COASTAL GEOMORPHOLOGY

 Demonstrate an understanding of the work of the sea and wind in eroding, transporting, and
depositing
 Describe and explain the formation of the landforms associated with these processes
 Describe coral reefs and mangrove swamps and the conditions required for their development
 Demonstrate an understanding that coasts present hazards and offer opportunities for people
 Explain what can be done to manage the impacts of coastal erosion

Definitions of terms used in coastal studies

 The coast is a zone where the land meets the sea.

 The coastline is the outline edge of the land on a map.
 High water mark- is the average of the highest levels reached by the sea at high tides.
 Low-water mark - The average of the lowest levels of the sea at low tides.
 Cliff – a vertical or nearly vertical rocky slope on the coast or inland.
 The sea rises to high tide (high water mark) and falls to low tide (low water mark).
 The area between the lowest tide level and the highest point reached by storm waves is known as
the shore.
 NB. The various landforms of coastal areas are almost exclusively the result of the action of ocean
waves.
 A wave is generated by the frictional effect of the wind on the water surface. The general
characteristics of waves are shown in the diagram below.

 The strength of a wave depends on the following: -

1. The strength of the wind, i.e., the stronger the wind, the stronger the wave.
2. The length of time that the wind has blown for, i.e., the longer the time the wind has
blown, the stronger the waves.
3. The fetch, which is the distance of open water which the wind has been able to blow
over, i.e., the longer the fetch, the stronger the waves.

 Water particles in a wave tend to move up and down in a circular motion. It is this  circular motion
that causes the waves to break as they approach the coast. When the waves approach the coast the
base of the wave is slowed from friction with the seabed. The top of the wave continues to move at
the same speed, so the wave height increases. The wave continues to grow in height until it
become unstable and eventually topples over the bottom of the wave and breaks. As the wave
moves up the beach, sediment is moved up the beach, this is referred to as the swash. The
backwash is the movement of water and sediment back down the beach. The strength of the swash
and backwash can vary and are rarely equal in strength.
 We can identify TWO types of waves as they approach the coast.

The Constructive wave

 Constructive waves have a strong swash and a much weaker backwash.

 As the swash is stronger than the backwash, they usually deposit material and build beaches
up.
 They are predominating in calmer weather conditions when less energy is being transferred
to the water.
 They are less powerful than destructive waves and don't break as violently.
 Constructive waves will sometimes not seem to break at all but just run up the beach losing
energy as they do so.
 The swash is more powerful than the backwash, so more material is carried up the beach
than is pulled back down it. This leads to an increase in beach sediments.
 If there are not many waves, each wave will be able to complete both its swash and
backwash without interference from the next wave coming up the beach.
 Sediments that have been pushed up the beach by the swash will be deposited up shore,
and the backwash will drain away into the sand.
 When the next wave breaks its swash will deposit more material without it being 'captured'
by the backwash of the preceding wave.
 Typically, between 6 and 8 constructive waves will break every minute.
The Destructive wave

 Destructive waves have relatively weak swashes in comparison to their backwash. This is
because the wave breaks almost vertically.
 As the backwash is stronger than the swash it means that destructive waves are very erosive
and transport material away from the beach. The swash of the wave tends to push material
up the shore and the backwash tends to wash it back again.
 They are formed by strong winds with large fetch areas.
 These waves have high energy levels that have been built up by travelling long distances and
being exposed to strong winds.
 When they reach land, they tend to break strongly and remove material from the shoreline.
 If there are a lot of waves, they catch up with each other on the beach and the backwash of
one wave will tend to meet the swash of the next wave. This will limit the motion of the
water up the beach and pull some material back out to sea.
 Less material will be pushed up the beach.
 Typically, between 10 and 15 destructive waves will break every minute.
COASTAL EROSION

Coastlines are extremely vulnerable to erosion due to the immense power of the sea waves. Rates of
erosion can be incredibly fast exceeding 2m a year. Erosion is caused by destructive waves wearing away
the coast. There are four main processes which cause coastal erosion. These are corrasion/abrasion,
hydraulic action, attrition, and corrosion/solution.

 Corrasion/abrasion is when waves pick up beach material (e.g., pebbles) and hurl them at the
base of a cliff.
 Hydraulic action is when waves hit the base of a cliff air is compressed into cracks. When the
wave retreats the air blasts out of the gap. Often this causes cliff material to break away.
 Attrition is when loose sediment knocked off the cliff by hydraulic action and abrasion is swirled
around by the waves. It constantly collides with other sediment and gradually gets worn down
into smaller and rounder sediment.
 Corrosion/solution is when certain types of cliffs for example chalk and limestone erode
because of weak acids in the sea.

Rates of marine erosion

So, what are the factors that determine how much erosion can take place at the coast?

1. The Resistance of the Rocks - e.g., limestone, chalk and granite are resistant rocks (often forming cliffs
and headlands) and erode relatively slowly, whilst less resistant rocks such as clay are easily eroded.

