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https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-020-08667-2

A study of EEG for enterprise multimedia security

Barjinder Kaur1 · Dinesh Singh1 · Partha Pratim Roy2

Received: 14 July 2019 / Revised: 11 December 2019 / Accepted: 8 January 2020 /

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2020

Abstract
In this era of technological advancement the security of one’s own identity to access mul-
timedia content have become a major concern for big enterprises. The traditional security
mechanisms like PIN numbers, ID cards, passwords, etc., can be easily divulged by the
intruders. User identification using these traditional approaches is prone to various secu-
rity threats. Thus, a robust security system is required to deal with the security issues for
user identification and verification before providing access to the multimedia. Recently, the
use of Electroencephalogram (EEG) signals as a biometric trait has opened novel ways for
the development of various Brain-Computer-Interface (BCI) based applications. Due to the
inherent nature of uniqueness in every individual, EEG signals are considered as a robust
alternate for biometric systems. In this paper, we perform a detailed review of EEG based
security techniques to investigate its robustness in securing enterprise related multimedia
contents.

Keywords Biometrics · Electroencephalogram (EEG) · Brain computer interface (BCI) ·

Multimedia security

1 Introduction

Providing secure access to the multimedia contents in an enterprise is a major concern

among the research community. Establishing the identity of a person based on physiologi-
cal or behavioral traits is biometric [25]. The term comes from the Greek word ‘bios’ which
means ‘life’ and ‘metron’ means ‘measurement’. Person identification can be defined as

 Barjinder Kaur
kaur.barjinder@gmail.com

Dinesh Singh
Dineshsingh.cse@dcrust.org

Partha Pratim Roy

proy.fcs@iitr.ac.in

1 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, DCRUST, Sonipat, 131039, India

2 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorke, 247667, India
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‘something you have’ that is to test individual identity in many-to-one fashion where match-
ing is done from all available patterns in the system [28], whereas person authentication is
‘something you are’ the process in which matching is done in a one-to-one fashion. Tra-
ditional multimedia identification systems in an enterprise are categorized on the basis of
knowledge and tokens [69] as depicted in Fig. 1. Knowledge based systems require confi-
dential information like passwords, PIN code, ID proofs, etc. These authentication systems
pass the user verification after providing secret answer of certain information which is fur-
ther compared with stored database. The systems based on knowledge are either static for
example in which the sender and the provider exchange the secret answer and questions
before allowing access to accounts or dynamic where provider authenticates the sender
based on knowledge questions.
Token based systems rely on ATM, credit or smart cards, etc., for verifying the identity
of an individual. The latest deployment example of token based systems is Radio Frequency
Identification (RFID) tags for verification. These tags are attached to credit/smart cards, e-
passports, etc. which will overcome security vulnerabilities like shoulder surfing, injecting
malicious codes, pattern matching attacks, eavesdropping and tags forgery attacks [81].
Over the past few decades, user authentication based on biometric has gained interest
among research community who proposed various person authentication systems using dif-
ferent traits like fingerprint, iris, face and hand characteristics [22]. Such traits are known as
physiological whereas voice, signature, gait, emotions are known as affective or behavioral
traits [40] depicted in Fig. 2. Hence authentication systems are made to answer ‘What we
know?’ (knowledge based), ‘What we have?’ (token based) and ‘What we are?’ (biometric
based). These biometric approaches are also vulnerable to several security risks. Addition-
ally, some of these biometric information may get changed over time and shows behavioral
changes. A pictorial representation of the biometric systems and their corresponding threats
is depicted in Fig. 3. Therefore, a robust authentication system is required in a big multime-
dia enabled enterprise [18, 44] which may be less prone to such vulnerabilities and does not
impact the enterprise security [33] by the emotions .

Fig. 1 Person authentication divided into different classes based on the type of authentication system
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Fig. 2 Different types of biometric identifiers based on physiological and behavioral traits

In the recent past development of EEG sensor technology through wireless headsets have
opened a broader paths not only for the development of various Brain Computer Interface
(BCI) applications like gaming [12], health-care [58, 59], neuromarketing [85], video-rating
prediction, emotion detection [24] but also for the security [42, 51] purposes and providing
secure access to the cloud data [11, 43, 80]. Gauba et al. [23] developed a rating prediction
system for advertisement videos using EEG. The authors have recorded EEG signals of the
users while watching videos. A fusion methodology has been used for sentiment analysis for
which data was taken from social media comments and ratings provided by the users after
watching videos. Traditionally, EEG is considered a useful technique for diagnosing dis-
eases including coma, brain-disorders, epileptic seizure detection [83]. Since brain signals

