In order to gain proper perspective about a science that deals with plant and animal drugs and

their constituents, it is exceedingly helpful to survey past records and to recognize those who
have contributed to the subject matter that constituted the field of pharmacognosy in its
beginning.

Pharmacognosy is systematic study of these crude drugs obtained from natural origin like
plant, animal and minerals. Pharmacognosy can be defined as branch of science which
involves detail study of drugs obtained from natural origin including name, habitat,
collection, cultivation, macroscopy, microscopy, physical properties, chemical constituents,
therapeutic actions, uses and adulterants. The word pharmacognosy is derived from two
words, pharmakon means medicine (drug) and gignosco means to acquire knowledge of
something.

Importance of studying pharmacognosy

1. Pharmacognosy is important branch of pharmacy which is playing key role in new drug
discovery and development by using natural products. Pharmacognosy has given many leads for
new drug discovery and development.

Example:

ANTICANCER DRUG-VINCA ROSEA

• FAMILY: APOCYLNACEAE
• CHEMICA L CONSTITUENTS: vinca contains large number

of indole or dihydroindole type alkaloids.

• Out of them about 20 dimeric indole dihydroindole alkaloids possess anticancer activity
• Vincristine and vinblastine are most significant
• Vinblastine sulphate is an antitumor alkaloid used to cure disease.
• Vincristine sulphate used to treat leukemia

ANTIMALARIAL DRUG- CINCHONA

• FAMILY –RUBIACEAE
• CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS :
• Cinchona bark contains about 25 alkaloids , with belongs to the quinoline type
• The important alkaloids are quinine(70%) quinidine, cinchoindine and cinchoindine

2. Prof. John Schimidt coined the term pharmacognosy in his book Lehrbuch der Materia
Medica. Earlier subject was known as ‘Materiamedica’. It includes systematic study of
crude drugs from nature. Study of pharmacognosy includes the history, distribution,
cultivation, collection, processing and preservation. It also includes the study of physical,
chemical and structural characters and the safe uses of crude drugs. origin can be obtained
by plants, animals (terrestrial as well as marine) and minerals.

The ancient Egyptians documented their knowledge about medicine on paper made from
Cyperusaquaticus commonly called acquatic sage or papyrus. Papyrus Ebers (around 1500
BC), Berlin Papyrus, Edwin Smith Paprus, KahunMedicak Papyrus are some of the oldest
handbooks which contain information of illness and treatments. In ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia clay tablets were used to document knowledge of drugs which are dating
back to 3000 BC.

1. The aloe vera plant is a succulent plant species from the genus Aloe.
Historically, aloe has been used for skin conditions and was thought to
improve baldness and promote wound healing.
2. Belladonna (Atropa belladonna) is a poisonous plant that has been used
as a medicine since ancient times. It is named “Belladonna” for the
“beautiful women” of Renaissance Italy, who took it to enlarge their
pupils, which they found more alluring. Atropa belladonna is a medicinal
plant and main commercial source of tropane alkaloids (TAs) including
scopolamine and hyoscyamine, which are anticholinergic drugs widely
used clinically.
3. Combining tamoxifen, the world's most prescribed breast cancer agent, with a
compound found in the flowering plant feverfew
4. Colchicine is an alkaloid derived from plants of the lily family, Colchicum
autumnale, that was first recommended for the treatment of gout in the sixth
century. It remains widely in use today for the treatment of acute gout.
5. Ergot is a fungus that grows on rye and less commonly on other grasses such as
wheat. People use ergot for excessive bleeding during menstrual periods, to
expel placenta after childbirth. The ergot fungus contains a number of highly
poisonous and psychoactive alkaloids, including lysergic acid (LSD), which was
synthesized from the ergot fungus in 1938 by chemist, Albert Hoffmann.
6. During the height of the Reformation, opium is reintroduced into European
medical literature by Paracelsus as laudanum. These black pills or "Stones of
Immortality" were made of opium thebaicum, citrus juice and quintessence
of gold and prescribed as painkillers.
7. As the name hints, Premarin is derived from pregnant mare's urine. It is used
by women to help reduce symptoms of menopause (such as hot flashes, vaginal
dryness).
8. Digitalis lanata is the major source of digoxin. Foxglove is most commonly
used for heart failure and fluid build up in the body (congestive heart failure or
CHF) and irregular heartbeat (atrial fibrillation).
A bioassay is an analytical method to determine the concentration or potency of a
substance by its effect on living animals or plants (in vivo), or on living cells or
tissues(in vitro).

