Ir1034 Exc12

Examiners’ commentaries 2012

IR1034 World history since 1917
Important note
This commentary reflects the examination and assessment arrangements
for this course in the academic year 2011–12. The format and structure
of the examination may change in future years, and any such changes
will be publicised on the virtual learning environment (VLE).
Information about the subject guide

The subject guide for this course has been substantially revised for
2012–13 and the course renamed: World history since 1945. Some
content of the Examiners’ commentaries written prior to this revision may
no longer be relevant to the current syllabus or no longer covered in
the subject guide. You are advised to check the syllabus for the current
academic year published in the Regulations. The most useful primary
textbook is International relations since 1945: a global history and a new
edition will be available in 2013.
All current students should refer to the 2012–13 syllabus and to the
2012 subject guide.
General remarks
History needs to be seen as a key subject in promoting an understanding
of the world and, most importantly, in encouraging the development of
an ability to think. This is important in life after university and in most
jobs, few of which will ever require specific detailed knowledge of any
academic non-vocational subject. Candidates should look on this course
less as a means of amassing information and more as a means of learning
to think about the world more effectively.
Reading
The key to any university subject is reading, particularly for International
Programmes students now that more material is available online.
Developing an ability to read effectively is crucial in the learning process,
and the provision of the subject guides is only a small part of this learning
process, as is an ability to take notes from reading effectively. It is vital
that candidates engage as much as possible with the learning experience
and accustom themselves to asking the sort of questions outlined
in the subject guide when reading. These skills are more difficult to
acquire without regular input and the expression of different ideas and
interpretations, but certain guidelines are important here.
• Do not expect knowledge to enter your mind automatically if you read
an essential or recommended book. If you are reading without thinking
and without asking yourself questions you will gain much less.
• Do not worry about what you might miss. Nobody knows everything.
The issue is whether you will be able to think about important issues
and make the most of the information you have, however small it
might seem at the start of your studies.
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• You must ask yourself the question of what it is you want to get from
a book (i.e. what is it you need to understand or find out about). The
quality of your input and the questions of a thoughtful and inquisitive
intellect are crucial to maximising the benefit of what you get out of
this course.
• Some general questions (for example, the causes and consequences of
particular events) are important and common sense should make some
of them obvious.
• In your reading you must always think in historical terms about
the implications of facts and information. You should never simply just
memorise the facts and information themselves.
• You should be aware that different questions may require different
parts of different books and that there are no short texts which can
provide you with just the important information.
• Part of the learning process is learning how to approach and develop
the learning experience, which means more than reading what you are
told.
• The broader the coverage in terms of chronology and geographical
area, the less information and analysis will be provided in terms of
particular topics and countries. Hence in a course as broad as this it is
important to try and read more detailed works if you want to obtain
more specific knowledge.
• Single chapters of books never provide definitive answers nor what can
be sensibly regarded as the essential reading in such a vast subject.
• Reading and learning should be regarded as lifelong processes, which
never end at any particular level or sum of knowledge.
• In a vast subject like world history it is never a question of being able
to reduce material to small and manageable packages which must be
absorbed in order to conclude the learning process. You are engaged in
a process, the outcomes of which only provide a foothold on the ladder
of learning how to deal with information and evaluate its implications.
And the process is never-ending as everyone, however knowledgeable
at whatever level, has more to learn.
Key points
Argument
Answers to historical questions require a clear and concise argument.
Hence it is important and easiest to decide initially what your argument
should be. That means, for example, in questions which ask ‘why’,
determining which reasons primarily, but not exclusively, were the more
important. Having a clear view of what you should be arguing can be
very important in ensuring that you answer the question coherently and
effectively.
Interpretation
History is all about interpreting the evidence to provide a particular
explanation. No interpretation is correct or incorrect and academics
have strong disagreements about the interpretation of events. You are
tested not on what you know but on how you can use what you know
in providing a coherent argument with the effective use of evidence in
answering the particular question.
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Judgement
As in the real world, your own judgements will often be crucial. The
emphasis on your judgements and your input forms one key difference
between school and university. At school, everything is packaged so that
you can ‘learn’ a finite amount of material and a fixed interpretation.
At university you get guidance to assist you in thinking so that you can
make judgements on what is important and how it should be interpreted.
This is a process of thinking that has to be carried out in many jobs and
successful careers where your input and ability is important. A lifelong
learning process which is infinite cannot be simply packaged into specific
things which ‘have to be done’. You will become better acquainted with
the learning process, especially with learning to ‘think’ by studying a
course like this. Yet, as with all such study, reading and thinking about
the consequences of what you read and the significance of the author’s
interpretation for other interpretations and your own understanding is
always crucial.
Points to avoid
When you set out to learn a topic (e.g. the development of the Cold War
1944–47) you need to be aware that the question will require you to
exclude points about the Cold War that are not relevant to that particular
question and the approach it requires in the time period that it is focused
on. Examiners will usually penalise candidates who have memorised
information about a particular topic but are unable to differentiate
between what is needed in one particular question from the information
that is not needed because it is not relevant to that question.
You will therefore need to ensure that your answer does not include
events outside the particular time period mentioned in the question.
Glossary
Analysis is one word that is frequently mentioned. Analysis means
explaining how and why something happened as opposed to simply
stating that it did.
Narrative means simply describing what happened in a chronological
order. It can be necessary but in historical terms this is rarely more
important than analysis.
Steps to improvement
More reading of books which are not listed in the subject guide will be
of great value as long as you are asking yourself questions and selecting
the chapters which seem to be able to provide answers to your questions.
If you are doing that alongside exercising judgements about what is
significant, even if you have very limited prior knowledge, it will be
enormously helpful to you.
Make sure that you focus on the question in constructing your answer and
ensure that a direct answer is made clear in the conclusion.
Get into the habit of planning answers in terms of the points which you
believe should be made to illustrate the argument that you should already
have decided upon right at the start.
In the examination you do not need to spend much time planning
everything in detail before you start writing as you may do when practising
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examination questions. It will save time if you can initially select one or
two critical points to include while thinking about the question, and then
decide during the course of writing what other points you then need to
add. This gives you the advantage of making these decisions with the
knowledge of what you have already written and of what you have already
used to form the argument needed to answer the question within the given
time.
Question spotting
Many candidates are disappointed to find that their examination
performance is poorer than they expected. This can be due to a number
of different reasons and the Examiners’ commentaries suggest ways
of addressing common problems and improving your performance.
We want to draw your attention to one particular failing – ‘question
spotting’, that is, confining your examination preparation to a few
question topics which have come up in past papers for the course. This
can have very serious consequences.
We recognise that candidates may not cover all topics in the syllabus in
the same depth, but you need to be aware that Examiners are free to
set questions on any aspect of the syllabus. This means that you need
to study enough of the syllabus to enable you to answer the required
number of examination questions.
The syllabus can be found in the Course information sheet in the section
of the VLE dedicated to this course. You should read the syllabus very
carefully and ensure that you cover sufficient material in preparation for
the examination.
Examiners will vary the topics and questions from year to year and may
well set questions that have not appeared in past papers – every topic on
the syllabus is a legitimate examination target. So although past papers
can be helpful in revision, you cannot assume that topics or specific
questions that have come up in past examinations will occur again.
If you rely on a question spotting strategy, it is likely you
will find yourself in difficulties when you sit the examination
paper. We strongly advise you not to adopt this strategy.
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IR1034 World history since 1917 – Zone A
Important note