Fig. 3 Overview of available biometric systems a different categories b sub categories based on various traits
c known threats corresponding to each category
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represent the physiological response of a person and are unique, hard to intercept thus EEG
is widely used in developing biometric applications. Marcel et al. [76] proposed a EEG-
based person authentication system using a statistical framework and concluded that few
mental tasks should be considered while developing an authentication system. Similarly,
Palaniappan et al. [63] have developed a Visual Evoked Potential (VEP) based biometric
system. VEP are defined as the brain electrical activity generated in response to a visual
stimulus. The identification of users have been performed using Elman Neural Network
(ENN) and k-Nearest Neighbor (k-NN) classifiers. More recent studies include the use of
advanced deep learning algorithms including Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) and
Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) [19, 84] to model EEG for user authentication systems.
Recently, Banee et al. [16] have proposed a spatio-temporal deep learning based archi-
tecture to develop a person identification systems. The authors used 1D CNNs to extract
spatial features and later LSTM classifier is used to process the data sequentially. This paper
reviews the state-of-the-art work done based on EEG neuro signals proposed by researchers
for the development of identification and verification mechanisms. The paper contributes
towards providing a comprehensive description of work done on user authentication systems
based on EEG signals. It also discusses the different methodologies proposed by various
researchers using neuro signals.
Rest of the paper is systematically organized as follows. The basic nature of EEG
neuro-imaging has been discussed in Section 2. Section 2.1 discusses the various publicly
available datasets for proposing authentication systems. Next, the different types of EEG
devices being used to record the data is highlighted in Section 2.2. Section 2.3 highlights
the EEG protocols being used for building a biometrics system. Finally, future directions
are discussed in Section 3 and followed by conclusion of the work in Section 4.

2 Neural biometrics

The recording of electrical activity along the scalp is done by using EEG a term coined
by ‘Hans Berger’ in 1924 for recording the activity of large number of biological neu-
rons. There are millions of biological neurons which are part of the nervous system. The
neurons are separated from specialized membrane by a synapse. It is the basic communi-
cating unit which is used to transmit the information in the brain. The flow of information
within the brain is through electric spikes or impulses. These signals are obtained by plac-
ing the electrodes over the person’s scalp as per 10-20 International Standards [32, 52]. The
configuration is depicted in Fig. 4, where a person is writing on a digital tablet and cor-
responding EEG activity is recorded. The standards refer to the unique landmark points at
which the electrodes are positioned so that brains response to specific mental activities can
be identified.
It has been found in literature that the use of brain signals while asking the user to per-
form specific psychological and/or physiological task makes a potential biometric system.
This will help to discriminate capabilities of the individuals’. Different brain oscillations
are typically lies in between 0.5 − 40H z frequency range which are further categorized into
five rhythms, i.e., delta (0.5-4Hz), theta (4-8Hz), alpha (8-16Hz), beta (16-32Hz), Gamma
(32 Hz-above), which are omnipresent in different parts of the brain [39, 85]. Researchers
analyzed that a robust authentication system can be build by focusing on these EEG rhythms
using different kinds of stimuli. EEG based biometric authentication systems follows the
basic model depicted in Fig. 5 and different machine learning steps to identify and verify
a claimed identity which includes data acquisition, preprocessing, i.e, filtering of artifacts,
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Fig. 4 EEG signals recorded from different positions on scalp while a person is involved in an activity

feature extraction, classification and finally the results. The model can be build by asking
the users to perform certain activity according to the given protocol.
1. Data Acquisition: The first phase is data acquisition where raw data for EEG based
neuro sensor device is collected. The data is captured by asking the users to perform
different types of tasks like imagining the number, listening to the audio, watching
various clips in a video , calculation in the mind, sitting in rest state position with eyes
close or eyes open, eye blinking, performing motor imaginary movements etc. The data
recorded using EEG based devices consists of electrodes ranging from 1 to 256. This
signals data is stored for further processing by the system.

