Arson

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION 1
At the end of the unit, the students must have:
 Discussed the theories of Combustion

 Demonstrate and identified the methods of fire extinguishments
 Identified the parts of the Fire extinguishers and the steps on how to use it
 Determined the flammable materials
 Classified the Hazardous Materials
MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND

ARSON INVESTIGATION
INTRODUCTION
Fire is useful in man’s existence in planet Earth. One cannot imagine living an environment
without fire! Man needs fire to keep him warm, to enable him to cook his food, and many other
things that need the benefits afforded by fire. Yet fire has also become a threat to life and property.
While fire has helped much in shaping and developing the country’s industries, it has also done in
its havoc in dwindling the economy by levelling business centres, establishments, residences, and
has claimed numerous lives and properties.
The degree of usefulness which fire possesses is conditioned by the care which man applied in
handling it. As such, the task of fire prevention/control has become a pressing concern of the
government, alongside with the responsibility of curbing lawlessness in the country. This is so, in
the face of the alarming figure of losses yearly, resulting from reported conflagrations.
FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

MARLYN L. ARADO, RCRIM
The threat of conflagration is greater in cities and municipalities where establishments tend to
employ machines that require a greater capacity of working power. Under these circumstances the
need for functional fire prevention program is imperative to avoid the vast damages wrought by
fire. These people’s chances against the dangers of fire. The people’s chances against the dangers
of fire depend on the extent to which fire prevention program is implemented.
A continuous inspection program is necessary to ensure compliance with the fire regulations. It
can eliminate conditions that contribute to fire contribute to fire hazards. Thorough inspection must
be made by qualified fire department personnel of each building, structures, process, activity, and
area at a regular interval. Such inspections should lead to prompt correction of physical hazards
that arise from carelessness or incorrect procedures.
Inherently, the duties of fire prevention always belong to the people by whose hands many fires
are caused. Thus, it is of great importance to everyone to comply with the requirements of their
local fire safety ordinances, to be always fire-safety-consciousness in disposition, for it is only in
this way that disastrous fire can be best averted.
In 1977 PD 1185, establishing the Fire Code of the Philippines was enacted and implemented
for the purpose of establishing standards and prescribed practices for the prevention of accidental
and intentional fires. One of the objectives of the PD 1185 is Fire Prevention which aims to lessen
the physical, occupational and moral hazards which contribute to the occurrence a spread of the
fire.
Republic Act 9514. The “Revised Fire Code of the Philippines of 2008” An Act Establishing
A Comprehensive Fire Code of the Philippines, Repealing Presidential Decree No. 1185 and for
other purposes was signed and approved by President Gloria M. Arroyo on December 19, 2008.

Lesson 1: Theories of Combustion
1. Fire Triangle Theory

 Three elements necessary to create/produced fire in equal proportion;
2. Fire Tetrahedron Theory
 The fourth element of the known as the “Chemical chain reaction”
3. Life Cycle of Fire Theory
 Stages/steps wherein fire in created.
Elements of a Fire
For many years the concept of fire was symbolized by the Triangle of Combustion and
represented, fuel, heat and oxygen, and removing any one of the three elements will put the
fire out.
Figure 1

Using the same theory, there are three ways to extinguish fire:
1. reduce the temperature (cooling) 2. Cut-off the oxygen
3. Cut-off the oxygen
Figure 1.1

ELEMENTS OF FIRE:
1. Fire Triangle
 1. Heat – a form of energy measured in degree of temperature, the product of combustion

that caused the spread of fire. For a fire to start there must be a source of ignition, usually
heat or a spark. Heat sources include: open flame, hot surfaces, sparks and arcs, friction-
chemical action, electrical energy and compression of gases.
 2. Oxygen – a colorless and odorless gas and one of the compositions of air that supports
fire which is approximately 21% by volume. A source of oxygen is needed. Approximately
16% is required. Normal air contains 21% oxygen within their make-up to support burning.
 3. Fuel – any substance/combustibles which reacts chemically with oxygen and produces
flames. For a fire to start there must be something to burn. The physical state of the fuel
may be gases (natural gas, propane, butane, hydrogen, etc.); liquids (gasoline, kerosene,
turpentine, alcohol, paint, varnish, lacquer, etc.).
Fuel Sources:
 1. Solid – molecules are closely packed together.

 2. Liquid – molecules are loosely packed.
 3. Gas – molecules are free to moved.
Common types of solids:
A. Bulky B. Finely C. Dust

1. Coal 1. Plastic 1. Saw Dust
2. Wood 2. Paper 2. Sugar
3. Wax 3. Cork 3. Grains
4. Grease 4. Leather 4. Others

Common types of Gases:
1. Natural gas
2. Propane
3. Butane
4. Hydrogen
5. Acetylene
6. Carbon monoxide
7. Others
Common types of Liquids:
1. Gasoline
2. Kerosene
3. Turpentine
4. Alcohol
5. Cod liver oil
6. Paint ss
7. Varnish
8. Lacquer
9. Olive oil