2012 subject guide.
Comments on specific questions

Candidates should answer FOUR of the following TWENTY questions.
All questions carry equal marks.
Question 1
To what extent did US foreign policy change with the election of President
Roosevelt?
Reading for this question
Dallek, R. Franklin D. Roosevelt and American foreign policy 1932–45. (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1995) [ISBN 9780195024579] Parts 1–3.
Approaching the question
To provide a good answer to this question it is necessary to identify what,
if anything, constituted a change in US policy that might have resulted
from Roosevelt coming to the White House. Thus you might identify
particular events such as the economic or disarmament initiatives or
general policies embodied in his attempt to lessen American aloofness
from international problems; or provide a greater emphasis on European,
Latin American or Asian affairs to signify a change by describing the
differences in policy at particular times. Or you might argue that there
was no change until 1937 in the second administration as, before that,
the focus was on economic affairs and the Depression. In order to select
the argument and provide material to support it, a knowledge of specific
events associated with the London Economic Conference and/or the Latin
American good neighbour policy and the Neutrality Act is needed for the
best answers.
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Question 2
‘Japan’s economic rise was the main source of international instability 1921–
1933.’ Discuss.
Barnhart, M. Japan prepares for total war: the search for economic security 1914–
1941. (Ithaca, NY; London: Cornell University Press, 1988)
[ISBN 9780801495298].
Storry, G.R. Japan and the decline of the West in Asia, 1894–1943. (London:
Macmillan, 1979) [ISBN 9780333005873] Chapters 7–9.
To answer this question well it is necessary to understand what factors
produced international stability and to provide an evaluation of how
Japan’s economic rise contributed to them. An introductory analysis of
the international political or economic problems of the inter-war years
will be useful. Then, an explanation is required of the relative importance
of economic, political or military factors in Japan’s rise to power in
undermining that stability after 1920. Candidates should be aware of
the way the Japanese military were enabled to play a greater political
role in governmental institutions in the inter-war years. The important
economic influences which provided pressure for expansion given the
economic constraints experienced by Japan in the 1920s and 1930s
should be analysed as undermining stability. Finally, candidates should
evaluate whether Japan’s growing economic power, through its industrial
growth, constituted an inevitable challenge to the stability of the existing
international climate. The best answers will interpret these factors in
ways which give effect to a convincing argument on the consequences of
Japan’s economic rise.
Question 3
Did the Balfour Doctrine make the creation of an independent Palestinian state
in the inter-war years impossible?
Tessler, Mark A history of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. (Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 2009) second edition [ISBN 9780253220707] Parts I and II.
To answer effectively, candidates should focus more on what factors led
to the creation of an independent Palestinian state than on describing
or analysing the Balfour Doctrine except for those parts of it, and their
subsequent implementation, that produced a Palestinian state or made
its production impossible. The answer must examine whether Palestinian
nation building was significantly hampered by the British obligations
to the Jews as formulated in the Balfour Doctrine. And, in the best
answers, whether this hampering was due to the Balfour Doctrine or to
other factors such as the inadequate state institutions put in place by the
Palestinians, or Jewish immigration into Palestine and the employment
practices of Jewish land purchasers.
Question 4
To what extent did Chiang Kai Chek’s attempts to unify China contribute to his
failure to win the Chinese Civil War?
Eastman, L. Seeds of destruction: nationalist China in war and revolution, 1937–
1949. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002) [ISBN 9780804741866]
Chapters 6–7.
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Eastman, L. et al. The nationalist era in China, 1927–1949. (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1991) [ISBN 9780521385916] Chapters 1–4.
The best answers to this question will begin by providing an introductory
overview of what Chiang Kai Chek’s attempts to unify China consisted of.
Then they will analyse these attempts in more detail and their benefits
and disadvantages in the Chinese quest for victory in the civil war. The
consequences of developing the military strategies and economic policies
that went with the important political ideologies of the two movements
have to be evaluated in terms of whether the nationalist cause was
weakened by them. In particular their effect on a largely peasant Chinese
society which contributed, or failed to contribute, to Chinese unity have
to be analysed. Finally, reference must be made to factors largely outside
Chiang Kai Chek’s control such as the communist contribution to Chinese
unity and the way in which external factors such as intervention by the USA
and the Soviet Union may have contributed to Chiang Kai Chek’s failure.
Question 5
In what ways were the failures to agree on important terms for the post-war
settlement in 1945 responsible for the emerging international tensions in 1946?
Young, John W. and John Kent International relations since 1945: a global history.
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) [ISBN 9780198781646] Chapters
1A–1D.
Good answers will essentially use knowledge of the conferences at Yalta,
Potsdam and the Councils of Foreign Ministers in London and Moscow
as the basis for building an explanation of the growing tensions in 1946.
It will be necessary to identify those points where agreement could not
be reached or discussions were postponed, and those issues which gave
rise to more disagreements the following year, notably Germany. More
importantly it will also be necessary to explain the reasons why the
failures occurred over the issues they did, including, in particular, the fate
of the Italian Mediterranean colonies and the nature of the Romanian and
Bulgarian governments. The best answers will also indicate and evaluate
the general contrasting approaches to the peace, including the issue
of spheres of influence or the insistence on their lack, as factors in the
growing disagreement that was revealed in discussions of the terms of the
peace traties in 1945 and 1946.
Question 6
‘The Cold War began in 1948.’ Discuss.
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) [ISBN 9780198781646] Parts I, II and
III.
This question depends on an ability to discuss in analytical terms, and
go on to justify, the argument put forward about the importance of one
particular cause of the Cold War. The date at which what is deemed to
be the moment when that cause or causes of it were clearly evident, will
be a crucial component of the argument. There is no date which is self-
evidently more important than another, and therefore all will depend on
a broad knowledge of the multiple causes and an ability to justify why
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a particular cause was part of a more general pattern featuring power