Fig. 5 A general EEG based biometric model

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2. Pre-processing: Whenever the data is recorded different types of artifacts gets stored
with the data. The artifacts are recorded due to muscular movement, hair rubbing,
environmental noise etc. The preprocessing of data is performed to remove this dis-
tortions which are captured while recording. For this various noise filtering techniques
are used few of them are gabor filter, smoothing, moving average [36]. Also normal-
ization, binarization, summing, interpolation and other techniques are used for signal
enhancement.
3. Feature Extraction: feature extraction is considered as next step in this hierarchy where
different descriptors of data are extracted. These features will lead to good results are
cautiously selected. Depending on the type of problem, or solution to the problem
defined, the features are selected. These features are of either time domain, frequency
domain, transform domain or spatial. The data which is further decomposed into
different wave bands as shown in Fig. 6.
4. Classification: this process is physically assign the data objects into a predefined
set of categories. Different algorithms are segregated into generative discriminative,
static-dynamic, stable-unstable, regularized classifiers which are applied on the traits
used for biometric system. The selected data is tested and trained using supervised or
unsupervised techniques [7].
5. Results: Finally the results are reported after performing experiments.

2.1 EEG databases

In this section, we discuss the EEG databases which are publicly available. These databases
were built for medical purposes but has been used by research community for proposing
user authentication for security purposes. The databases are listed below and presented in
Table 1:
1. CSU EEG Dataset [38]: Keirn and Aunon worked on EEG dataset at Colorado State
University (CSU) Brain Computer Interface (BCI) Laboratory. They collected EEG
neuro data of seven subjects while performing five different tasks including baseline,

Fig. 6 Different rhythmic waves generated by the brain

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Table 1 Summary of publicly available EEG datasets used for user authentication

Dataset Channels Subjects Tasks Duration

CSU EEG [38] 6 7 5 10 seconds

UCI KDD EEG [29] 64 Small dataset-2 1 1 second
Large dataset-20
Full dataset-122
Physionet [74] 64 109 14 1 minute
Australian EEG [30] 23 40 2 20 minutes
BCI competition 2008 [49] Graz 2008A-5 9 4 6 seconds
Graz 2008B-3 9 2 7.5 seconds
MI-BCI [13] 3D 52 8 3 sec
EEG-BCI [37] EEG 13 3 60 hours
HGD-EEG [75] EEG 14 4 4 sec

letter, math, visual counting and geometric figure rotation. The 2500 samples EEG
Data (age range 21-48 years) was collected for 10 seconds from 6 electrode positions
sampled at 250 Hz over a time span of 2 weeks.
2. UCI KDD EEG Dataset [29]: A time series multiple electrode EEG data record-
ings which includes neuro signals of control and alcoholic subjects were stored in this
dataset. For data recording, visual stimuli in the form of different pictures has been
used [79]. The data recorded for 1 second from 64 electrodes was sampled at 256 Hz.
This dataset has three versions of EEG data:
– Small Dataset:It includes 2 subjects ( 1 control and 1 alcoholic) and contains 10
trails.
– Large Dataset:It includes 20 subjects ( 10 control and 10 alcoholic) and contains
10 trails.
– Full Dataset:It includes 122 subjects (45 control and 77 alcoholic)and contains 120
trails.
3. Physionet Dataset [74]: This dataset has been created by the developers of the
BCI2000. It consist of EEG signals of 109 subjects while performing different move-
ment/imaginary tasks. Fourteen experimental tasks were performed by the participants.
EEG recordings were captured using a 64 channel EEG device with a sampling
frequency of 160 Hz.
4. Australian EEG Dataset [30]: This dataset consists of 18,500 EEG signals record-ed
over a period of 11 years at John Hunter Hospital. The 40 patients (age range 24 week
gestation period to 90 years) data were recorded in resting state i.e. Eyes Open and
Eyes Close. The 20 minutes EEG data has been captured from 23 electrodes with 167
Hz sampling frequency.
5. BCI Competition 2008 Dataset [6]: This dataset consist of two subdatasets known as
Graz datasets 2008 A and 2008 B. The details are discussed below:
– Graz 2008 A Dataset [9]: The dataset consist of neuro signals of 9 subjects cap-
tured from 5 electrodes during time duration of 6 seconds at sampling rate 250 Hz.
The subjects were asked to perform four motor imaginary tasks namely left hand,
right hand, foot and tongue. The data has been collected in 2 sessions on different
days.
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– Graz 2008 B Dataset [49]: The dataset consist of neuro signals of 9 subjects cap-
tured from 3 electrodes during time duration of 7.5 seconds at sampling rate of 250
Hz. The data collected in 5 sessions consisted of signals recorded while subjects
performing two motor imaginary tasks (left/right hand movement).