FIRE TETRAHEDRON
Figure 2
Figure 3
2. Fire Tetrahedron

The combustion reaction can be characterized by four components: the fuel, oxidizing agent,
heat and an uninhibited chemical chain reaction. These four components have been symbolized by
a four-sided solid geometric form called a tetrahedron (see Figure 2). Fires can be prevented or
suppressed by controlling or removing one or more of the sides of the tetrahedron.
The fourth element of the tetrahedron explanation is known as chemical reactivity, or

chemical reaction. Both theories, are used to explain what causes fire. This theory is extremely
important to students of fire, prevention, and investigation. If ignition has already started, the fire
is extinguished, if one of the elements is removed from the reaction.
The pan filled with liquid fuel as an example is shown giving off vapors before it can ignite.
The vapor area closes to the fuel. As the temperature of liquid fuel rises, the molecules separate,
or breakdown into elements of hydrogen atoms, carbon atoms, and lighter hydrocarbon molecules,
causing these particles to react with the oxygen of the surrounding air. In this area, the oxygen is
introduced and begins to mix with these particles, and the reaction starts…..this is the reaction
area.
Elements of Fire Tetrahedron
 1. Oxygen (oxidizing agent) – material/substance that yield oxygen or oxidizing gases

during the process of a chemical reaction. Oxidizers are not themselves combustible, but
they support combustion when combined with the fuel. For purposes of discussion, the
oxygen in the air in the surrounding area is considered the primary oxidizing agent.
 2. Fuel (Reducing Agent) – material or substance being burned in the process of
combustion.
 3. Heat (Temperature) – the energy component of the fire tetrahedron. When heat comes
in contact with the fuel, the energy supports the combustion process.
 Self-Sustained Chemical Reaction (the fourth element) – a series of events that occur
in sequence with the results of each individual reaction being added to the rest.

Once flaming starts, it can only continue when enough heat or energy is produced to cause
the continued chain reaction.
Combustion Reaction/Process:
- Causes pyrolysis or vaporization of solid and liquid fuels and the production of ignitable
vapor gases;
- Provides the energy necessary for ignition;
- Causes the continuous production and ignition of fuel vapors or gases to continue the
combustion reaction.
Common Types of Energy
 Types of Energy
1. Chemical Energy
2. Electrical Energy
3. Nuclear Energy
4. Mechanical Energy
5. Heat
6. Lights
Chemical Energy:
The most common source of heat in combustion reactions. An energy released as a result
of a chemical reaction such as combustion.
Example:
a) Heat generated from a burning match

b) Self-heating (spontaneous heating)

Electrical Energy:
An energy developed when electrons flow through a conductor. Electrical energy can
generate temperature high enough to ignite any combustible materials near the heated gases.
Factors involving Electrical Heating:
a) Current flow through a resistance

b) Arcing
c) Sparking
d) Static
e) Lightning
Nuclear Energy:
An energy generated when atoms either split apart (fission) or combine (fusion). Nuclear
power plants generated power as a result of the fission of Uranium-235.
Examples:
a) Fission heats water to drive steam turbines and produce electricity

b) The solar energy is a product of a fusion reaction (a form of nuclear energy)
Mechanical Energy:
An energy created by friction and compression.
Heat of Friction – the movement of two surfaces against each other. This movement produced
sparks being generated.
Heat of Compression – heat is generated when gas is compressed in a container or cylinder.
Energy exist in two types:
a) Potential Energy – an energy possessed by an object that can be released in the future.

b) Kinetic Energy – an energy possessed by a moving object.
HEAT OF COMPRESSION HEAT OF FRICTION
Figure 4 – Mechanical Energy
Heat:
An energy that is transferred between two objects of differing temperature such as sun and
the earth.
Light:
A visible radiation created at the atomic level such as flame produced during combustion.
Figure 5 – Combustion – a Self-sustaining

chemical reaction may be a slow or very fast
Combustion of Burning – is a complex sequence of

exothermic chemical reactions between fuel and an
oxidant accompanied by the production of heat or
both heat and light in the form of either a glow or
flames, appearance of light flickering.

Fire and combustion are terms that are often used interchangeably. Technically speaking, fire is a
form of combustion. Combustion is a self-sustaining chemical reaction producing energy or
products that cause more reactions of the same kind. Combustion is an exothermic reaction.
The Nature of Fire
Often a misconception is fire burns the actual chair or piece of wood. It is the gases given off by
an object that burns. Heat causes objects to give off these flammable gasses. When the gasses reach
their ignition temperature you see the light given off during the oxidation known as fire. Fire itself
generates more heat to the object and thus an endless cycle begins until all of the gases have been
exhausted from an object. Then the remaining particles or ash are what is left.
Even the most flammable materials (capable of being easily ignited) do not actually burn.
The vapor given off by a material is the part that burns. When the piece of wood is ignited, the fire
is not from the burning wood, rather, from the vapors that are given off by the wood. The heat
causes the substance to vaporize. The heated vapor mixed quickly with the oxygen in the air and
fire results.
This process is known as PYROLYSIS.
Pyrolysis defined:
The chemical process whereby the fire consumes the most solid part of the fuel. It is the thermal
decomposition of a solid fuel through the action of heat.
The Process of Pyrolysis:
- The fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire point;
- Decomposition takes place – moisture in the fuel is converted into vapor;
- Decomposition produces combustible vapor are technically termed as free-radicals;
- Free-radicals undergo combustion if proper amount of oxygen is present.

Figure 6 – Pyrolysis
The Most Common Type of Free-radicals (combustible vapors):
1. Hydrogen gas
2. Carbon Monoxide
3. Carbon Dioxide
4. Nitrogen
Figure 7 – Products of Combustion
Products of Combustion:
 1. Fire gases – chemical composition of the fuel, percent of the oxygen present, and the
temperature of the fire. Are those that remain when other products of combustion cool to
normal temperature.