politics, economics or ideology. In other words, what is being tested is
not simply descriptive knowledge of information on the Cold War but an
ability to consider important Cold War events and write about them in an
analytically comparative way. It is necessary for candidates to combine
their general ideas on the Cold War with an analytical explanation that
uses specific knowledge, of particular events, especially those of 1948,
in ways which will support the general ideas and argument on why and
when the Cold War began.
Question 7
Analyse how and why the Eisenhower administration was able to avoid Soviet-
American armed conflict.
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) [ISBN 9780198781646] Chapters 6B
and 7A and B.
Good answers to this question will display knowledge of Eisenhower’s
disarmament polices and other possible explanations of why armed
conflict was avoided. Thus a comparative analysis should be provided to
explain the extent to which they were produced by a desire to avoid the
Cold War becoming a ‘hot war’ involving nuclear weapons given the risks
perceived by the Americans; or whether disarmament was something
to convince the US public that the administration was seeking to avoid
a nuclear holocaust and the real reason was the success of deterrent
policies. Therefore a knowledge of policies such as the New Look and
Massive Retaliation will be needed which will require knowledge of
deterrent strategy; or the argument can be focused on Soviet weakness
and its relative lack of nuclear capability combined with a commitment to
peaceful co-existence, which may have done more to ensure that armed
Soviet-US conflict did not occur.
Question 8
To what extent did Sino-Soviet disagreements over the conduct of the Cold War
in Asia contribute to the Sino-Soviet split?
Ellison, H. (ed.) The Sino-Soviet conflict: a global perspective. (Seattle: University of
Washington Press, 1981) [ISBN 9780295958545].
Zubok, V. and C. Pleshakov Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War. (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1996) [ISBN 9780674455313] Chapter 7.
To answer this question effectively a general knowledge of the Sino-
Soviet split and the analyses of the factors which contributed to it will
be needed. The general causes as defined by ideology and personality
have to be combined with a more detailed knowledge of particular points
of disagreements in Asia – notably the Offshore Islands crises of 1955
and 1958 and, to a lesser extent, the Sino-Indian War. The importance
of power rivalries in Asia for Moscow and Beijing, as compared to the
particular strategies of dealing with the USA, in the Cold War, should be
compared for importance. The disagreements and causal analysis can be
defined in general ideological or power political terms but if the latter is
deemed to be important then special attention in good answers must be
given to the specific Asian disagreements.
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Question 9
‘Neutralism and the non-alignment movement were irrelevant in the 1950s and
60s.’ Discuss.
Brands, H.W. The specter of neutralism: the United States and the emergence of the
Third World, 1947–1960. (New York; Oxford: Colombia University Press, 1989)
[ISBN 9780231071680].
Good answers to this question will distinguish between the aims of
neutralism and non-alignment by clearly explaining their nature and
origins. It will be important in such answers also to be clear on the aims
and impact of neutralism and non-alignment. Their relevance in the 1950s
and 1960s should be analysed in relation to how the movements gained
support in the international system, particularly in the United Nations,
the Organisation of African Unity and at the Non-Aligned Conference, and
were then able to have an impact on international politics. One key factor
in their relevance will be their relative importance compared to other
international and regional organisations in the different global regions
especially Asia and Africa.
Question 10
‘The Suez War ended the British presence in the Middle East and made the Arab-
Israeli problem a Cold War conflict.’ Discuss.
Shlaim, A. The iron wall: Israel and the Arab world. (London: Allen Lane, 2001)
[ISBN 9780140288704] Chapter 4.
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) [ISBN 9780198781646] Chapter 8C.
The best answers to this question will be able to explain the importance
of the Middle East for the British and how that presence was perceived.
They will then explain what was ended by Suez in terms of the elements
that constituted that presence. An explanation of whether that presence
depended on political influence over some reactionary regimes and how
it might have been lost will be needed. If it is argued that the presence
was lost before Suez, good answers will explain this and the reasons for
it. They will then examine the military presence as it was reflected in
base rights, treaty arrangements and overflying rights. If it was argued
that it was lost at Suez, some explanations will be required as to why this
was so, or if it is argued it ended after Suez, again an explanation will
be required. The argument can either be constructed around accepting
or rejecting the idea that Suez resulted in the end of the British Middle
Eastern presence, or by distinguishing those elements which were lost or
retained at particular times.
Question 11
Why was the secession of Katanga eventually unsuccessful?
Reading for this question:
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) [ISBN 9780198781646] Chapter 8B.
Good answers will analyse all the elements which influenced the
unsuccessful Katangan secession after introducing what was at stake in
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domestic terms and the connections with the international pressures. A