2.1.1 EEG based user authentication databases

There are the databases which have been developed for user authentication systems. The
databases are discussed as follows.
1. Music Listening Dataset [35]: This dataset consists of EEG signals of 60 subjects
collected from 14 electrode positions of the brain at sampling rate of 128 Hz. For cap-
turing the data music listening with eyes closed has been used as stimuli. Four genres of
instrumental music were selected i.e. devotional, electronic, classical and rock. A total
of 240 EEG signals have been collected during the time duration 1 minute 50 second.
2. Signature-EEG Dataset [73]: A multimodal dataset consisting of offline signatures
and EEG data has been made available for proposing person identification and verifi-
cation system. The data is captured from 70 subjects (age range from 15 to 55) and
consists of neuro signals while subject sitting in Eyes open resting state and signing on
the paper. Data from 14 electrodes at sampling rate 128 Hz has been collected. Table 2
presents dataset for user authentication.

2.2 EEG devices

Different kinds of EEG neuro-sensor devices have been used for capturing data from differ-
ent locations of the brain. The data recorded has been used for proposing user authentication
systems. Table 3 below highlight the devices that have been popularly used by researcher
for personal security and verification using EEG signals.

2.3 Protocols of EEG recording

In literature, different authentications systems have been proposed by researchers using

EEG signals. These systems are broadly implemented using six different protocols as
depicted in Fig. 7 which are used while recording EEG data from the users for the develop-
ment of a robust person authentication system. The details of each protocol are discussed in
the following section.

2.3.1 Visual evoked potentials (VEP)

In this section, we review the work of various authors, who proposed user authentication
systems using VEP. VEP are caused by a visual stimulus, such as an alternating checker-
board pattern on a computer’s monitor and corresponding user’s response are recorded with

Table 2 User authentication dataset

Dataset Channels Subjects Tasks Duration

Music listening EEG [35] 14 60 1 1 minute 50 seconds

Signature-EEG [73] 14 70 1 -
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Table 3 The table specifies the EEG devices used for developing authentication system

Device name Channels Sampling rate Communication Operating time

Emotiv Epoc + 14 128 Hz wireless 12 hours

Brain Amp 64 200 Hz no-wireless -
MindWave 1 3-100Hz wireless 6-8 Hours
g.USBamp 16 2400Hz USB -
BioSemi 256 2-16Hz no-wireless 5 Hours
Enobio 8 125Hz wi-fi 5 Hours
BIOPAC 32 100Hz wireless -
BCI2000 64 160Hz no-wireless -
g.tec 64 500Hz wireless 10
SynAmps2 18 300Hz wireless -

the help of EEG electrodes. Using Steady State Visual Evoked Potential (SSVEP) stimuli
a user authentication system has been proposed in [67] corresponding to various frequency
bands. The authors have extracted Short Time Fourier Transform (STFT) based features
from O1 and O2 channels and reported an True Acceptance Rate (TAR) of 60%. However,
the study was conducted on EEG signals of 5 individuals. Qiong et al. [21] proposed a VEP
as stimuli to develop a user identification system. Wavelet features have been extracted and
the identification has been performed using Artificial neural Network (ANN) classifier with
an accuracy of 90%.
A new method for user identification using spectral feature and Simplified Fuzzy
ARTMAP (SFA) has been proposed by the authors in [64]. ANN classifier was used to get
an average accuracy of 94.18%. Palaniappan et al. [60] have proposed the use of spectral-
power features and zero-phase butterworth digital filter has been used for artifact removal.
In [65], the authors proposed a person recognition biometric system by the use of Gamma
Band Spectral Power (GBSP) features. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) technique has
been used for preprocessing. Three classifiers, namely, SFA, LD and k-NN were used to
train and test the data of 20 subjects using 61 electrodes while subjects perceiving a pic-
ture whereas using same classifiers an accuracy of 95.25% has been obtained with VEP