Records of fatal fire show more people died from inhaling these super-heated and toxic fire
gases than from any other cause.
When CO is not the most toxic gas, it causes more deaths than any other gasses because it
robs the body oxygen. It burns rapidly when combined with oxygen at high temperatures,
causing dangerous backdraft or explosion.
Carbon Monoxide, which is also produced by slow oxidation, is found in sewers, caves,
well, mines, stove furnaces and automobile exhaust.
Types of Poisonous Gases:
1. Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) – a fire gas formed during fires involving organic material
containing sulfur, such as:
Rubber, hair, wood meat and hides. It is colorless, highly toxic gas with a strong odor of
rotten eggs. Exposure for even a short time is dangerous. It will ignite at 500 0F (2000 C).
2. Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) – a toxic fire gas found in oxygen-starve fires involving
nitrogen-containing materials such as:
Wool, silk, urethane, polyamides, and acrylics. These gases are also used as fumigant
which can pose serious danger to firefighters working in recently fumigated buildings.
Hydrogen cyanide smells like bitter almonds which may not be easily detected.
3. Hydrogen Chloride (HCL) – a gas which can be fatal after only a few breaths, is produced
in fires involving chloride-containing plastic. Plastics can be found anywhere; from
furnishing to electrical insulation, conduit and piping.
 2. Flame – the luminous body of a burning gas which gets hotter and less luminous when
mixed with more oxygen.
Flame Defined:

A flame is a visible (light-emitting) part of a fire. It is caused by a highly exothermic

reaction (for example, combustion, a self-sustaining oxidation reaction) taking place in a thin zone.
If a fire is hot enough to ionized the gaseous components, it can become plasma.
Types of Flames:
A. According to Color and Completeness of Combustions.
1. Luminous Flame – a reddish-orange in color; it deposits soot because it is a product

of incomplete combustion; it has lower temperature.
2. Non-luminous flame – bluish in color; it does not deposit soot because it is a product
of combustion; it has a higher temperature that luminous flame.
Figure 8 – Luminous Flame and Non-Luminous Flame
B. According to Burning Fuel and Air Mixture
1. Premixed Flame – example of a Bunsen burner.

2. Diffusion Flame – example of flame of the oxyacetylene torch (diffused-dispersed;
widely spread.

Figure 9 – Premixed and Diffusion Flame
C. Based on Smoothness:
1. Laminar flame – (smooth flame) flame is laminar when a particle follows a smooth
path through a gaseous flame.
2. Turbulent flame – (rough flame) those having unsteady, irregular swirls and eddies.
Figure 10– Laminar and Turbulent flame
 3. Heat – a form of energy generated by the transmission of some other form of energy.
Heat Defined:

A form of energy measured in degree of temperature; it is the product of combustion that

spread the fire. It causes burns and other injuries such as dehydration heat exhaustion and
respiratory tract injuries.
Energy transferred from one body to another when the temperatures of the bodies differ.
Heat is the most common form of energy found on earth. Temperature is an indicator of heat and
is measure the warmth and coldness of an object based on some standard. In most cases at present,
the standard used is based on the freezing (320F and 00C), and boiling points (2120F and 1000C)
of water. Temperature is measured using degrees Celsius in SI and degrees in Fahrenheit in
Customary System.
Conversion of Temperature
0
F = (0C x 1.8) + 32
0
C = (0F – 32) ÷ 1.8
0
C = temperature in Celsius
0
F = temperature in Fahrenheit
Figure 11 – Comparison of Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales

 4. Smoke – a visible product of incomplete combustion, a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen,

CO, CO2, and finely divided particles released from the burning material.
3. Life Cycle of Fire Theory

- Stages/steps wherein fire created.
 Life Cycle of Fire Theory
Fuel
Oxygen
Proportioning
Mixing
Ignition continuity
PROPERTIES OF FIRE:
A. Physical Properties
1. Specific Gravity – the ratio of the weight of a solid or substance to the weight of an
equal volume of water.
2. Vapor Density – the weight of a volume of pure gas compared to the weight of a volume
of dry air at the same temperature and pressure.
3. Vapor pressure – the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of the liquid at
equilibrium.
4. Temperature – the measure of thermal degree of the agitation of molecules of a given
substance; the measure of the molecular activity within a substance.
5. Boiling point – the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is
equal to the atmospheric pressure.
6. Ignition temperature or kindling temperature – the minimum temperature to which the
substance in the air must be heated in order to initiate or cause self-contained without
the addition of heat from outside sources.

7. Fire point – the temperature at which material will give off ample vapors to keep
burning. There is usually about 5 to 10 degrees difference between the flashpoint and
the fire point of most materials. Since these two are just few degrees apart.
8. Flashpoint – the temperature at which a material is not hot enough to keep burning, but
still gives off enough vapors to cause a flame to “flash” across the surface. The term
“flashpoint” is used to express the condition of a fuel vaporizing, whether or not it is
vaporizing fast enough to keep burning.
B. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
1. Endothermic reaction – are changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or added before
the reaction takes place.
2. Exothermic reaction – reactions or changes that release or give off energy (heat) thus
they produce substance with less energy than reactants.
3. Oxidation – a chemical change in which combustible material (fuel) and an oxidizing
agent react.
4. Combustion/flame – the manifestation of fire when the fire is in its gas-phased
combustion. A matter that is produced by fire.
Vapor Density:
The term used to explain the weight of vapor is “vapor density”. In order to measure this
weight of vapors we usually compare them to air, which is considered to have a vapor density of
1.00. Therefore, if we say that a substance has a vapor density of 1.5, it means that it is one-and-
a-half times as heavy as air under the same conditions of pressure and temperature. If a substance
has a vapor density of .7, it is lighter than air, weighing only 7/10 as much as an equal volume of
air. (gases with a vapor of less than 1 will rise, and those with vapor of less than 1 will fall.
The following chart lists the Vapor Density (air = 1) for some of the more common flammable
materials:
MATERIALS VAPOR DENSITY
Acetylene 0.9