similar framework could provide the means for the rest of a good answer.
Domestically there were the divisions within the Katangan secessionist
movement, but externally the pressures to end secession were far more
significant. Good answers will explain these pressures that emanated from
the role of the UN and its armed forces in trying to implement UN Security
Council resolutions. They will also analyse in what ways US support for
the UN also helped to pressure Tshombe voluntarily to end secession with
the Kitona agreement and then to pressure Tshombe to implement it. The
best answers will also refer to the African pressures to end secession and
the way in which Belgian support handicapped Tshombe’s efforts to resist
UN and US opposition to the continuance of secession.
Question 12
To what extent was Khrushchev’s foreign policy after 1960 a reaction to the
superior economic and military strength of the United States under Kennedy?
Taubmann, William Khrushchev. (New York; London: W.W. Norton and Co, 2004)
reprint edition [ISBN 0393324842] Chapters 15–20.
The best answers to this question will focus on the Berlin and Cuban
issues and the reasons for Khrushchev deciding to challenge the USA in
these two areas. An important influence was the domestic situation that
Khrushchev found himself in. An analysis of the ways in which his foreign
policy had to appear to be producing dividends for the Soviet Union in
the way that successes were achieved against the capitalist imperialist
West will be useful. The hardliners’ opposition to Khrushchev’s challenges
to Stalinism and its foreign policy had to be countered by making the
Soviet Union appear more powerful than it was, relative to the USA. Good
answers will evaluate the extent to which Cuba and Berlin developed
because of Khrushchev’s domestic need to avoid being portrayed as
weaker than the USA in economic terms by using bluster and the secret
installation of missiles in Cuba to try and conceal this weakness that was
having a significant domestic effect.
Question 13
To what extent was the 1967 Six Day War a turning point in the Arab-Israeli
conflict?
[ISBN 9780140288704] Chapter 6.
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) [ISBN 9780198781646] Chapter 11D.
Good answers to this question will require a sound overall knowledge
of the Arab-Israeli conflict and the ability to analyse the key issues in
the dispute. An awareness of land, refugees and the means to secure the
triumph of the Arab or the Israeli view will be needed. These constituent
elements of the conflict have to be linked in the main body of the essay
to an analysis of the best means by which each side believed their goals
could be achieved. In the best answers the changes that occurred to the
means of gaining success in these areas as a result of the Six Day War
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and the overwhelming Israeli victory will be analysed including the