Quinine is a natural cinchona alkaloid that has been used for centuries in the
prevention and therapy of malaria.

Caffeine is a drug that stimulates (increases the activity of) your brain and
nervous system. Caffeine is found in many drinks such as coffee, tea, soft drinks and
energy drinks.

Codeine sulfate is a form of this drug that is commonly used. It is available in tablet
form and indicated for the relief of mild to moderately severe pain, where the use of an
opioid analgesic is appropriate.

The solution form is used by itself or combined in a syrup with other drugs and is used
as a cough suppressant in adults aged 18 and above.

NARCOTINE is a crystalline alkaloid that is found in opium and possesses antispasmodic but no
narcotic properties.

Morphine tablet is used to relieve short-term (acute) or long-term (chronic)

moderate to severe pain.

Hyoscyamine is used to control symptoms associated with disorders of the gastrointestinal (GI)
tract.

Noscapine is primarily used for its antitussive (cough-suppressing) effects.

Cocaine is a powerfully addictive stimulant drug made from the leaves of the coca plant

LSD or 'acid' is a powerful hallucinogenic drug

Citric acid is found naturally in citrus fruits, especially lemons and limes.

DIOSCORIDES

J.A Schmidt
Egyptian

Definition of terms:

Crude drugs

The term natural substances refers to those substances found in nature that comprise

1. whole plants and herbs and anatomic parts (vegetable saps, extracts,
secretions, and other constituents )
2. whole animals and anatomic parts (glands or other animal organs, extracts,
secretions, and other constituents)
3. substances that have not had changes made in their molecular structure

The geographic source and habitat are the region in which the plant or animal yielding the drug
grows. Sometimes this term is applied erroneously to the drugs themselves.

The Mediterranean basin, includng Asia Minor, yields more drugs than any other
region of the world.

Erythromycin under the brand name Ilosone.

Abelardo Aguilar isolated a strain of bacteria which lead to the development of

Erythromycin, a broad-spectrum antibiotic used to treat and prevent a wide range of infections. Eli
Lilly marketed Erythromycin under the brand name Ilosone.

Peru balsam, for example, does not come from Peru but is produced in El Salvador

Plants growing in their native countries are said to be indigenous to those regions, such as Pmus
palustris in the southern United States, Aconitum napellus in the mountainous regions of Europe,
and others.

Plants are said to be naturalized when they grow in a foreign land or in a locality other than
their native homes, such as Datura stramonium, which was introduced into the United States
from Europe. Some of these plants may have been introduced with the seeds of cultivated plants,
some by birds or ocean currents, others by ballast of ships, and so on.

COLLECTION AND PROCESSING OF HERBAL DRUGS COLLECTION OF

HERBAL DRUGS

Collection is the most important step which comes after cultivation.

Drugs are collected from wild or cultivated plants and the tasks for collection depends upon the
collector, whether he is a skilled or unskilled labour. Drugs should be collected when they
contain maximum amount of constituents in a highly scientific manner.
 1. season at which each drug is collected
2. the age of the plant
3. composition of a number of secondary plant metabolites varies throughout the day and
night,

The season at which each drug is collected is so important, as the amount, and sometimes the
nature, of the active constituents could be changed throughout the year. For example, Rhubarb is
collected only in summer seasons because no anthraquinone derivatives would be present in
winter season but anthranols are converted to anthraquinones during summer.

Not only the season but also the age of the plant should be taken in to great consideration since it
governs not only the total amount of active constituents produced in the plants but also the
proportions of the constituents of the active mixture. High proportion of polygon in young plants
of peppermint will be replaced by Mentone and menthol and reduction in the percentage of
alkaloids in datura as the plant ages are examples of the effect of aging in plants.

Moreover the composition of a number of secondary plant metabolites varies throughout the day
and night, and it is believed that some inter conversion would happen during day and night.