Butane 2.0
Gasoline 3-4
Hydrogen 0.1
JP 3.0
Kerosene 3.0
Propane 1.6
PHASES OF BURNING/THE THREE STAGES OF FIRE:
The methods of fire fighters use to extinguish a fire will depend largely on the phase in
which they find the fire.
Factors to be considered in determining phases of burning:
1. The amount of time the fire has burned;

2. The ventilation characteristics of the confining structure;
3. The amount and type of combustibles present.
Fires generally have three (3) progressive stages based on the following factors:
1. Incipient /Beginning Phase – it is the initial stage of fire.
Characteristics:
a. Normal room temperature

b. Oxygen plentiful
c. Thermal updraft rise accumulates at higher point.
d. Flame temperature of 1000 degrees F
e. Producing pyrolysis products: (CO2, CO, SO2, water vapor, and other gases).

2. Free-Burning Phase – the second phase of burning in the presence of adequate oxygen.
Characteristics:
a. Fire has involved more fuel

b. Oxygen supply is depleted
c. Heat accumulates at upper area
d. Temperature exceeds 1,3000F (7500C)
e. Area is fully involved
3. Smoldering Phase – the final phase of burning wherein flame ceases but dense smoke and
heat completely fill the confined room.
Characteristics:
a. Flames may die and leave only glowing embers or super-heated fuel under pressure
with little oxygen.
b. Intense that will vaporize lighter fuel components, such as hydrogen and methane,
increasing the hazard.
c. Temperature throughout the building is very high and normal breathing is not possible.
d. Oxygen deficiency may cause back draft.
Backdraft
Firefighters operating at fires in buildings must use precautionary measures when opening
a building to gain entry, by providing ventilation either by horizontal/cross ventilation (opening
doors or windows) or vertical ventilation (opening a hole at the highest portion of the affected part
of the building). As the fire grows in a confine area, large volumes of hot, unburned fire gases can
collect in unventilated spaces. These gases may be at or above their ignition temperature but have

sufficient oxygen available to actually ignite. Any action taken during fire-fighting operations that
allows air to mix with these hot gases can result in an explosive ignition called backdraft (Figure
21).
The danger for backdraft can be minimized with proper application of vertical ventilation
causing the unburned gases rise and released through the opening before an entry is made.
Conditions that indicate the danger for backdraft
a. Pressurized smoke exiting small openings

b. Black smoke becoming dense grey yellow
c. Confinement and excessive heating
d. Little or no visible flame
e. Smoke leaving the building in puffs or at intervals
f. Smoke stained windows
Figure 12 – Pre-Backdraft and Backdraft
Flashover
Flashover occurs when a room or other area is heated enough that flames sweep over the
entire surface. Firefighters originally believed that combustible gases released during the early

stages of the early stages of the fire cause flashover by collecting at the ceiling and mixing with
air until they burst into flames.
Combustible material is grouped into one

of four classifications. These classes of fuel
help to simplify firefighting methods and
techniques.
Figure 13 - Flashover
Classification of Fire:
By knowing the classes of fire, a certain material will fall into, you will be able to make
intelligent fire fighting decisions.
A. Based on Cause:
1. Natural fire
2. Accidental fire
3. Intentional fire
B. Based on Burning Fuel:
Four (4) Classes of Fire

1. Class A – materials involving vegetable, fibers, wood, paper straw, grain, and grass;
combustible materials such as coal and coke. Nearly all thrash fires are considered Class
A.
Figure 14 – Class A Material
2. Class B – materials including petroleum products such as gasoline, fuel oils, lubricating
oils, and greases; animal fats such as butter, lard, and tallow; vegetable extracts such as
alcohol, linseed oil, and turpentine; vegetable compounds such as shortenings and oil
oleomargarines; natural gases and compressed gases such as butane, propane, hydrogen
and acetylene.

Figure 15 – Class B
3. Class C – this type of fire involves electrical motors, electrical appliances and apparatus.
Actually, Class C fire is composed of Class A and Class B materials or a combination of
both.
Figure 16 – Class C
4. Class D – these materials involving combustible metals, alloys, or metal compounds either
in a solid, semi solid or liquid state. They may further reduce in shavings, grindings,
granules, or dust. Some liquid metals are kept in a liquid state under pressure. Usually these
liquid metals are extremely dangerous. Some of the more unusual metals are: sodium (NA),
magnesium, titanium, sodium potassium, and uranium as well as pyrophoric
organometallic reagents such as alkylithiums, Grignard’s and diethylzinc. These types of

materials burn at high temperatures and will react violently with water, air, and/or other
chemicals.
Figure 17 – Class D
5. Class K – these are materials involved in the kitchen fires. This classification was added to
the NFPA portable extinguishers Standard in 1998.
Figure 18 – an extinguisher with this label is suitable for Class A fires, but not suitable for
Class B and C fires. Class B and C fires, but not for Class A fires. Suitable for Class A and
B fires but not for Class C.