Fig. 7 Available EEG based user authentication systems using different protocols
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stimuli for gamma band feature [70] using Elman Neural Network classifier (ENN) and
Davies-Bouldin-Index (DBI) has been with AR features and Elliptical Filter (EF) [63].
User identification based on imagined activities was proposed in [61]. Their study was
performed on the EEG signals of 5 subjects by considering only six electrodes with features
from each EEG segment which includes 6th order AR, SP, Interhemispheric Channel Spec-
tral Power (ICSP) and Inter-hemispheric Channel Linear (ICL) complexity values using
10 fold cross validation procedure and Linear Discriminant (LD) as classifier. Zuquete et
al. [87] proposed a person identification approach using EEG signals by analyzing VEP.
Energy of differential EEG signals are used as features from 8 occipital electrodes which
were later fed into k-NN with 1-NN and Support Vector Data Description (SVDD) classi-
fiers. They have recorded an accuracy of 93.7% on EEG signals of 70 subjects. For visual
stimulation, the authors in [55] have used a self-photo and non-self-photo and recorded data
from 10 subjects. Fuzzy Entropy (FE) method was applied for feature extraction and for
feature selection they used Fisher distance, which were further classified using Back Propa-
gation (BP) neural network. A classification accuracy of 87.3% has been achieved with the
use of FP1 and FP2 channels. Table 4 presents a summary of biometric system using VEP
as stimuli.

2.3.2 Resting state protocol

Resting based user authentication have been proposed by various researcher using EEG sig-
nals. In resting state, users are asked to sit calm with clear thoughts either in Eyes Closed
(EC) or Eyes Open (EO) states while recording EEG data. Miyamoto et al. [54] proposed
a new feature vector maximum spectral power, their frequency values, and accumulated
spectral power. The features which shows greater threshold value were used in correspon-
dence to alpha wave. Data recorded from 23 subjects with eyes closed (EC) resting state

Table 4 Summary of research contributions using Visual Evoked Potential as Stimuli

Authors & Year Channels set Dataset Feature extraction Classifier Accuracy (%)

Phothisonothai [67] 2 5 Peak k-NN 60-100

Magnitude
Qiong et al. [21] 6 32 WPD ANN 90
Palaniappan et al. [64] 61 20 SP SFA, NN 94.18
Palaniappan [60] 64 20 SP SFA, LDA, 99.06
k-NN
Ravi et al. [70] 61 20 SP SFA, 95.25
k-NN
Palaniappan et al [63] 61 40 DBI ENN 98.56
Zuquete et al. [87] 8 70 En OCC, K-NN, -
SVDD
Palaniappan [61] 6 5 AR, SP LDC -
ICSP, IHCL
Mu et al. [55] 2 10 FE BP-NN -
Palaniappan [62] 8 5 EF AR -
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were used as stimuli to propose a person identification system. An accuracy of 72% has
been achieved using one channel. The authors in [71] have proposed a biometric system
using EEG data from 2 frontal electrodes recorded with 51 genuine users and 36 intruders.
In their approach, a multistage fusion was applied as feature fusion with a classification
fusion. Five different features i.e. Entropy (Et), Skewness (Sk), Kurtosis (Kt), Standard
Deviation (SD), Fractal Dimension (FD) were used for performance analysis where an ERR
of 3.4%, TAR of 96.6% and False Acceptance Rate (FAR) of 3.4% were recorded using
Fisher’s Discriminant Analysis (FDA). A comparison between Shannon (SE) and AR fea-
tures in EO and EC resting state EEG signals has been discussed in [68]. CRRs of 97.1%
at gamma band for SE features and 97.2% for AR features at normal band have been
recorded by the authors. They claimed that SE feature is 2.3 to 2.6 times faster in user
identification that can be used to build a fast, robust EEG based authentication system.
Delta band based person identification using four EEG channels is proposed by [82]. The
authors have recorded EEG signals of 20 users in resting state and applied an Independent
Component Analysis (ICA) algorithm to preprocess the raw signals whereas a feed-
forward based ANN with hyperbolic tangent kernel function was applied for classification
purpose.
The repeatability of EEG over time is discussed in [46], where the signals were acquired
from a dataset of 9 subjects using resting state stimuli. Data recorded in two different ses-
sions and AR features has been extracted. The classification has been performed with a
linear classifier based on a Minimum-Mean-Square-Error (MMSE) criterion. In their study,
the authors considered delta, theta, alpha, beta wave bands only. With same state, Rocca
et al. [45] recorded an accuracy of 98.73% using spectral features and Mahalanobis Dis-
tance (MD) based linear classifier whereas accuracies of 97.41% (EC), 96.26% (EO) for
108 subjects using existing database have been recorded using resting stimuli in [47] using a
linear classifier. For identifying the user in [10] resting protocol has been followed to record
the data which is further classified with Polynomial Regression (PR) classifier and fea-
tures extracted were AR features. New features, namely, concavity and convexity of spectral
power have been proposed for building a robust identification system [56]. These features
were then fused with spectral variance. The experiment includes 23 subjects where an ERR
of 11% has been recorded by the authors. Maiorana et al. [50] used EC and EO resting state
protocol for user identification on EEG signals of 30 users. The data was recorded on two
separate days to evaluate the Eigenbrains (EBs) or Eigentensorbrains (ETBs) effectiveness
using PSD features and ANN classifier.
Howida et al. [78] proposed a voting scheme based biometric system that achieved an
accuracy of 100% for 3 subjects using Multi Layer Preceptron (MLP) neural network clas-
sifier . In their study, Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) and WPD have been applied for
feature extraction. In addition, Mn, SD, and Et features were also used to analyze the results
in the resting state. In [20], the authors conclude that by recording the signals in resting state
highest CRR can be achieved. In their work, PSD features were extracted and were clas-
sified using Naive Bayes (NB) classifier with an accuracy of 78% during EO, 89% during
EC at parieto-occipital electrodes. In [48], the authors have studied the Spectral Power (SP),
the Maximum Power (MP), and the Frequency of Maximum Power (FMP) in alpha band
for EEG biometric authentication system using EC protocol. Data collected from four sub-
jects with an interval between 1st and 2nd recording: 10 days or 5 months. With one bipolar
channel O1-A2 user authentication performance of 98.33% with 20 second long EEG data
and 100% with 50 seconds EEG data have been recorded. A summary of related work in
resting state is presented in Table 5.
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Table 5 Summary of research contributions using Resting State Protocol for EEG based Biometric Systems