UN resolution which tried to provide a basis for a settlement. The very
important impact on Palestinian movements of the Israeli defeat and
another failure of the Arab states to protect fundamental Palestinian
interests should be given particular attention.
Question 14
Was the United States successful in producing stability in Latin America between
1961 and 1976? Answer with particular reference to at least one Latin American
country.
Rabe, S.G The most dangerous area in the world: John F. Kennedy confronts
revolution in Latin America. (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina
Press, 1999) [ISBN 9780807847640].
In order to provide a good answer to this question, candidates will have
to have a detailed knowledge of US policy towards two countries either
in south or central America. It will be necessary to examine the quest for
stability under Kennedy, through to Nixon and Kissinger and the political,
‘security’ and economic elements producing that stability. Good answers
will be able to identify the different priorities that were evident at the
different time periods from the Alliance for Progress through to Nixon’s
different emphasis on stability as they developed in at least two countries.
US acceptance of the kind of political stability provided by dictators
through the security that accompanied repressive political systems and
prevented American economic interests from being threatened will need
to be explained. Good answers should place more emphasis than normal
on analysis rather than description.
Question 15
Why was Castro successful in seizing power by December 1959 and alienating
the US by the beginning of 1961?
Pérez-Stable, Marifeli The Cuban Revolution: origins, course and legacy. (Oxford:
Oxford University Press 2011) [ISBN 9780195367089] Chapter 3.
Good answers to this question will be able to analyse both how and why
Castro was able to achieve power through the revolution that overthrew
Batista and how and why the USA was alienated by Castro’s actions
after gaining power. It will therefore be necessary to examine Castro’s
revolutionary movement by determining why it gained support, how
broad based that support was and the weaknesses and unpopularity of
the Batista regime. A similar analysis will be required for the actions
taken by the Cuban revolutionary government after assuming power. The
consequences of the moves towards Moscow and the nationalisation of
American enterprises will have to be linked to the reasons why the USA
was alienated from, and thus increased its opposition to, the actions and
ideology of the Castro regime in Cuba. Consideration in the best answers
should also be given to US perceptions of the Cold War impact of the
Castro revolution in Latin America as a reason for its growing alienation.
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Question 16
‘Détente was more successful in allowing the United States to fight the Cold War
than in reducing Cold War tensions.’ Discuss.
12A, 12B, 12C, 13D, 14A, 14D and 14E.
In order to provide a good answer to this question an overall
understanding of the way in which détente was linked to the Cold
War will be more important than the specific reasons that led the USA
to pursue policies of détente. It will be necessary to explain what the
Cold War was about in its important aspects and what the United
States was seeking to achieve and by which methods and policies. Then
good candidates will be able to fit an explanation of détente into that
framework by focusing on the Cold War and the changes that occurred
because of détente which should be focused on US aims. Hence one
argument could be that the USA chose to maintain its superiority in an
increasingly multipolar world by the approach to China and Strategic
Arms Limitation Talks with the Soviet Union. Or, if the Cold War was
assumed to be about ideology, the pursuit of détente by the USA,
was arguably designed simply to encourage the Soviet Union to stop
supporting revolutionary movements in the less developed world and
accept US predominance.
Question 17
What were the prime reasons for the United States losing the Vietnam War?
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) [ISBN 9780198781646] Chapters 10A–D.
Good answers to this question will provide a broad analysis of the military
and political factors which contributed to the US defeat. The military
factors must be assessed in terms of both the tactics employed by the
USA in its strategic bombing raids, that arguably had limited effect, and
by its tactical search and destroy missions, and ability to use its superior
fire power to inflict much greater casualties. The impact of these military
tactics must be assessed in terms of their contribution to support for the
insurgents fighting the war in the South. These military aspects were
not supported by, or linked to, a viable political strategy and this must
be analysed. The other important component of the US defeat will be an
analysis of the importance of the domestic situation in the USA with the
growth of opposition to the war.
Question 18
To what extent did the 1987 Intifada and its aims affect the Arab-Israeli peace
process in the 1990s?
[ISBN 9780140288704] Chapters 11–15.
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Good answers to this question will be based on comprehensive
understandings of the Israeli–Palestinian peace process as the 1990s
began. They will need to analyse how the uprising affected the approaches
of the Israelis, the Palestinians and the Arab states as to their general
desires for peace, or not, and the terms on which it would be acceptable to
them. Specific knowledge of the Madrid Conference and the Oslo accords
will be needed in order to provide an analysis of the obstacles to peace as
well as the contentious issues and whether they were increased or reduced
by the Intifada. A detailed argument as to what had important causal
effects on the process, especially in the 1990s, will be provided in the best
answers.
Question 19
‘The Cold War ended simply because of the political and ideological changes
produced by Mikhail Gorbachev.’ Discuss.
Journal of Cold War Studies 5(1) 2003:
Kramer, Mark ‘The collapse of East European communism and the
repercussions within the Soviet Union’ (Part I).
Tuminez, Astrid S. ‘Nationalism, ethnic pressures, and the breakup of the
Soviet Union’.
Wallander, Celeste A. ‘Western policy and the demise of the Soviet Union’.
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_cold_war_studies/toc/cws5.4.html
repercussions within the Soviet Union’ (Part 2) (2004).
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_cold_war_studies/
v006/6.4kramer02.pdf
repercussions within the Soviet Union’ (Part 3) (2005)
To answer this question it will be necessary to provide a comparative
causal analysis of the events which led up to the end of the Cold War,
and some knowledge will be needed of Gorbachev’s role even if the
argument is going to be that his ideological and political changes were
not that significant. Good answers will be introduced by an explanation
of when the Cold War ended and the general reasons for its end. Then it
will be necessary to compare in analytical, rather than descriptive terms,
Gorbachev’s policies of perestroika and glasnost, and their effects on the
Soviet system dominated by the communist party and the role of the
ideology which underpinned it. These must be compared with the impact
of the external factors emanating from the changes in the Soviet’s Eastern
Europe satellite empire. The ideological consequences of the reforms
on the Soviet Union’s communist party and the institutional effects of
the political changes have to be evaluated. Thus the events and policies
coming from within the Soviet Union and produced by Gorbachev’s
reforms have to be analysed in terms of their impact on the Cold War’s
end, as does the external impact of technology and policies in the West.
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Question 20
To what extent have the two Gulf Wars been caused by competition over the oil
resources of the Persian Gulf?
Good answers simply have to examine the causes of the first two Gulf
Wars with the competition over oil at least featuring to some extent. It
will be necessary to decide, in order to provide an effective argument,
what were the most important causes and then be able to explain why
one or several were particularly important. The strategic significance of
the Gulf, the specific competition between Iraq and Iran and whether
this essentially stemmed from economic reasons connected to oil should
be covered. The importance of oil must be compared with other possible
causes connected to prestige as regional powers or to ideological elements
which can be used to provide credible explanations of one or both wars.
14

IR1034 World history since 1917 – Zone B
Important note

2012 subject guide.
Comments on specific questions
Candidates should answer FOUR of the following TWENTY questions. All questions
carry equal marks.
Question 1
Was the US neutral or isolationist over the growing conflicts in Europe between
1933 and November 1941?
Cole, W. Roosevelt and the isolationists, 1932–1945. (Lincoln: University of
Nebraska Press, 1983) [ISBN 9780803214101] Parts 1 and 2.
Dallek, R. Franklin D. Roosevelt and American foreign policy 1932–45. (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1995) [ISBN 9780195024579] Parts 1–3.
Good answers to this question will explain the concept of neutrality
and then use that to analyse the extent to which it corresponded to
the ideas and actions of US foreign policy makers during the Roosevelt
administration. It will be necessary to indicate whether ‘neutral’ meant
non-involvement with the controversies taking place in the external world,
i.e. isolationism, or having no preference for either the Axis powers or
their opponents in the developing conflicts of the interwar years. In order
to excel, US foreign economic policies and the political and diplomatic
aspects of US policy will also need covering. It will be desirable to have,
and to use, some knowledge of US policy towards Latin America as well as
policies in Asia and Europe.
15
Question 2
In what ways did Japan’s rise after 1918 produce problems for the non-Asian
powers?
Storry, G.R. Japan and the decline of the West in Asia, 1894–1943. (London:
Macmillan, 1979) [ISBN 9780333005873] Chapters 7–9.
In order to answer this question effectively knowledge and awareness will
be required of the impact of the Japanese actions that were taken in the
wake of its growing economy and desires for a greater international role
after the First World War. The consequences for the USA and the European
powers, as the Japanese economy and its desire for raw materials grew,
will need to be assessed with regard to the political and diplomatic
consequences of increased Japanese power. The important implications
of the economic aspects of this for the non-Asian powers have to be given
particular analytical attention. Or it might be argued that there would
have been no problematic effects of Japan’s rise had it not been for the
political system and socio-cultural make up of Japan. Knowledge of the
reactions of the non-Asian powers to Japanese expansion in East and
South East Asia will be needed in order to use this as a foundation upon
which to build an analytical answer.
Question 3
Was the rise of Palestinian nationalism after World War I the main source of
difficulties for the British in Palestine before 1937?
Tessler, Mark A history of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. (Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 2009) second edition [ISBN 9780253220707] Parts I
and II.
Good answers to this question will focus on an analysis of British
difficulties in Palestine from 1918 to 1937. That analysis will assess
whether Palestinian nationalism, Britain’s own policy goals, the policies
of the Zionists, or the individuals purchasing Palestinian land were the
main source of difficulties for the British. The Balfour Doctrine will not be
relevant. A good definition of Palestinian nationalism and its aims will be
required along with considerable knowledge of the different elements that
constituted problems in the form of disturbances in Palestine and their
causes both before the First World War and in the period up to 1937. The
role of the Zionists in causing problems will need considering even if the
initial focus should be on Palestinian nationalism.
Question 4
To what extent were the victories of the US navy the main reason for the Allied
victory in World War II?
Ambrose, S. Rise to globalism: American foreign policy since 1938. (New York:
Penguin, 1985) fourth edition [ISBN 9780140226225] Chapter 3.
Overy, R. Why the Allies won. (New York: W.W. Norton & Co, 1997) reprint edition
[ISBN 9780393316193] Chapter 10.
To provide a good answer to this question an understanding of what
produced the Allied victory in the Second World War will be required
16
in order that an effective argument can be developed in providing a