Spontaneous Heating:
Spontaneous heating and spontaneous ignition start as a result of a chemical reaction within
the material – a reaction independent of any outside source of heat. Spontaneous heating begins a
cycle of oxidation that builds up heat very slowly in its first stage. The condition that builds up
temperature high enough to cause ignition is called spontaneous ignition. In most materials in this
process develops slowly and does not reach its ignition point for days or even weeks; consequently,
fires may break out today that were actually started day before. Actually, there is enough air to
allow oxidation, but not enough air to carry the heat from the area. Some of the common materials
that may spontaneously heated and ignited are animal oils, mixed fish oils, linseed oil, coal, coke,
charcoal, sawdust, hay, grain and cotton.
Propagation of Fire:
Propagation of fire simply means the spread of fire. As a substance burns, fire propagation
will be increased by the transmission of heat by nearly materials. This condition causes additional
vapors to be released thereby spreading of fires.
Types of Heat Transmission:
1. Conduction – it is the transmission of heat through an object/medium or conductor, such

as pipe, metal, hot-air duct, wire, or even wall.
2. Radiation – the transmission through the discharge and spread of heat from a heated or
burning source. This radiation takes place through the air or through the space that cause
another flammable object to ignite.

3. Convection – it is the transmission of heat by the moving currents of liquid or gas. When
these gases or liquids are heated, they start to move within themselves; and by their free
motion, circulation starts.
Figure 19 – Conduction, Radiation, and Convection
4. Flame Contact – heat may be conducted from one body to another by direct flame contact.
Fire spreads along or through burning material by flame contact. When a material is heated
to the point where flammable vapors are released, the vapors may be ignited. Any other
flammable material may be heated to its ignition temperature by direct contact with the
flame or burning vapors.

Figure 20 – Direct Flame Contact
Intensity of Fire
Intensity of fie means simply “how hot the fire is burning”. Some types of fuels naturally
burn hotter (more intensely) than others. For example, a gasoline fire burns hotter than a wood
fire, while an acetylene flame is hotter than a gasoline flame.
Factors to determine the intensity of fire:
1. Type of fuel
2. Percentage of oxygen present
Explosive Limits
The term “explosive limits” means the amount (expressed in percent) of fuel vapor that can be
mixed with air to form an explosive or flammable mixture. If less that this amount is used, the
mixture will not burn. This is known as “lean” to burn. If more than this amount is used, the mixture
is called “rich” and will not burn.
There is a minimum proportion or vapor-to-air below which the vapor will not burn and
there is also a maximum proportion of vapor-to-air above which the vapor will not burn.
The minimum (lower) and maximum (upper) limits of the proportion of vapor-to-air in
which the mixture will ignite or explode are known as the lower and upper explosive limits.
Magnitude of Fire

The magnitude of fire means the size of a fire, and it is governed by the surface area of fuel
exposed to the air. The magnitude of fire is not always determined by the amount of fuel involved
but more often buy the amount of fuel exposed to air.
Flashpoint
The temperature at which the material is not hot enough to keep burning, but still gives off
enough vapors to cause a flame to “flash” across surface.
Firepoint
The temperature at which the material will give off ample vapors to keep burning. There
is usually about 5 to 10 degrees difference between the flashpoint and fire point of most materials.
Since the two are just a few degrees apart, the term “flashpoint” is used to express the condition
of a fuel vaporizing fast enough to keep burning.
LESSON 1.2 – FIRE SUPPRESSION, CONTROL AND EXTINGUISHMENT, AND

EXTINGUISHING AGENTS
Fire Suppression – means slowing down the rate of burning, whereas, control means
keeping the fire from spreading or holding the fire to one area. Extinguishment is putting the fire
completely out.
FOUR METHODS OF FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT AND HOW IT WORKS
Extinguishing a fire is somewhat comparable to elimination of life. For example; the

cooling of fire may be compared to asphyxiation (elimination of the oxygen supply), and the
separation may be compared with malnutrition or starvation. The tetrahedron concept adds a fourth
element – chemical reaction.
Under the triangle-fire-concept, there are three (3) ways of suppressing, controlling and
extinguishing a fire, namely:
1. Cooling – the cooling process uses an extinguishing agent whose primary characteristic is
heat absorption. Water is the best general cooling agent for firefighting purposes. Used on

Class A fires, the water absorbs the heat generated at the surface of the burning material,
thus, reducing the temperature of the material below the flashpoint. Water can be also used
on Class B fires, which include flammable petroleum products. As with a Class A fire, the
water absorbs much of heat, reducing the vaporization rate of the liquid fuel. This is the
most noticeable in a fire involving lubricating oil, whose flashpoint is between 300 to 450
degrees F. It is of less value in a fire involving gasoline, with its flashpoint at -45 degrees
F. Water could never cool gasoline below its flash point. The extinguishing ability of the
water is broken into fine particles to accelerate heat absorption.
2. Smothering – excludes the oxygen from the fuel so that the gases or vapors of the fuel
cannot ignite and continue the combustion. CO2 and AFFF are used for this purpose.
3. Separation – the removal of the fuel, as in the example of turning off a valve in a gas line
prevents the fuel and oxygen from coming together. If fuel is not available, then heat,
regardless of the temperature, cannot affect the fuel, Therefore, there is no fire. These three
methods of extinguishment explain how fires are extinguished with the used of water, CO 2,
and foam. They do not entirely account for the results obtained by vaporizing liquids or
dry chemicals. Vaporizing liquids could not possibly absorb enough heat to have the same
effect as water, and dry chemical do not exclude sufficient oxygen to smother a fire in the
same manner as carbon dioxide. The next paragraph will explain the fourth element, the
chemistry of fire in terms of the theory of reactivity.
4. Chemical Chain Reaction – The fourth method of extinguishment is known as inhibition

or the interruption of chemical reaction. The sequence of events in suppressing or
extinguishing a fire with dry chemicals or vaporizing liquids includes some aspects of the
first three methods. Using the potassium bicarbonate (dry chemical) as an example, you
can follow the process of the fourth method of extinguishment.
The sequence of events in suppressing or extinguishing a fire with dry chemicals

or vaporizing liquids includes some aspects of the first three methods.

