 461

SUD (Skew Upwind Differencing) scheme, for

squeeze films see squeeze IIlms
steadyelongational 165
Williamson equation 18

structured mesh systems 379

strain-rate imposition 111
sleady parallel 80-1, 88

Superclay 270, 271

transient responses 6
Slresses 84--5

. e decrease 51 I

surface force 34
upper convected Maxwell (UCM) model 159,
stress lields 87-8
xanthan gum solulions, cell st;Z

swelling mechanisms 432-6, 433

160, 217,232 , 247
lorsjonal 90-2
~ory 242, 244

swelling ratios 421,427,428.429, 430

computation procedures 397-402
unsteady shearing 109-11
Yamamoto-Lodge network ~ p

Newtonian 425
CoueHe 110w zero-inertial case 513
using Weissenberg Rheogoniometer 296
Yasuda modei 18 _ g 365-6

using short dies 43 j

creeping flow 396
. visco plastic flow 157. yielding process, in film bloWJ.j 50

Swift condition 302, 303

cylindrical coordinates 545, 546
viscosity yield stress 146, 147, 148-52.

for elastic il1slabilities 512

experimenlal results 86, 122-4, 123

equation 544-5
function delinilion 17,86,86,91,266
zero-order flow see Euler flovV

Taylor-Couelle flow 501, 504

flow near corners 406-7
intrinsic 212
zero shear viscosity 229

experiments 512
lu brica lion flows 299
pressure- and lemperature-induced variation
experimental results 119

stability criterion 522

response 219-21
451-3 , 452
Zimm spectrum 219, 247