Authors & Year Channels set Datase Feature extraction Classifier Accuracy (%)

Riera et al. [71] 2 51 SD, Et, FDA 96.6

Kt, FD,
Sk
Phung et al. [68] 23 40 SE SVM 97.1
Tangkraingkij [82] 4 20 - NN 100
La Rocca et al. [46] 54 9 AR Linear -
La Rocca et al. [45] 56 45 PSD MD 98.73
La Rocca et al. [47] 56 108 PSD, MD 97.41(EC)
FC 96.26(EO)
Campisi et al. [10] 56 48 AR PR 96.08
Nakanishi et al. [56] 1 23 Cn, - 11
Cv,
SP
Maiorana et al. [50] 19 30 PSD NN -
Howida [78] 4 3 Mn, NN 100
SD,
Et
Fallani et al. [20] 56 50 PSD Naive Bayes 78(EO)
89(EC)
Lee et al. [48] 2 4 SP, MP, FMP LDA 98.3
Miyamoto et al. [53] 1 23 SP - 79
Zhu et al. [15] 1 13 AR BPNN, SVM, 87
LDA

2.3.3 Mind tasks

This type of authentication system require a user to perform some assigned mental task. For
performing these tasks users were asked to count the number of objects in mind which are
being displayed on the screen, do arithmetic calculations in mind like addition of numbers
or perform the motor movements in mind, etc. While the users are performing the tasks the
EEG signals are recorded simultaneously. Chung et al. [14] proposed a novel framework by
asking the users to perform different mind tasks, namely, breathing, simulated finger move-
ment, sports task, song/passage recitation, eye, audio tone task, object counting (color), and
pass thought tasks. EEG signals of 15 subjects were recorded using one channel that were
classified using k-nearest neighbor (k-NN) with Power Spectral Density (PSD) features. An
accuracy of 99% was reported by the authors. In [4], the authors proposed a authentication
model by asking the users to perform left hand movement. PSD features were extracted and
classified using a GMM-UBM model. Identification through optimization technique Binary
Flower Pollination Algorithm (BFPA) is described in [72] with an accuracy of 87%. In their
study, the number of required sensors were reduced while maintaining a comparable per-
formance through the use of Optimum-Path Forest (OPF) classifier with the help of AR
features. The authors have shown that half number of electrodes are sufficient to maintain-
ing the accuracy. In [76], EEG data of 9 subjects were recorded during mental imagination
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tasks were performed with self-paced left or right hand movement. The system performance
was recorded with a Half Total Error Rate (HTER) range from 8.1% to 12.3%. In Table 6,
the work of authors who proposed mind task methodology for the development of user
authentication system is summarized.