Using the potassium bicarbonate (dry chemical) as an example, you can follow the
process of the fourth method of extinguishment. Remember this is a rapid reaction and
does not necessarily happen one step at a time as shown in Figure 38.1.
First, the heat of the fire vaporizes the potassium bicarbonate thereby producing
water, carbon dioxide and potassium dioxide. In the process of vaporization and the change
of these compounds, a substantial amount of heat is absorbed by the water and some
smothering occurs due to the release of CO2.
Second, the chemical reaction resulting when the potassium dioxide unites with the
water formed by the fire creates an amount of potassium hydroxide.
Third, some potassium hydroxide reacts with certain products released from the
fuel, thus forming water and potassium monoxide. Other potassium hydroxide molecules
react with the free hydrogen of the combustion to form a potassium atom and molecules of
water. Finally, this combination of reactions halts the process of fuel uniting with the
oxygen of the air, thereby breaking the chemical chain reaction and stopping the fire.
Figure 21 – Methods of Fire Extinguishments
Extinguishing Agents

The effectiveness of an extinguishing on a particular fire depends on the amount and type
of agent in the extinguisher. Different extinguishing agents can be used to put out a certain class
of fire by one or more methods.
1. Removing oxygen;
2. Removing the fuel;
3. Removing heat; and
4. Interrupting the chemical chain reaction.
The following are the most common extinguishing agents, the class of fire they are used, and
the extinguishing methods used:
1. Water – used only on Class A fires. Water is the most effective in cooling the burning
material below its ignition temperature.
Ways or Methods of Water Extinguishers Fires
Cooling – the outstanding heat absorbing qualities of water make it an excellent cooling agent.
In the cooling process, water is applied in large enough amounts to reduce the temperature of the
surface of the burning material to below its flashpoint. The amount of water required depends on
the burning material (temperature) and the manner in which water is applied (straight or fog
stream).
Smothering – when water is used to smother a fire, stream must be generated in sufficient
amounts to exclude or displaced air. If the steam generated is confined in the combustion zone, the
smothering action will be enhanced. In ordinary combustibles, the cooling effect of the water not
the smother-normally causes extinguishment. The smothering effect does not completely
extinguish the fire; rather, rather it has a tendency to suppress flaming.
Usage – water is generally used on Class A fires. Fires involving high flashpoint liquids (such
as heavy fuel oil, and asphalt) may be extinguished when water is effectively applied in spray
form. Water may also be used to extinguish Class C and Class D firs in some cases. In these cases,
use extreme caution to avoid injury to personnel and/or damage to equipment.

2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) – a number of its properties make CO2 a desirable extinguishing
agent. It is non-combustible and non-reactive with the most substances. CO2 provides its
pressure for discharge from storage cylinders or extinguishers. Being a gas, CO 2 can
penetrate and spread to all parts of the fire.
Effects:
Extinguishment with CO2 is primarily by smothering. It covers or blankets the burning

materials and reduces the oxygen content to below levels needed for combustion. Even though it
is very cold, it has a little cooling effect on a fire when compared with equal amounts of water.
This is the reason when fires that have been apparently extinguished with CO 2 re-ignite from hot
surfaces or embers as the CO2 dissipates.
Usage:
Due to its non-conductivity, CO2 is very effective for use on Class C fires. It is also used
on Class B fires, but another agent is needed in blanketing or smothering on large are fires to
prevent re-ignition.
CO2 can cause unconsciousness and death in connections needed for extinguishment. A 9%
concentration is about all most people can take without becoming unconsciousness within just a
few minutes.
3. Dry Chemical – the dry chemical extinguishing agents in use today are mixtures of
powders and various additives that improve the storage, flow, and water repellency of the
powders. Sodium bicarbonate, Potassium bicarbonate, and mono ammonium phosphate are
some of the powders commonly used. Dry chemical is stable at low temperatures, but it
has an upper storage temperature of 1400F. At temperatures above 1400F some caking or
sticking of the powder occurs. These agents are some to be non-toxic, but in discharging
large amounts they may cause some breathing and visibility problems.