comparative analysis of the reasons for the Allied victory. It will be
necessary to analyse and compare the importance of the naval victories
in the Pacific with the other military victories on the Eastern and Western
fronts in Europe and North Africa. The best answers will also analyse the
significance of the economic and technological resources of the victorious
powers in producing the outcome of the war.
Question 5
Did foreign intervention determine the outcome of the Chinese Civil War after
World War II?
Eastman, L. Seeds of destruction: nationalist China in war and revolution, 1937–
Chapters 6 and 8.
In order to answer this question well a good understanding of the reasons
why the communists won the Chinese civil war is needed. In order to
use this in providing a good answer there should be particular attention
given to the analysis of the actions of the USA and the Soviet Union. In
assessing their importance in contributing to the communist victories good
answers will need to look at the military and economic aid the USA and
the Soviet Union provided at various points in the war. Knowledge will
also be required of the internal or domestic circumstances that the parties
faced and acted on, in order that an effective analytical comparison can
be provided. The domestic factors in the best answers should include an
analysis of the organisational strengths and weaknesses of the Nationalists
and communists.
Question 6
Do you agree that the Yalta conference divided Europe and was the main reason
for the growing Allied tensions after Roosevelt’s death?
1A–1D.
Good answers to this question require sound knowledge of what was
agreed at Yalta (the protocols of the conference are freely available
online). The protocols should be used to construct an argument about
whether Yalta actually divided Europe or not and, if it did not, to explain
and justify the main reason for the growing tension after Roosevelt’s
death. Whether it was a change in US policy, the attempts to implement
conflicting ideologies, or the determination to protect particular interests
when the Soviets imposed controls on Poland and Romania, while
the British and Americans insisted on dominating the Mediterranean,
East Asia and the Pacific, should be considered. The argument should
cover whether such differences were territorial or economic, involved
ideological principles or specific interests and whether they were related
to particular countries or regions.
17
Question 7
To what extent was the failure to solve the problem of Germany by 1948 the
main cause of the Cold War?
2A–2D.
Good answers to this question will again focus on an analysis rather than
on a description of the events that could be seen as causes of the Cold
War. Good knowledge of the particular economic problems of Germany
that had arisen from its occupation and zonal divisions, and which were
then a consequence of the decisions, or the postponement of decisions,
at Yalta and Postdam. Some general knowledge of the various Cold War
causes – ideology, interests, economics or politics will be useful and
necessary for any arguments that do not place Germany as the main cause
of the growing divisions.
Question 8
Did Khrushchev’s term in office in the Soviet Union after Stalin’s death increase
or reduce Cold War tensions before 1965?
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) [ISBN 9780198781646] Chapters 7B
and 7D.
Zubok, V. and C. Pleshakov Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War. (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1996) [ISBN 9780674455313] Chapters 6 and 8.
To answer this question well it will be necessary to have a clear view of
what the Cold War was primarily about and then to be able to describe
and analyse the contribution to this of Khrushchev’s policies. In particular
whether his policies towards the USA increased Cold War tensions or
not. They might have resulted from a desire for international status or
Khrushchev’s desire to extend Soviet influence over Germany. They might
also have been irrelevant if the Cold War is deemed to be about military
and nuclear issues as opposed to ideological conflict; or if the desire of
the West to dominate Germany and undermine Soviet controls in Eastern
Europe is seen as more important. Some good knowledge of Khrushchev’s
policies on Berlin will provide a good foundation for constructing the
argument about how and in what ways Cold War tensions may have been
increased by them.
Question 9
In what ways did the Japanese economic recovery benefit from developments in
the international economy in the 30 years after 1945?
Inoguchi, T. and D. Okimoto (eds) The political economy of Japan. Vol. 2: the
changing international context. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988)
[ISBN 9780804714815] Parts 2 and 3.
Johnson, C. MITI and the Japanese miracle: the growth of industrial policy, 1925–
Chapters 5–8.
18