2. The Strength of the waves - affected by the wind strength and duration and its fetch

3. The shape of the coastline (which is dependent on its geology) - on concordant coastlines, rocks are
parallel to the wave front and therefore rates of erosion are similar along the coastline. On discordant
coastlines, differential erosion may occur, where bands of hard and soft rock outcrop at right angles to the
sea. Consequently, headlands and bays form along discordant coastlines and whilst headlands remain
exposed to the force of the waves, bays are sheltered.
Landforms produced by coastal erosion

There are 3 main groups of marine features which result from marine erosion:
1. Headlands and Bays
2. Caves, Arches, Stacks and Stumps
3. Cliffs, Wave-cut notches, and wave-cut platforms

1. HEADLANDS AND BAYS

Headlands are resistant outcrops of rock sticking out into the sea, whilst bays are indents in the
coastline between two headlands.

A headland

 Projects out into the sea

 Is usually longer than its breath
 Has sides which form cliffs

A bay usually has:

 An approximately semi-circular shape of sea extending into the land

 A wide, open entrance from the sea
 Land behind it that is lower than the headlands on either side

how do headlands form?

- Headlands form along discordant coastlines in which bands of soft and hard rock outcrop at right angles
to the coastline.
- Due to the presence of soft and hard rock, differential erosion occurs, with the soft, less resistant rock
(e.g. shale), eroding quicker than the hard, resistant rock (e.g. chalk)
- Where the erosion of the soft rock is rapid, bays are formed
- Where there is more resistant rock, erosion is slower and the hard rock is left sticking out into the sea as a
headland.
- The exposed headland now becomes vulnerable to the force of destructive waves but shelters the
adjacent bays from further erosion.
 2. Caves, arches and stacks

Wave erosion can create caves, arches, stacks, and stumps along a headland.

Caves occur when waves force their way into cracks in the cliff face. The water contains sand and other
materials that grind away at the rock until the cracks become a cave. Hydraulic action is the predominant
process.
o If the cave is formed in a headland, it may eventually break through to the other side
forming an arch.
o The arch will gradually become bigger until it can no longer support the top of the arch.
When the arch collapses, it leaves the headland on one side and a stack (a tall column of
rock) on the other.
o The stack will be attacked at the base in the same way that a wave-cut notch is formed.
This weakens the structure, and it will eventually collapse to form a stump.
 3. Cliffs, Wave-cut notches and wave-cut platforms

Cliffs are common coastal features. They are formed by a combination of erosion and weathering,
weathering working on the upper parts of the cliff and erosion wearing away the base of the cliff.

Steep cliffs are formed where the land is made up of hard, more resistant, rocks, their height is determined
by the difference between the sea level and the level of the land. Hard rocks erode and weather slowly,
and the less cracked the rock is, the better it will resist breaking down.

Igneous rocks such as granite and basalt form rugged vertical cliffs.

Softer rocks, such as clay, shale and some sandstones erode more easily and can create more gently
sloping cliffs.

Wave-cut platform, or shore platform is the narrow flat area often seen at the base of a sea cliff or along a
large lake shore caused by the action of waves.

Wave-cut platforms are often most obvious at low tide when they become visible as huge areas of flat
rock.

Sometimes the landward side of the platform is covered by sand, forming the beach, and then the platform
can only be identified at low tides or when storms move the sand.

It forms after destructive waves hit against the cliff face causing corrasion and hydraulic action, creating a
wave-cut notch. This notch then enlarges into a cave. The waves undermine this portion until the roof of
the cave cannot hold due to the pressure and freeze-thaw weathering acting on it, and collapses, resulting
in the cliff retreating.
The base of the cave forms the wave-cut platform as attrition causes the collapsed material to be broken
down into smaller pieces, while some cliff material may be washed into the sea.

 Coves form where different rock bands run parallel to the coastline, with harder and more resistant
type lying by the coast, and the less resistant type further onshore, as shown below:

As you can see above, there is a band of resistant rock closest to the sea and a band of less resistant rock
inland.

The waves seek out faults in the hard rock and erodes these lines of weakness using the processes of
abrasion/corrasion and hydraulic action.

When the wave erosional processes get to the soft rock, they erode faster, and this leaves a circular cove
with a narrow entrance where the sea enters. 
 The waves are also refracted within the cove, spreading out to erode in all directions.

A good example of this is Lulworth cove.