Generally the leaves are collected just before the flowering season, e.g. vasaka, digitalis, etc., at
this time it is assumed that the whole plant has come to a healthy state and contain an optimum
amount of metabolites, flowers are collected before they expand fully, e.g. clove, saffron, etc.,
and underground organs as the aerial parts of plant cells die, e.g. liquorice, rauwolfia, etc. Since
it is very difficult to collect the exact medicinally valuable parts, the official pharmacopoeia’s
has fixed certain amount of foreign matter that is permissible with drug. Some fruits are collected
after their full maturity while the others are collected after the fruits are ripe. Barks are usually
collected in spring season, as they are easy to separate from the wood during this season. The
barks are collected using three techniques, felling (bark is peeled off after cutting the tree at
base), uprooting (the underground roots are dug out and barks are collected from branches and
roots) and coppicing (plant is cut one metre above the ground level and barks are removed).

Underground parts should be collected and shaken, dusted in order to remove the adhered soil;
water washing could be done if the adhered particles are too sticky with plant parts. The
unorganized drugs should be collected from plants as soon as they oozes out, e.g. resins, latex,
gums, etc. Discoloured drugs or drugs which were affected by insects should be rejected.

HARVESTING OF HERBAL DRUGS

Harvesting is an important operation in cultivation technology, as it reflects upon economic

aspects of the crude drugs. An important point which needs attention over here is the type of
drug to be harvested and the pharmacopoeial standards which it needs to achieve. Selectivity is
of advantage in that the drugs other than genuine, but similar in appearance can be rejected at the
site of collection.
DRYING OF CRUDE DRUGS
Before marketing a crude drug, it is necessary to process it properly, so as to preserve it for a
longer time and also to acquire better pharmaceutical elegance. Drying consists of removal of
sufficient moisture content of crude drug, so as to improve its quality and make it resistant to the
growth of microorganisms. Drying inhibits partially enzymatic reactions. Drying also facilitates
pulverizing or grinding of a crude drug.

Drying can be of two types - (1) natural (sun drying) and (2) artificial.

1.Natural Drying (Sun-Drying)

In case of natural drying, it may be either direct sun-drying or in the shed.

2.Artificial Drying

Drying by artificial means includes drying the drugs in (a) an oven; i.e. tray-dryers; (b) vacuum
dryers and (c) spray dryers.
GARBLING

The next step in preparation of crude drug for market after drying is garbling. This process is
desired when sand, dirt and foreign organic parts of the same plant, not constituting drug are
required to be removed. This foreign organic matter (extraneous matter) is removed by several
ways and means available and practicable at the site of the preparation of the drugs.
PACKING OF CRUDE DRUGS

The morphological and chemical nature of drug, its ultimate use and effects of climatic
conditions during transportation and storage should be taken into consideration while packing
the drugs.
Apart from protection against adverse physical and chem-ical changes, the preservation against
insect or mould attacks is also important. Different types of insects, nematodes, worms, moulds
and mites infest the crude drugs during storage.

Some of the more important pests found in drugs are Coleoptera (Stegobium paniceum and
Calandrum granarium), Lepidoptera (Ephestia kuehniella and Tinea pellionella), and Archnida
or mites (Tyroglyphus farinae and Glyophagus domesticus). They can be prevented by drying
the drug thoroughly before storage and also by giving treatment of fumigants. The common
fumigants used for storage of crude drugs are methyl bromide, carbon disulphide and
hydrocyanic acid. Temperature is also very important factor in preservation of the drugs, as it
accelerates several chemical reactions leading to decomposition of the constituents. Hence, most
of the drugs need to be preserved at a very low temperature. The costly phytopharmaceuticals
are required to be preserved at refrigerated temperature in well closed containers. Small
quantities of crude drugs could be readily stored in air-tight, moisture proof and light proof
containers such as tin, cans, covered metal tins, or amber glass containers.

Organoleptic (lit. "impression on the organs") refers to evaluation by means of the organs of
sense and includes the macroscopic appearance of the drug, its odor and taste, occasionally the
sound or "snap" of its fracture, and the "feel" of the drug to the touch.
The microscope is not only essential to the study of adulterants in powdered plant and animal
drugs but also is indispensable in the identification of the pure powdered drug. Powdered drugs
possess few macroscopic features of identification other than color, odor, and taste; hence, the
mi- croscopic characteristics are important.