Effects:
Flames banish almost at once when dry chemical is applied directly to the fire area. But
the exact chemistry and mechanism of the extinguishing agent are not fully known. It has been
suggested that the dry chemical agents inhibit the chain reaction in the combustion zone has a
greater effect in the extinguishment than the smothering or cooling actions and radiation shielding
have.
Usage:
These are two basic types of Dry Chemical:
a) Ordinary and Regular Dry Chemical – generally refer to those powders that are intended
for use on Class B or Class c fires.
b) Multi-purpose Dry Chemical – refers to powders listed for use on Class A, B C fires.
Be careful not to confuse ordinary, regular or multi-purpose dry chemical with “dry powder”.
4. Dry Powder – dry powder is a generally term for agents used to extinguish combustible
metal fires.
No one dry powder has been found to be effective on all types of combustible metals.
Effects:
Dry powder generally extinguishes fires by excluding air from the combustible metals. To
some extent, heat is absorbed by the powder to lower the temperature of the metal to below ignition
point (as with G.I. powder).
Usage:

Dry powder is used primarily on Class D fire and should not be used on other types of fire,
due to its limited value on these fires.
5. AFFF – Aqueous Film Forming Foam has been replaced protein foam for all around
firefighting purposes.
Protein based foam is now used primarily for runaway foaming operations and fir some
training purposes.
Effects:
The quick “knock-down” and “heat reduction” properties of AFFF have proven it to be a
highly effective agent. These properties, combined with its ability to seal the surface of burning
hydrocarbon fires to prevent “flashback”, make it an outstanding and effective extinguishing agent
with which to work. When AFFF is applied to the surface of a flammable liquid fire, the surface-
active material (surfactant) provides a vapor sealing effect. This is not only extinguishing the fire
but, also prevents the release of fuel vapors which could result in flashbacks. This vapor seal is
also very hard to break-up by walking, or moving some hose lines through it.
Usage:
As with any other extinguishing agent, its effectiveness depends on the proper application.
The AFFF is designed to be applied at a 6% mixture (94 parts water to 6 parts AFFF concentrate).
This mixture should be applied in a rainfall manner, or lobbing effect to allow rapid spreading over
the surface. It is used primarily to extinguish on Class B fires. It may be used to Class A fire but
may be less effective than plain water. Foam spray (fog) is more conductive than plain water fog,
because the material contained in the foam allows the water to conduct electricity.
6. Halons (Halogenated Agents) – these agents have been used for over 50 years. Continuous
research has brought these agents to the present high degree of effectiveness in interrupting
the chain reaction they possess along with a decrease in life safety hazard.

The older (better known) agents such as carbon tetra-chloride (Halon 104) and
chlorobromomethane (Halon 1011) are less effective and more toxic than the newer agents
now in use.
Halon 1211 (bromochlorodifluoromethane) is a gas at a normal temperature, but with its

relatively high boiling point (+25F), requires pressurization to expel at a satisfactory rate for
extinguishment. Halon 1211 is discharge both partly as a liquid spray partly as a gas.
Halon 1301 (bromotrifluoromethane) is treated as a liquified gas and, like carbon dioxide,
requires no pressurizing agent for expulsion at a normal temperature. Nitrogen may be added to
storage containers when temperature is below 0 F, to ensure adequate discharge pressure.
Halon is the least toxic of the Halons. This low toxicity allows for safe discharge from total
flood systems in occupied spaces such as computer rooms.
Halon is a generic term for halogenated hydrocarbons and is a chemical compound that
contains carbon plus one more element from the halogen’s series (fluorine chlorine, bromine, or
iodine).
Although a very large number of halogenated compounds exist, only few are used to a
significant extent as fire extinguishing agents. Halogenated vapor is a non-conductor of electricity
and is effective in fighting surface fires in such commodities as flammable liquids, most solid
combustible materials, and electrical.
Effects:
Halogenated agents work chemically to extinguish fire. They stop combustion process by
breaking the fire chain reaction and prevent further fire propagation. This chemical fire-stopping
action happens with only a low concentration of halogenated agent used. Application of the agent
may be applied locally by using a compressed bottle of non-combustible gas similar to a carbon
dioxide fire extinguisher. This type of application is effective in controlling or extinguishing
surface fires involving flammable liquid, solids, or gases, such as dip tanks, quench tanks, spray
booths, oil-filled transformers, vapor vents.
Usage:

Halogenated agents are very effective on Class B and Class C fires and have some effects
or success on Class A fires.
Lesson 1.3 – FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
Fire Extinguisher defined:
It is a mechanical device usually made of metal, containing chemicals, fluids, or gases for
stopping fires, the means for application of its contents for the purpose of putting out a fire
(particularly small fire) before it propagates, and is capable of being in readily moved from place
to place.
It is a portable device used to put out fires of limited sizes.
Classes of Fire Extinguishers:
1. Portable Fire Extinguisher
Portable fire extinguishers offer the greatest potential for immediately controlling
workplace fires.
Their portability and relatively easy operation often make them ready for use within seconds.
However, training and education is critical to know more on the operations and use of an
extinguisher, what types are available, where they are in the work place, and above all how to use
them.

Figure 22 – Types of Extinguishers
Classification and Ratings:
Different type of fire extinguishers is designed to extinguish fires involving different types
of fuels. Extinguishers are classified as Class A, B, C, and D or combination depending on the fire
against their agents effective.
The class of extinguisher should be on the extinguisher shell. The “picture symbol”
labelling system now in use is designed to make the operation of fire extinguishers more effective
and safer to use through the use of less confusing picture labels. The system also emphasizes when
not use an extinguisher on certain types of fire.