This answer can be based more on description than most questions which
normally place far greater emphasis on analysing the consequences of
what happened. Good answers will still use analysis to determine which
factors – economic institutions, such as the Ministry of International
Trade and Industry, the aid received from the USA, Japanese culture that
had a positive impact on the practices followed in the workplace or the
opportunities presented by the international economy – were important.
Then it is primarily a case of describing the ways in which each of the
factors contributed to Japanese economic recovery, although it will remain
useful to indicate why some, or all, of the factors were of particular
benefit to the Japanese recovery.
Question 10
How far was the Arab-Israeli problem in the Middle East superseded by the Cold
War in the years 1948–1957?
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) [ISBN 9780198781646] Chapters 3C
and 8C.
Good answers to this question require an initial appreciation of what the
Cold War in the Middle East involved and whether it required policies
reflecting certain values to be implemented, whether it involved the direct
involvement of the USA and/or the Soviet Union in terms of economic or
military aid, or whether it simply involved diplomacy and alliances. These
must be considered and analysed with a knowledge of the events and
military and diplomatic conflicts which embodied the Arab-Israeli conflict
in the years referred to in the question. Thus the best answers will be able
to describe what events occurred in the region because of the Arab-Israeli
conflict and relate them clearly to an argument of what constituted the
Cold War.
Question 11
Did US policy towards the Cuban Revolution help or hinder the emergence of
Castro’s revolutionary movement in Cuba 1953–1962?
Pérez-Stable, Marifeli The Cuban Revolution: origins, course and legacy. (Oxford:
Oxford University Press 1993) [ISBN 9780195127492] Chapter 3.
Good answers to this question require a basic knowledge of the
development of Castro’s movement before and after the revolution’s
success by 1959, and the way he was regarded as preferable to Batista.
The main focus should be on analysing this in terms firstly of Castro’s
own ideas about what was needed in Cuba and secondly the extent to
which US policy was based on interpretations of how his developing
policies would affect US interests. The latter could be interpreted as key
factors producing the policies which directly hampered the revolution,
particularly after 1961. Alternatively Castro’s growing radicalisation could
arguably be linked to his views of revolution and the divisions engendered
in Cuba by his radical reforms and the greater cooperation with the Soviet
Union. The best answers will do this by arguing that Castro responded to
19
the hostility of the USA by turning to the Soviet Union, or that his turn
towards the Soviet Union hindered the development of his movement in
Cuba and produced the hostility of the USA. Thus a particularly sound
knowledge of what happened when will be needed.
Question 12
‘The Katangan secession made the Congo crisis a key issue for the future of the
United Nations and the Kennedy administration’s foreign policy.’ Discuss.
To answer this question effectively a good knowledge of the issues
surrounding Moishe Tshombe’s declaration of Katangan secession from
the new Congo state days after it achieved independence is required.
This should be used in constructing an analysis of the implications for
US and UN policy towards emerging African states in the Cold War of the
early 1960s. Thus the arguments in the USA about the importance of the
Congo for US Cold War policies will have to be assessed. Similarly the
way in which the UN Secretary Generals Dag Hammarskjold and U Thant
perceived UN policies to Katangan secession and the future of the Congo
for the Cold War and African decolonisation will need to be evaluated
and analysed. Having an understanding of the events and the policies of
the USA and UN in response to these issues has to be accompanied in the
best answers by an argument defining the interconnected Cold War and
decolonisation aims of the USA and the UN.
Question 13
To what extent did the 1973 war turn the Arabs’ failure in the 1967 conflict into
a success?
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) [ISBN 9780198781646] Chapters 11D
and 13A.
This question requires a knowledge of the two Arab-Israeli wars and their
consequences. An argument should be constructed from an analysis of
their implications for the success or failure of the Arab aims that Nasser
and Sadat, in particular, were trying to achieve. Part of the assessment of
Arab successes or failures will depend on analysing what the Israelis were
seeking to gain when they attacked Egypt, Jordan and Syria in 1967, and
how effectively these aims were achieved. Good answers will continue
by providing a detailed analysis of the Egyptian and Syrian aims when
they attacked Israel in 1973 and the extent to which these aims were
successfully achieved.
Question 14
Analyse the reasons for the success and eventual failure of Allende’s regime in
Chile.
Petras, J.F. and M.H. Morley How Allende fell. (Nottingham: Spokesman Books,
1974) [ISBN 9780851240909] Chapters 1–3 and 5–9.
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) [ISBN 9780198781646] Chapter 13E.
20