The pharmacologic activity of certain drugs has been applied to their evaluation and
standardization. Assays on living animals as well as on intact or excised organs often indicate the
strength of the drug or its preparations. Because living organisms are used, the assays are called
biologic assays or bioassays.

Because the active constituents of many natural drugs have been determined, chemical methods
of evaluating crude drugs and their products are useful and, consequently, are widely employed.
For many drugs, the chemical assay represents the best method of determining the official
potency.

The application of typical physical constants to crude drugs is rare. However, physical constants
are extensively applied to the active principles of drugs, such as alkaloids, volatile oils, fixed'
oils, and others.

CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
In pharmacognosy, drugs may be classified according to (1) their morphology, (2) the taxonomy
of the plants and animals from which they are obtained, (3) their therapeutic applications, and (4)
their chemical constituents. Each of these methods of classification has advantages and
disadvantages/ and the emphasis depends on the ultimate goal of the individual.

1. If a person is expected to identify specific drugs and to ascertain their adulterants, a

morphologic classification is applicable. An adulterant is a substance found within
other substances. In this system, the drugs are grouped accord- ing to the part
of the plant or animal rep- resented, such as roots, leaves, organs, or glands
2. Consideration of the natural relationship or phylogenv among plants and among an-
imals gives rise to a taxonomic classification.
*Carolus Linnaeus is considered to be the founder of modern taxonomy. His major
groupings in the hierarchy of groups were, the kingdom, phylum, class, order, family,
genus, and species.

3. Inasmuch as drugs are employed medicinally because of their therapeutic

effects, a third method of study is the pharmacologic or therapeutic classification.

All of the cathartic drugs are associated with this classification regardless of morphology,
taxonomy, or chemical relation. Thus, cas- cara sagrada, senna, podophyllum, and castor oil are
considered at one time be- cause of their action on the intestinal tract. Similarly, digitalis,
strophanthus, and squill are grouped together because they affect cardiac muscle.

4. Because the activity and therapeutic use of drugs are based on chemical constituents, it
would appear that a chemical classification is the preferred method of study. Most
 drugs contain a variety of constituents, some therapeutically active, others only
chemically active, and still others antagonistic to each other.

CHEMISTRY OF DRUGS

The living organism may be considered a biosynthetic laboratory not only for chemical
compounds (carbohydrates, proteins, fats) that are utilized as food by humans and animals but
also for a multitude of compounds (glycosides, alkaloids, terpenes) that exert a physiologic
effect. These chemical compounds give plant and animal drugs their therapeutic properties.
Drugs are used as such in their crude form or they may be extracted, the resulting principles
being employed as medicinal agents. It is obvious, therefore, that any study of pharmacognosy
must embrace a thorough consideration of these chemical entities. The usual term for these
entities is constituents; however, because the plant or animal is composed of many chemical
compounds, it is common practice to single out those compounds that are responsible for the
therapeutic effect and to call them active constituents.

Pharmaceutically active vs pharmacologically active

Pharmaceutically active constituents may cause precipitation or other chemical changes in a me-
dicinal preparation.

Pharmacologically active constituents are responsible for the therapeutic activity of the drug.
They may be either single chemical substances or mixtures of prin- ciples, the separation of
which is neither practical nor advantageous.

3 Principal factors that influenced the secondary constituents of drug plants

Genetic effects induce both quantitative and qualitative changes, but those caused by
environmental influences are primarily quantitative.

Ontogeny also plays a significant role in the nature of the active constituents found in medicinal
plants. Although it might be expected that the concentration of secondary metabolites would
increase with the age of the plant, it is not generally appreciated that the identity of these
constituents may also vary according to the stage of development.

In the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, the morphine content of the capsules is highest 2 to 3
weeks after flowering. If the latex is harvested earlier, related alkaloids such as thebaine and co-
deine predominate. On the other hand, if harvesting is delayed too long, the mor- phine
decomposes.

Environmental factors that can produce variations in secondary plant constituents include soil,
climate, associated flora, and methods of cultivation.