Coastal Transport
The second process operating at the coast, other than erosion, is transport. Material eroded by the sea is
carried up and down the beach in several ways.
 Minerals dissolved from rocks are carried in solution
 Small rock fragments light enough to be held within the water, float within the water body in
suspension.
 The largest rock fragments which are too heavy to be picked up by the waves, are transported by
the process of traction, this is where they roll along the sea or beach bed when the waves pick up
enough energy.
 Finally, medium sized rock particles, which are too heavy to be transported by suspension, and too
light to remain as traction load on the seabed or beach bed are moved by saltation, as series of
jumps or trajectories i.e., they are momentarily lifted as suspension load, but easily fall back to the
bed where upon the process is repeated once again.
  As well as being moved up and down a beach, sediment can also be moved along the length of the
beach. This occurs because most waves do not strike the shore head on or at right angles, but
rather at an oblique angle. Therefore, the swash of water hits the shoreline at a small angle

However, the backwash from the spent wave is along the direction of the slope of the shore area, or put in
other words, the backwash is perpendicular to the shore, as shown below

The effect of this pattern of water movement is to transport the sediment on the beach in a zigzag pattern
along the beach, a process called LONGSHORE DRIFT of the particles as shown below

On coasts where longshore drift occurs mainly in one direction, beach sediment is transported further
down the coast, with the effect that the beach will gradually be depleted. This causes two problems for the
local authorities:

 The smaller beach is less attractive to tourists causing a loss of income

 It removes the protection that the beach provides for cliffs.

To counter this, local authorities put barriers called groynes at right angles to the beach – to trap the
sediment and reduce longshore drift. See coastal management.
Landforms of Coastal Deposition

Coastal deposition is when the sea drops or deposits material. This can include sand, sediment, and
shingle. This results in the formation of landforms of coastal deposition.

 BEACHES

A beach is a land area formed from the deposition of sand, shingle, or pebbles on wave cut platforms. It is
located between the lowest tide level and the highest tide level.
A sandy beach is usually formed in a sheltered bay, where constructive waves transport material onto the
shore. The swash is stronger than the backwash, so the material is moved up the beach.

There are number of different sources of beach material - the main source being rivers, where fine muds
and gravels are deposited at the river
mouth. Other sources of beach material
include longshore drift (bringing material
from elsewhere along the coast);
constructive waves (bringing material up
the beach from the sea) and from cliff
erosion.
 Beach profiles

A beach profile shows the gradient of a beach from the back of the beach to the sea.

A sandy beach generally has a gentler profile compared to a pebble beach which has a steep,
stepped profile.

Ridge and runnels are common on wide sandy beaches with a large tidal range (big difference
between high and low tide). Ridges are areas of the beach that are raised. The dips are water-filled
troughs called runnels. The cross-section is like that of hills and valleys but at a much smaller scale.

 SPIT

A spit is a landform of coastal deposition.

It is an extended stretch of beach material that sticks out to sea and is joined to the mainland at
one end. 
It is formed when longshore drift moves material along a coastline. However, where the coastline
changes direction, material being transported by longshore drift is deposited, forming a
depositional feature that protrudes out into the sea, a spit.

A spit is an unstable landform. It will continue to grow until the water becomes too deep or until
the material is removed faster than it is deposited.

On a shingle or pebble spit the pebbles become smaller and more rounded towards the end of the
spit due to attrition. They also become smaller as the long shore drift becomes weaker.
BARS

A bay bar is very similar to a spit. It is a ridge of sand or shingle that joins two headlands either side of a
bay. It is formed due to longshore drift transporting sediment along the coastline. Behind the bar, a lagoon
is created, where water has been trapped and the lagoon may gradually be infilled as a salt marsh develops
due to it being a low energy zone, which encourages deposition.

OFFSHORE BARS

An offshore bar is a raised area of seabed that is found offshore. They usually form adjacent to the
coastline. They are formed in areas with high levels of sediment on a beach and where the sea is shallow.
They form when sediment is transported on and off a beach. Destructive waves remove sediment from the
beach and form the offshore bar. Constructive waves transport material from the offshore bar back onto
the beach.

Visible offshore bars found parallel to the coast are known as barrier islands.
SAND DUNES

It’s easy to look at a sand dune and just see a pile of sand, but lots of different factors and processes are involved in
making a coastal sand dune system. In fact, sand dunes can go through a lifecycle, generally with young dunes
forming at the beach and more mature dunes further from the sea, and several other stages in between.

Nature’s process of building a sand dune is called succession. Waves push sand up onto the beach, then sand moves
around the coast and forms dunes when it’s picked up or pushed around by the wind. If there are any obstacles on
the coast, either a rock, dead animal or some bush, the larger sand grains will be dropped in front of the obstacle
and pushed up it while smaller grains of sand are often deposited behind it. As this process continues, ridges of sand
build up and can start to form a sand dune. The stronger the wind, the higher the dunes!

The wind-facing side of the dune often has a gentle slope, while the sheltered side is much steeper. As the wind is
always changing, dunes are also always changing, growing, and shifting…

Type of dunes
 Embryo dunes

Embryo dunes are the youngest sand dunes. They are the earliest stage in a dune’s life. These dunes
face the beach, are made up of mostly exposed sand, and are also the smallest dune stage –
reaching just up to a few metres tall. Here pioneer species like couch or lime grass are the first to
 colonise the sand and begin to stabilise it with their long roots. These embryo dunes are often only
present in the summer and can be washed away by high tides or winter storms but will form again
each year.