2.3.4 Imagine tasks

Authentication systems using imagined tasks require a user to perform imagined speak [8],
mental writing [2] and imaginary finger/hand movements [31], etc. Abdulkader et al. [2]
used mental writing as passwords to develop an EEG based authentication system. Multi-
variate Autoregressive (MVAR) and Power Spectral Density (PSD) features were extracted
which results into HTERs of 5% and 3%, respectively, when tested with SVM classifier. In
[31], the authors investigated various rhythms and studied the feature extraction technique
effective for biometric identification. They selected five imagined tasks, i.e., breathing, fin-
ger, pass, song and sport. Different waves were measured by increasing or decreasing the
tasks and channels. The authentication rate reported by 1 channel for 1 task, 16 channels for
1 task, and 16 channels for 5 tasks with an accuracy of 90%, 92% and 97%, respectively. A
motor imaginary as stimuli was investigated by [57]. The authors have used PSD and AR
features with GMM and SVDD classifiers. Similarly, motor imaginary task has also been
proposed in [66] using AR and PSD feature with SVM classifier.
Study regarding EEG selection which impacts the authentication system has been
reported on 106 subjects [4], where the authors test that idle mental task. They also ana-
lyzed that the effect of single rhythm increases the authentication accuracy. In [77], the
authors have extracted four features including energy, Recousing Energy Efficiency (REE),
Logarithmic REE (LREE), Absolute Logarithmic REE (ALREE) and fed into the MLP-NN
classifier. Similarly, the authors in [8] have proposed a user identification system by record-
ing the EEG data of 6 subjects using imagining speaking stimuli. The preprocessed data
has been used to extract AR features and were classified using linear SVM. The authors
achieved an accuracy of 99.76% using imagined speech /ba/ and /ku/ EEG signals data.
Contributions by the researchers using imagine task to record the data has been presented
in Table 7.

2.3.5 P300 wave

The P300 wave is an Event Related Potential (ERP) elicited during decision making. The
component has a positive deflection in the scalp recorded EEG and typically occurs at
300 ms after the presentation of an infrequent stimulus which can be a visual, auditory,
or somatosensory [17]. A Wavelet Packet Decomposition (WPD) technique is proposed in

Table 6 Summary of research contributions using Mind Task as stimuli for EEG based Biometric Systems

Authors & Year Channels set Dataset Feature extraction Classifier Accuracy (%)

Chuang et al. [14] 1 15 PSD K-NN 99

Altahat et al. [4] 64 50 PSD GMM-UBM -
Rodrigues et al. [72] 64 109 AR OPF 87
Marcel et al. [76] 32 9 PSD GMM 12.3 (HTER)
Nguyen et al. [57] 3 9 AR, PSD GMM, SVDD -
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Table 7 Summary of research contributions using Imagine Task as stimuli for EEG based Biometric Systems

Authors & Year Channels set Dataset Feature extraction Classifier Accuracy (%)

Abdulkader et al. [2] 14 6 PSD SVM -

MVAR
Ishikawa et al. [31] 16 10 SP Cross 92
Similarity
Pham et al. [66] 8 18 AR, PSD SVM -
Sharma et al. [77] 64 5 DWT, ED NN -
REE,LREE
ALREE
Ashby et al. [5] 14 5 AR, SP, SVM 100
IHPD, IHLC

[26] to develop a P300 based EEG authentication system. The authors recorded an accuracy
of 85% using a Radial Basis Function (RBF) and Neural Network (NN) based classifica-
tion schemes. In [41], EEG data from 14 channels across 25 subjects were recorded for the
experiments using a Zener cards to elicit the stimuli and record the P300 data. Blind Source
Separation canonical correlation analysis (BSS-CCA) was applied to remove the artifacts.
User identification rate of 72% was recorded using a single 800 ms ERP epoch with the
help of LDA and quadratic discriminant analysis (QDA) classifiers. A methodology using
P300 as stimuli was proposed in [86], where different pictures of known and unknown per-
sons were shown to user. With the use of Fisher’s Linear Discriminant Analysis (FLDA)
on Mn and SD features where FRR of 0.325 for secret-unknown attack and 0.10 FAR for
secret-known attack were recorded. A stout biometric system was proposed in [27] using
P300 potential. For the experimental study, the authors recorded data from 8 subjects using
eight electrodes. Stimulus was provided using three variations of oddball paradigm and
butterworth bandpass was applied to filter the noisy data and then signals were classified
using Bayesian LDA based scheme. The study highlights that RSVP methodology could be
exploited effectively for biometrics. The related work summary of P300 based biometric
system is presented in Table 8.

2.3.6 Eye blinking & music listening

Eye blinking and music listening tasks based user authentication systems have been pro-
posed by researchers that require a user to blink their eyes or listen a particular music while
recording EEG signals. In such tasks, user specific properties such as number of eye blinks
or their level of enjoyment during music listening have been analyzed in the literature.