Good answers to this question must depend particularly on analysis as
the word ‘analyse’ is mentioned specifically in the question. Thus such
answers require more than a description of what happened in Chile after
Allende came to power. In particular an analytical framework will need to
be constructed by which the subject areas that have to be focused on are
identified. Whether Allende’s successes or failures were located primarily
in economic reforms or in the way he implemented land reforms or wage
rises has to be assessed. Were they produced by his policies towards
international companies? Were they the result of his political actions in
favouring some sections of Chilean society and alienating others, such as
the military, or were they a result of foreign policy failures or successes?
Such questions will be addressed in the best answers by producing an
effective argument backed by an analysis of the evidence.
Question 15
Why did Nixon regard the removal of US ground troops from Vietnam
as necessary for the success of American policy when Johnson saw their
deployment as so essential?
10A–10D.
The two parts of this question have to be equally addressed in the best
answers. The first part of the question requires analysing the reasons that
Johnson believed the deployment of ground troops was so essential when
Kennedy had repeatedly ruled that out. Whether that was primarily the
result of his reliance on the advice from the military, from the civilian
officials in the administration in Washington, or from those on the ground
in Vietnam should be explored. And then, and more importantly, the
reasons why Johnson in his decision making went along with the advice
he did must be analysed. Thus the extent of and reasons for Johnson’s
belief in the political need to avoid defeat in Vietnam, or to protect the
Great Society programme in the USA should be assessed. With Nixon the
reasons why he chose to remove US ground troops to achieve specific
goals must be analysed. Attention thus has to be given to the perceived
political need to end the war and reduce domestic opposition, and to the
economic and international costs of continuing the conflict. The policies
offering sticks in the form of increased bombing and carrots in the form of
ceasefires in order that the USA should achieve victory or the perception
of victory or simply avoiding defeat – peace with honour – need to be
focused on and analysed in the best answers.
Question 16
Why and with what success did the Soviet Union pursue détente?
12A, 12B, 12C, 13D, 14A, 14D and 14E.
Good answers to this question will be based on an analysis of the reasons
why and to what extent Soviet policy was successful in achieving its
goals through détente and to what extent its policies simply failed. Thus
21
a good answer will begin with an analysis of what the Soviet Union
sought to achieve from détente. It should assess the desire for increased
international status, more Western economic aid, a reduction in nuclear
arms to reduce the risk of war, a more positive reaction to Soviet ideas
in the less developed world, greater access to Western technology and
the continuation of support for left-wing Marxist regimes with less risk
of adverse reactions in the West. Then an analysis should be made of the
areas in which those aims were achieved. The best answers will be able to
define and analyse the most important Soviet aims by connecting them to
the motives for the Soviet Union pursuing détente.
Question 17
To what extent did the Iranian Revolution owe its success to secular forces?
Esposito, John Islam and politics. (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1991)
[ISBN 9780815625445] Chapters 1 and 4.
Keddie, Nikki Iran and the Muslim world: resistance and revolution. (New York:
New York University Press, 1994) [ISBN 9780814746639] Chapters 1, 7 and 8.
In order to answer this question well it will be necessary to understand
those forces influencing the development of movements hostile to the
Shah. The role that these forces played, and their significance, will need
to be covered in the best answers with particular reference to the secular
forces. Their contribution to the initial overthrow of the Shah and then
to the development of the revolution in its different manifestations will
both need to be analysed. Finally, some reference should be made to the
significance of Islam or to those economic forces arising from the White
Revolution and the modernisation of Iran and the way discontent was
produced by the specific policies of the Shah.
Question 18
What were the major obstacles in the way of the Arab-Israeli peace process in
the 1990s?
[ISBN 9780140288704] Chapters 11–15.
Good answers will need to consider the very different elements which
have stood in the way of progress to peace in the Arab-Israeli dispute.
Candidates should be aware of the emotive nature of the polar opposite
interpretations of why no settlement has been reached between all the
participants in the conflict. It is less a question of providing objective
analysis and more a case of putting together a more descriptive
assessment of the factors that might constitute obstacles. However, there is
credit to be gained from any convincing arguments that might be relevant
to either interpretation of responsibility for the obstacles. These could
be described by focusing on the use of violence on the Arab or Israeli
side; by assessing the intransigent negotiating positions of the Israelis
or Palestinians; by describing the issues over Jerusalem; by examining
22
the acceptance by all elements of both sides of the right of the other to
exist; and by explaining the importance of constructing settlements on
illegally occupied land and the difficulties of getting acceptance of agreed
conditions for a Palestinian state.
Question 19
How important were international influences in producing the collapse of
communism in Eastern Europe?
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) [ISBN 9780198781646] Chapters 19A
and 19B.
repercussions within the Soviet Union’ (Part I).
Tuminez, Astrid S. ‘Nationalism, ethnic pressures, and the breakup of the
Soviet Union’.
Wallander, Celeste A. ‘Western policy and the demise of the Soviet Union’.
repercussions within the Soviet Union’ (Part 2) (2004).
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_cold_war_studies/
v006/6.4kramer02.pdf
repercussions within the Soviet Union’ (Part 3) (2005)
To answer this question effectively some good knowledge is required
of the influences which produced the collapse of communism in
Eastern Europe with a special focus on the importance, or lack of it,
of international influences. These should be analysed by ascribing
importance to the impact of the Western media and its developing
technology, and to the connections between the Soviet Union’s liberal
reformers around Gorbachev that enabled Eastern European opponents
of communism to develop. The overall importance of the international
environment in influencing Gorbachev’s commitment to reducing the
influence of the hardliners and thus encouraging reforms in Eastern
Europe should receive special attention given Gorbachev’s commitment to
reducing the fear of the West. These elements need to be compared with
the internal developments in Eastern Europe, partly based on nationalism,
that produced the opposition to communism in the countries of the region,
and to the economic weaknesses that were producing discontent.
Question 20
To what extent was the collapse of the Soviet Union produced by competition
with the United States and the war in Afghanistan?
Bradsher, Henry S. Afghan communism and Soviet intervention. (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1999) [ISBN 9780195790177].
23

This question requires an analytical comparison of the importance of the
connections linking the role of Afghanistan and the role of the USA in the
weakening of the Soviet Union and then bringing about its collapse. The
importance of the other factors emanating from within the Soviet Union
and Eastern Europe that may have contributed to the collapse should also
be evaluated. The acceptance by Soviet elites that the Red Army could
no longer be used as a solution to the Soviet’s problems in repressing
reformist elements has to be assessed in terms of its failure to support
the continuation of the Soviet Union particularly in 1991. Afghanistan’s
detrimental influence on the Red Army, as opposed to the restraints put
on it from within the Soviet Union, need to be examined. The role of the
US in undermining the Soviet Union by forcing it into an arms race that
further weakened its economy is a view that should be analysed. As is
the opposite view that the failure to do enough to encourage Gorbachev
weakened his reforms and postponed the Soviet Union’s collapse. In
addition the particular events that produced the rise of Yeltsin and his
opposition to Gorbachev need to be evaluated as factors causing the
collapse, as do the structural weaknesses of the Soviet system.
24

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Examiners’ commentaries 2012

Examiners’ commentaries 2012

Information about the subject guide

Examiners’ commentaries 2012

Information about the subject guide

Comments on specific questions

Eastman, L. et al. The nationalist era in China, 1927–1949. (Cambridge:

a particular cause was part of a more general pattern featuring power

domestic terms and the connections with the international pressures. A

and the overwhelming Israeli victory will be analysed including the

Approaching the question

Examiners’ commentaries 2012

Information about the subject guide

Comments on specific questions

in order that an effective argument can be developed in providing a

Approaching the question

Approaching the question

Approaching the question

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