 Fore Dune

Behind the embryo dune, the fore dune often stands a few metres taller, with marram grass
stabilising it a little more than the younger dunes, and more vegetation cover compared to
completely bare sand. As more plants grow in the sand, this type of dune is more resilient to storms,
so it can stay in the same position for several years.

 Semi-fixed/Yellow Dune

With plant roots now reaching deep into the dune, semi-fixed dunes are stable, but you can still see
exposed sand on their surface which is able to move. These dunes will continue to accrete sand from
the beach and, the sand on these dunes can be blown over the ridge and inland to grow the dunes
behind them. These are also known as yellow dunes because of the colour of the sand.

 Fixed/Grey Dune

As you move further away from the beach, the dunes become less yellow in colour and begin to turn
grey. This is because these dunes are starting to build up more humus (the broken-down organic
plant matter which is found in soil) from the diverse plant life and bacteria which now lives in these
stable dunes. These dunes are also better at holding in water, making them able to support larger
shrubs. These are also known as grey dunes and can still have sand blowing through them from
blowouts, the semi-fixed dunes or even from the beach on a windy day!

 Dune Slack
 Sand dunes are separated by dips, called dune slacks. Slacks are formed in two ways – either when a
new dune ridge forms in front of a low-lying area which cuts it off from the sea, or when a dune
blowout forms in an area that's got lots of vegetation, exposing a dip of bare sand. Where these low
areas are low enough to meet the dune water table, freshwater pools can form. These slacks are
fantastic habitats for dune wildlife such as natterjack toads, which use the pools for breeding.

 Mature Dune

Mature dunes are the furthest away from the beach, are the oldest dunes in sand dune system and
often have very little exposed sand. Lots of broken-down organic plant and animal matter in the very
stable sand make these inland dunes accessible to some larger plants and even trees.
C O A S TA L E C O S Y S T E M S

Describe coral reefs and mangrove swamps and the conditions required for their development
Coral Reef Ecosystem

What do we know about corals?

 Tiny tropical marine animal invertebrates that are called polyps attach themselves to shallow sea
floor rocks. The polyp is like a tin can open at just one end: the open end has a mouth surrounded
by a ring of tentacles. The tentacles have stinging cells, called nematocysts, that allow the coral
polyp to capture small organisms that swim too close. Inside the body of the polyp are digestive
and reproductive tissues.
 These animals obtain carbon dioxide dissolved in seawater to make calcium carbonate exoskeleton
that protects their soft inner tissue, in a similar way a turtle builds its shell. They live at the same
place for the rest of their lives. Some live solitary lives but others live as large colonies. The polyps
pop out of the shells to feed on tiny fish larvae or to occasionally fight with one another. They can
be as small as a pin head or as large as a basketball.

 Their colourful looks are due to the algae that symbiotically live within the tissue of the polyps. The
relationship is that the algae use photosynthesis to produce nutrients, many of which they pass to
the corals' cells. The corals in turn emit waste products in the form of ammonium, which the algae
consume as a nutrient.

 They reproduce in two different ways. The larvae are either (1) fertilized within the body of a
mother polyp or (2) fertilized outside of the mother polyp’s body in the water. Fertilization of an
egg within the body of a coral polyp is achieved from sperm that is released through the mouth of
another polyp. The sperm and egg merge and form a planula larva, which matures inside the body
of its mother. When the larva is ready, it gets spit out into the water through the mouth of its
mother.
 Other species of coral reproduce by ejecting large quantities of eggs and sperm into the
surrounding water. When this happens, the eggs and sperm fertilize in the water. This process is
called coral spawning. In some areas, mass coral spawning events occur on one particular night per
year and scientists can predict exactly when this will happen. Trillions of eggs and sperm are
simultaneously released into the water in one of the most astounding acts of synchronicity in the
natural world!
 Once in the sea, larvae are naturally attracted to the light. They swim to the surface of the ocean,
where they remain for days or even weeks. If predators do not eat the larvae during this time, they
fall back to the ocean floor and attach themselves to a hard surface. An attached planula
metamorphosizes into a coral polyp and begins to grow—dividing itself in half and making exact
genetic copies of itself. As more and more polyps are added, a coral colony develops. Eventually the
coral colony becomes mature, begins reproducing, and the cycle of life continues.

 As they live and die, more and more polyps attach themselves to old corals and in the process over
the years, coral limestone deposits link up to form large physical rock features that may stretch for
hundreds of miles. These ridge like limestone rock deposits are what called coral reefs.
 The distribution of Coral Reefs is controlled by the following factors:

 Temperature – minimum 18°C but grows best at 23°C – 25°C so normally grow between the tropic of
Capricorn and the tropic of Cancer.
 Light – Corals need light for photosynthesise of the algae and to survive.
 Water Depth – enough light is needed for Coral algae to photosynthesise and therefor survive and grow,
so only grow in shallow waters of around 25 metres.
 Salinity – Coral can only survive in salt water.