Table 8 Summary of research contributions using P300 as stimuli for EEG based Biometric Systems

Authors & Year Channels set Dataset Feature extraction Classifier Accuracy (%)

Gupta et al. [26] 8 4 - SVM, NN 85

Akino et al. [41] 14 25 - QDA 87
Moonwon et al. [86] 8 4 Mn, SD FLDA 87
Gupta et al. [27] 8 8 - LDA -
Multimedia Tools and Applications

Abo-Zahhad et al. [3] have identified the subjects using AR feature extractor and LDA clas-
sifier to achieve HRR of 97.3% and ERR of 3.7% by proposing a novel approach of user
authentication using eye blinking whereas Abbas et al. [1] reported a CRR of 93.75% when
classified the amplitude, position, and pulse duration features using Discriminant Analysis
(DA). Data recorded from 40 volunteer subjects using EEG sensor device with 1 channel
were preprocessed using DWT with an Equal Error Rate (EER) of 7.45%.
Kaur et al. [35] proposed a novel approach using music as stimuli. Four different gen-
res (devotional, electronic, classical and rock) were used to record brain activities during
music listening. The dataset consists of EEG signals from 60 users. The authors used DWT,
SD and root mean square (RMS) as features set which are classified using Hidden Markov
Model (HMM) and SVM classifiers. Performance accuracy of 97.50% and 93.83% have
been achieved with HMM and SVM based classifiers using 5-fold cross validation tech-
nique. A summary of the authentication systems using eye blinks and music listening tasks
is presented in Table 9.

3 Future directions

EEG signals carry genetic information which uniquely distinguishes every individual. It has
also been reviewed that EEG is a promising neuroimaging method for building a foolproof
enterprise security systems. But in spite of studies being performed using EEG their are
some key points that needs to be discussed while building EEG based security.
– Emotions Impact on neuro signals: Although studies have shown that EEG signals
provide highest accuracy of individual identification. But what will be the emotional
impact on these signals on the proposed EEG based biometric systems.
– Permanence factor of neuro signals: Age variation leads to physiological changes in
the human body. Studies [34, 47] being performed does not provide effective informa-
tion regarding the change in EEG signals in reference to the longer duration between
training and testing samples.
– EEG Acquisition tools complexity: Even though there is great improvement in the
EEG device technologies with dry electrodes being used for capturing the data. But
these devices needs to be tested for its suitability of using as biometric application.
Also due to technological changes the EEG devices needs to be integrated with mobile
devices to build a more practical authentication system.
– Development of multimodal systems: The building of biometric systems has its own
disadvantages. But EEG signals used as biometric provides various peculiarities and is
more secure. Therefore fusion of other physiological traits like fingerprint, retina, hand

Table 9 Summary of research contributions using eye blinking and music listening as stimuli for EEG based
Biometric Systems

Authors & Year Channels set Dataset Feature extraction Classifier Accuracy (%)

Abo-Zahhad et al. [3] 1 31 AR LDA 97.5

Abbas et al. [1] 1 40 Am, Ps, Du DA 93.7
Kaur et al. [35] 14 60 DWT, SD, RMS HMM 97.50
SVM 93.83
 Multimedia Tools and Applications

etc. with EEG signals needs to be developed that will not only increase security of the
system but also provides a robust authentication system.

4 Conclusion

Verification of personal identity while accessing multimedia contents can be done using
various ways. However, the input to the verification system is very crucial, as it is the only
medium of interaction with the person being authenticated. The Identity Management Sys-
tem (IMS) should be able to ensure security from the imposters. It has been studied that
security of traditional identification systems can be compromised due to several imposter
attacks. Therefore, to guard the efficacy of authentication system, researcher community
have started exploring brain waves based biometric systems using EEG signals. This paper
reviewed state-of-the art aspects of BCI which has been used for security purposes. We high-
lighted various types of protocols being used to capture the working of millions of neurons
which are passing message to each other for every activity being performed. The paper also
highlighted the EEG sensor devices which have proven effective for capturing the changes
from different regions of the brain. EEG signals being effective for biometric traits has lead
the research community to use the publicly available datasets; which has been discussed in
the paper for practical implementation of EEG based biometric systems. Thus, a conclu-
sion can be drawn that EEG signals provide a strong evidence towards developing a highly
robust security system for big multimedia enterprises.

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