At a local level, there are other factors affecting where Coral Reefs develop:

 Wave Action – Coral needs well oxygenated water and wave action provides this.
 Exposure To Air – whilst Corals needs oxygenated water they die if they are exposed to air for long.
 Sediment – if there is sediment in the water light might be blocked and sediment stops corals from
feeding properly.
Coral Reefs with the highest biodiversity occur in South-east Asia and northern Australia.

Value of Coral Reef

 Fisheries – Coral reefs are vital to the world’s fisheries. They form the nurseries for about a quarter of
the ocean’s fish with around 1500 species of fish, and thus provide revenue for local communities of
many LIC as well as national and international fishing fleets.
 Tourism – Tourism revenues generated by coral reefs are also significant. For example, according to a
report by the Key West chamber of commerce, tourists visiting Australia’s Great Barrier Reef generates
well over US$1 billion per year.
 Coastal Protection – Coral reefs break the power of the waves during storms, hurricanes, typhoons, and
even tsunamis. By helping to prevent coastal erosion, flooding, and loss of property on the shore, the
reefs save many lives and lots of money each year.
 Source of Medical Advances – We can also expect coral reef species to contribute to future medical
advances. Already coral reef organisms are being used in treatments for diseases like cancer, HIV, heart
diseases, asthma, and arthritis. Just so long as they are alive and healthy.
 Intrinsic Value – For many coastal societies around the world, coral reefs and their inhabitants are
intricately woven into cultural traditions. For these people – as well as for those who have floated with a
mask and snorkel, immersed themselves in the three-dimensional wonderland of a scuba dive, or
experienced these habitats through media and books – a world without coral reefs would be an infinitely
poorer place.
 They absorb carbon dioxide that is in the oceans. This way, they prevent the Carbon dioxide from
accumulating in the atmosphere which could cause global warming.

Threats to Coral Reefs

The most damage that is done to Coral Reefs is done by mankind with the following:

 Destructive Fishing Practices – Things such as dynamite and cyanide fishing and regular fishing methods
like trawling can tear Coral rocks with a net.

 Overfishing – This affects the ecological balance of the biodiversity of the coral reef ecosystems.

 Tourism – Careless boating, diving, and scuba dive causes damage to the corals, for example when the
anchors are dropped onto the Reef.

 Destruction of Mangroves – The destruction of mangroves results in the depositing of sediment that
clouds the water around coral reefs, depriving the corals wth the light and in the process killing coral.

 Besides the destruction caused by physical damage, Corals are damaged by what is called Coral
bleaching. This occurs when coral polyps expel algae that live inside their tissue. Normally, coral polyps
have a symbiotic relationship with these algae, which is crucial for the health of the coral and the reef.
Bleached corals continue to live but begin to starve after bleaching. Some corals recover.
The leading cause of coral bleaching is rising water temperatures. A temperature about 1 °C above
average can cause bleaching. According to the United Nations Environment Programme, between
2014 and 2016 the longest recorded global bleaching events killed coral on an unprecedented scale.
In 2016, bleaching of coral on the Great Barrier Reef killed between 29 and 50 percent of the reef's
coral. In 2017, the bleaching extended into the central region of the reef. The average interval
between bleaching events has halved between 1980 and 2016

o increased water temperature (marine heatwaves, most

commonly due to global warming), or reduced water
temperatures
o oxygen starvation caused by an increase
in zooplankton levels as a result of overfishing
o increased solar irradiance (photosynthetically active
radiation and ultraviolet light)
o increased sedimentation (due to silt from runoff)
o bacterial infections
o changes in salinity
o herbicides toxicity
o extreme low tide and exposure
o cyanide fishing
o elevated sea levels due to global warming
o mineral dust from dust storms caused by drought

o pollutants such as oxybenzone, butylparaben, octyl

methoxycinnamate, or enzacamene: four
common sunscreen ingredients that are nonbiodegradable
and can wash off of skin
o ocean acidification due to elevated levels of CO2 caused by
air pollution
o being exposed to Oil or other chemical spills
Case Study: The Great Barrier Reef, Australia

The Great Barrier Reef is the world’s largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and
900 islands stretching for over 2,300 kilometres. The reef is in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland,
Australia.

The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world’s biggest single structure made by
living organisms. This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms, known as coral
polyps. It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981. CNN labelled it
one of the seven natural wonders of the world. The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of
Queensland.

A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, which helps to limit the impact
of human use, such as fishing and tourism. Other environmental pressures on the reef and its ecosystem
include runoff, climate change accompanied by mass coral bleaching, and cyclic population outbreaks of
the crown-of-thorns starfish. According to a study published in October 2012 by the Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, the reef has lost more than half its coral cover since 1985.

The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait
Islander peoples and is an important part of local groups’ cultures and spirituality. The reef is a very
popular destination for tourists, especially in the Whitsunday Islands and Cairns regions. Tourism is an
important economic activity for the region, generating over $3 billion per year.

Mangrove Ecosystem
  
 Mangroves are a tree or shrub which grows in the inter-tidal area, chiefly tropical, coastal swamps.
They have numerous tangled roots that grow above ground and form dense thickets.
 The intertidal areas are periodically flooded during high tide. However, during the low tide, the
water retreats offshore exposing the tangled leg like roots that give the mangrove its nickname,
walking tree.
 The mangrove seeds germinate while attached to the mother tree. When ready, they drop off into
the muddy waters where the pointed end gets anchorage in the mud.
 They also grow special areal roots that absorb air during the time the roots are exposed.
 The roots absorb salt from the saline marine water and deposit it on the leaves, this way the forest
purifies saline sea water to form fresh water available for humans.
 It is thought that originate from South-east Asia and then spread across the globe.

Distribution
 Distribution is controlled by the following factors of growth:

 Temperatures – Most mangroves grow between 300 North or South of the equator where temperatures
are reasonably high to allow them to thrive.
 Salinity – The water around mangroves must be of a certain salt content, so if fresh water is added to
salty water this would be harmful to the forests.
 Exposer to Air – Air that is too rich in oxygen will harm mangrove if the mangrove is exposed for too
long.

Value of Mangrove Forests

 Contain Natural Resources – Charcoal, firewood, fish, honey, medicines, and other substances can be
extracted from mangroves.
 When they are drained for intensive agricultural activities, they provide rich alluvial soils.
 Foraging and Living Place for Wildlife – they are home to 25% of the wildlife of marine species. In fact
mangrove forests provide protection and habitats to young vulnerable fish larvae against predetaors.
The eggs are spawned in the deeper oceans, but when the larvae develop, they temporarily grow in the
mangrove forests before they return once gain to the coral reefs.
 The mangrove forest entangled root network traps sediments from coastal erosion and this way, they
prevent the accumulation of silt in the offshore coral reefs. The coral reef in turn protects the forest
from storm surges and other violent storms.
 Reducing Water Pollution – The root systems of mangrove species absorb inorganic substances and
reduce water pollution.
 Protecting the Coastline – Because the roots of a mangroves act  can stabilise the coastlines of the river
shores and river mouths. They also protect the coastline from wave erosion.
 Flood Prevention – Mangroves can stabilise water capacity of the substratum and on the soil surface,
hence steady and retain water to prevent flooding.
 Ornamental Value – A mangrove forest is a beautiful environment with a diversity of life that in some
peoples eyes is with saving.
 The mangrove ecosystem protects the coastal from erosion
 Over the years, these forests have played the very important process of carbon sequestration (carbon
removal) from the atmosphere and its storage as woody material in the thick mangrove forests.
Mangrove forests are one of the most promising bio sequesters, having the highest carbon net
 productivity among all ecosystems. By capturing carbon dioxide and storing it in their
biomass, mangrove species can reduce the amount of excess carbon in the air, thereby lessening the
greenhouse gas’ contribution to global warming.

Threats

 Clearing – Mangrove forests have often been unproductive and smelly, and so cleared to make room for
agricultural land, human settlements and infrastructure, and industrial areas.
 Overharvesting – While harvesting has taken place for centuries, harvesting of mangroves become
unsustainable and threaten their future.
 River Changes – Dams and irrigation reduce the amount of water reaching mangrove forests, changing
the salinity of water in the forest.
 Overfishing – The global overfishing crisis facing the world’s oceans has effects far beyond the directly
overfished population. The ecological balance of food chains and mangrove fish communities can also be
affected.
 Destruction of Coral Reefs – Coral reefs provide the first barrier against currents and strong waves.
When they are destroyed, the stronger-than-normal waves and currents reaching the coast can
undermine the fine sediment in which the mangroves grow. This can prevent seedlings from taking root
and wash away nutrients essential.
 Pollution – Fertilizers, pesticides, and other toxic man-made chemicals carried by river systems from
sources upstream can kill animals living in mangrove forests.
 Climate Change – Mangrove forests require stable sea levels for long-term survival.
Case Study: Bangladesh, Sundarbans

The Sundarban forest lies in the vast delta on the Bay of Bengal formed by the super confluence of the
Ganges, Padma, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers across southern Bangladesh. The seasonally flooded
Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests lie inland from the mangrove forests on the coastal fringe. The
forest covers 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi) of which about 6,000 square kilometres (2,300 sq mi)
are in Bangladesh. It became inscribed as a UNESCO world heritage site in 1997. The Indian part of
Sundarbans is estimated to be about 4,110 square kilometres (1,590 sq mi), of which about 1,700 square
kilometres (660 sq mi) is occupied by waterbodies in the forms of river, canals and creeks of width varying
from a few meters to several kilometres.

The Sundarbans is intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-
tolerant mangrove forests. The interconnected network of waterways makes almost every corner of the
forest accessible by boat. The area is known for the eponymous Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris),
as well as numerous fauna including species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. The fertile soils
of the delta have been subject to intensive human use for centuries, and the Eco-region has been mostly
converted to intensive agriculture, with few enclaves of forest remaining. The remaining forests, taken
together with the Sundarbans mangroves, are important habitat for the endangered tiger. Additionally, the
Sundarbans serves a crucial function as a protective barrier for the millions of inhabitants in and around
Khulna and Mongla against the floods that result from the cyclones. The Sundarbans has also been enlisted
among the finalists in the New 7 Wonders of Nature.

Opportunities and Threats/Hazards of coastal Environments

Dubai's Coastline - the Eighth Wonder of the World?

Tue, 03/19/2013 - 17:27
Dubai , Dubai Coastline
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Stats and facts about Dubai's Coastline!

Dubai's spectacular coastline is such an awe inspiring phenomenon that it is often referred to as the eighth
wonder of the world. Consisting of three artificial small island groups, which take the shape of three palm
trees and The World archipelago, taking the shape of a world map, form Dubai's impressive coastline in the
Persian Gulf. Check out ATD's stats and facts about Dubai's coastline!

Dubai in itself is a marvel, with its wealth of luxury living, spectacular hotels, high end shopping and its
breathtaking cityscape, that boasts some of the world's tallest and most pioneering architecture to date.
As if its glimmering, unique and record breaking skyline wasn't opulent enough, Dubai's coastline is also
somewhat sensational. Formed of artificial clusters of islands, The World, which takes the shape of the
world map and The Palm Islands, three palm shaped archipelagos, takes this monumental destination to a
whole different level of opulence. It would appear that there are no limits to Dubai's sensational
excessiveness, so far they will go, that even the destination's coastline is a luxury and its design is still yet
be completed, with the cosntruction of The Universe Islands in the pipeline. 

These four artificial archipelagos that sit within the Persian Gulf, off the coast of Dubai, were
conceptualised by the ruler of Dubai, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, and constructed by
property developer Nakheel Properties. The islands are composed by sand excavated from Dubai's coastal
waters and each island cluster has its own breakwater, which takes the form of a crescent. The breakwater
acts to consume the impact of waves and protect the islands from affects of weathering on the
coast. To see this phenomenal designer coastline is to believe it and so big are  these astonishing
archipelagos, they can be witnessed from space.

The World Islands

The World or World Islands in Dubai  takes the shape of a world map. The project went into development
in 1994  and was completed some fourteen years later on  the 10th January 2008. World Island's consists
of 260 islands with an average of 100 metres of water between each island. The islands are named after
countries, individually owned by various organisiations, projects, hotel groups and resorts. 

The Palm Islands

There are three Palm Islands off Dubai's coastline, the Palm Jumeirah, Palm Jebel Ali and Palm Deira. Each
island is designed in the shape of a palm tree, with a crescent formed around each archipelago. In total the
Palm Islands extends Dubai's coastline by 520 kilometres. The Palm Jumeirah went into construction in
June 2001, the Palm Jebel Ali went into construction in October 2002 and the Palm Deira in October 2004.
The Palm Deira is yet to be completed, however the design is rumoured to be eight times larger than the
Palm Jumeirah and five times larger than the Palm Jebel Ali. The Palm Deira is currently the world's largest
articficial island. 

Palm Jumeirah

The Conceptualisation of The Universe

  

Nakheel Properties is yet to complete their masterpiece in the Gulf and is due to further enhance Dubai's
beautifully astonishing coastline with the construction of another archipelago that will take the name The
Universe, taking the formation of the solar system and the Milky Way. The project was announced in 2008,
with an estimated completion date between 2023 and 2028, however it would appear that the
construction of Dubai's The Universe in the Persian Gulf has been put on hold. The image above is a
conceptualisation of how the Dubai coastline will look once The Universe is incorporated.

This magnificent designer coastline is enough to lure tourists the world over to this lavish
destination. Attraction Tickets Direct has a range of attraction tickets and experiences to enhance a Dubai
getaway, including Dubai helicopter sightseeing tours to marvel at this manmade miracle. 

COASTAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

Land uses in coastal areas include tourism, industry, fishing, trade, and transport. There are many different
groups of people who have an interest in how coastal areas are managed. These include:

 residents

 environmental groups

 developers
  local councils

 national governments

 tourist boards

 National Park Authorities, such as the Pembrokeshire National Park Authority

As things like coastal tourism have become more frequent, humans have found it increasingly necessary to
attempt to control the effects of the sea. The main reasons for coastal management are:

 to protect the coast from the erosive effects of the sea.

 to increase the amount of sand on the beach.

Many strategies have been tried around the world, and these can be divided into two main groups, hard
and soft engineering. Hard engineering methods aim to stop the coastal processes from occurring. Soft
engineering methods try to work with nature to protect the coast. 

Examples of these two strategies are:

Hard Engineering Methods

1. Sea Walls:

 Often built in front of seaside resorts.

 Very expensive.
 They aim to completely block the waves
and their effects.
 Life span of approximately 75 years.
 Can cause the erosion of the beach in
front of them.
 Socially reassuring for local residents

2. Wooden Groynes:
  Wooden "fences" built at right angles
to the coastline.
 They aim to stop the movement of
material along the beach due to long
shore drift.
 Their primary intention is to build up
the amount of sand on the beach.
 They have a life span of approximately 25 years.

3.Gabion Groynes:

 Large steel mesh cages filled with large rocks.

 Aligned at right angles to the coastline.
 They aim to do a similar job to wooden groynes.
 Expected life span of 20 - 25 years, as the steel will rust.

4. Rip Rap / Rock Armour:

  Large boulders, of 10 tonnes or more, are used as a sea wall.
 The gaps between the rocks allow water through, which means that the energy of the waves is
dissipated very effectively.
 It is important that the boulders are big enough to withstand being eroded themselves and
therefore becoming part of the coastal system.

Soft Engineering

1. Beach Replenishment

 Sand is either brought in from elsewhere, or transported back along a beach, usually once a year.
 This is done using trucks and is therefore very costly and time consuming.
 Over the next 12 months the material is washed along the coast by long shore drift, before being
replaced again. The final method of coastal management is of course to do nothing and allow the
sea attack the coastline naturally.

Disadvantages of Coastal Management

Cost

o Most of the solutions detailed are very costly, and in many places questions are being asked
as to whether they are actually worth the money.

Problems of disrupting the natural coastal system:

 o Whenever you tamper with nature there are going to be knock on effects, which could, in
time, become worse than the original problem.
o Coastal defence strategies are often very localised, and can cause problems further down
the coast. One such example could be seen where groynes are used to trap sediment.
Further down the coast there could be a reduction in the amount of material available to
protect the coast there. This in turn would mean an increased amount of coastal erosion.

Case study 1: coastal management in Holderness

The Holderness coast is in the north east of England. This is one of the most vulnerable coastlines in the
world and it retreats at a rate of one to two metres every year.

What causes the Holderness coastline to retreat?

The problem is caused by:

 strong prevailing winds creating longshore drift that moves material south along the coastline

 the cliffs which are made of a soft boulder clay, and will therefore erode quickly, especially when
saturated.
The village of Mappleton, perched on a cliff top on the Holderness coast, has approximately 50 properties.
Due to the erosion of the cliffs, the village is under threat.

Steps taken to protect the village of Mappleton

In 1991, the decision was taken to protect Mappleton. A coastal management scheme costing £2 million
was introduced involving two types of hard engineering - placing rock armour along the base of the cliff
and building two rock groynes.

 Mappleton and the cliffs are no longer at great risk from erosion.

 The rock groynes have stopped beach material being moved south from Mappleton along the
coast. However, this has increased erosion south of Mappleton. Benefits in one area might have
a negative effect on another.
The increased threat of sea level rise due to climate change means that other places will need to consider
the sustainability of coastal defence strategies for the future.

Case study 2: tourism in Studland Bay Nature Reserve

Studland Bay is in the Isle of Purbeck in Dorset and is popular with tourists. It can be accessed by ferry
from the desirable area of Sandbanks in Poole during the summer. It is only a few minutes' drive from the
resort of Swanage and most visitors arrive by car.

Studland Bay is a good example of a place where conflict can occur between interest groups.
Studland Beach, Dorset
The issues

 The nature reserve is an area of sand dunes. These are dynamic, but often unstable and vulnerable
environments.
 Areas such as this are home to rare species of plants and birds.

 The area is attractive to tourists because of the dunes and the wide, sandy beach. The beach can
get very crowded in summer months.
 Visitors need somewhere to park and also demand other facilities, such as paths and public toilets.

 Tourists bring their problems such as litter and fire hazards (caused by barbecues and cigarette
ends).
How is the area managed?

 Vulnerable areas and areas recently planted with marram grass (which is used to stabilise the
dunes) are fenced off to limit access and damage.
 Boardwalks have been laid through the dunes to focus tourists onto specific paths.

 Car parks have been provided and people are not permitted to drive onto the beach.

 Fire beaters are positioned within the dune area in case of a fire.

 Facilities including a shop, café, toilets and litter bins are provided near the car parks to focus
tourists into one area.
 Information boards educate visitors about the environment and how they can help to protect it.