Class A type of extinguisher is used on fires involving ordinary combustible materials such
as wood, clothes, and paper.
Class B extinguisher is used on fires involving liquids, grease, and gases.
Class C extinguishers are used on fires involving energized electrical equipment.
Class D extinguishers are used on fires involving combustible metals such as titanium,
magnesium, zirconium, sodium and potassium.
Information Indicated on the Extinguisher:
1. Date of original filling;

2. Chemical contents;
3. Type of extinguisher;
4. Operating instruction and safety procedure in usage;
5. Name and address of the manufacturer;
6. Name of the address and the dealer.
The most Common Extinguishing Agents Used:
1. Water – used only on Class A fires. These extinguishers contain water and compressed gas
and should only be used on Class A fires.
2. Dry Chemicals – dry chemical extinguishers are usually rated for multi-purposed used. It
contains an extinguishing agent and uses a compressed, non-flammable gas as a propellant.
3. Carbon Dioxide – used on Class B and Class C fires. CO2 extinguishes fires by smothering,
reducing the oxygen level below that which supports combustion. These extinguishers are
only effective from 3 to 8 feet. Under certain conditions, the coldness of the gas also helps
put out the fire. It is an inert gas. When CO2 is stored under pressure in a cylinder of tank
such a fire extinguisher, it changes from a vapor to a liquid.
4. Foam – used only on Class A and B fires. Foam removes fuel by forming a layer over a
burning liquid and preventing flammable vapors from escaping. Foam will also smother
by keeping oxygen from mixing with the vapors and cool with a constant layer of water
bearing foam.

5. Halons – used on Class B and Class C fires. These liquified gases are most effective in
interrupting the chain reaction, but they also have slight smothering and cooling effects.
These are made up of carbon and one or more halogen elements like fluorine, chlorine,
iodine, and bromine. These types of extinguishers are often used to leave no residue to
clean up. Halon extinguishers have a limited range, usually from 4-6 feet. The initial
application should be made at the base of the fire, even after the fires have been put out.
6. Metal/Sand Extinguishers – these types of extinguishers are primarily used for flammable
metals (Class D) and have the characteristics of a blanketing effect (smothering) on the
fire. The most common extinguishing used is sodium chloride.
Steps in using portable fire extinguishers:
1. Pull the pin at the top of extinguisher. When in place, the pin keeps the handle from being
pressed, breaking the plastic or wire inspection band.
2. Point the nozzle or outlet toward the base of the fire. If the hose is clipped to the
extinguisher body, unclip first.
3. Press the handle above the carrying handle to discharge the agent. To stop the discharge,
release the handle.
4. Sweep the nozzle in side to side motion before the flames to spread the extinguishing agent.
Direct the agent at the base of the flames. After the fire is out, probe for the smoldering hot
spot or liquids that could reignite. Make sure the fire is out. Back away from the fire area
to protect yourself from possible danger or flashback.
Remember the acronym, “P.A.S.S.”
 P…..Pull the Pin.

 A…..Aim extinguisher nozzle at the base of the flames.
 S…..Squeeze trigger while holding the extinguisher upright.
 S…..Sweep the extinguisher nozzle from side to side, covering the area of the fire with the
extinguishing agent.
1. Semi-Portable/Wheeled Extinguisher

These types of extinguishers provide a way of getting sizeable amount of extinguishing

agent to a fire rapidly. These units are designed for in plant protection and offer a
considerably longer agent discharge period and greater firefighting power Capacities range
from 100 to 350 lbs. of dry chemical agent. Generally, nitrogen in a separate tank releases
the agent through a flexible hose tipped with a spray nozzle. The units typically have a
50foot (15m) hose that allows considerable maneuverability while combating fires.
Figure 23 – Semi-Portable/Wheeled Type Extinguisher
Steps to operate a wheeled type extinguisher:
1. Open the operate compressed gas cylinder to pressurize the agent;

2. Free the hose from its reel and move toward the fire;
3. Point the nozzle toward the base of the fire;
4. Squeeze the nozzle to discharge the agent. To stop discharging, release the nozzle action.
Inspection and Maintenance of Extinguishers:
Once a fire extinguisher is purchased and installed, it becomes the responsibility of the
owner to maintain the extinguisher so that it remains fully operable. To fulfill this responsibility,
there should be a program to provide for the periodic inspection of each extinguisher and an
effective extinguisher maintenance program.

Fire extinguisher maintenance is a specialized activity and should be performed by

competent persons. Fire extinguishers are provided to protect life and property and there should
be no doubt as to their reliability in time of emergency.
The more common types of extinguishers that you may come in contact with are the
following:
1. Water
2. Carbon dioxide
3. Dry chemical
4. Dry powder
Procedures for Inspecting Various Types of Extinguishers:
1. Check accessibility and proper location;

2. Check for tag for date of last recharge or inspection;
3. Check nozzle for obstruction and operations;
4. Examine for corrosion (leaks at seams) or mechanical damage;
5. Check lock pin and seal;
6. Determine if full (water level, pressure gauze, weight);
7. Examine condition of hose and hose coupling;
8. Check horns for cracks, dirt, or grease accumulations;
9. Date of inspection and initial inspector.
Pressurized and Stored-Pressure Water Extinguisher
Most of these extinguishers are 21/2 gallons in capacity.
The different parts of the extinguisher are the following:

Figure 24 – Different Parts of Fire Extinguishers
Inspection:
1. Check the seal attached to the safety pin for damage;

2. Check the air pressure gauze for correct pressure reading of 100psi and condition of
pressure gauze;
3. Examine hose and nozzle for foreign objects and damage, and the overall condition of the
extinguisher.

No semi-annual inspection is required for these type of extinguishers except for the CO 2 cartridge-
operated type. With this type, weigh the cartridge every 6 months to check for any leakage. At the
annual inspection, agent must be discharged, clean the extinguisher completely, and recharge it
with the proper agents.
Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers – is an inert gas that extinguishes fires by smothering rather than
by cooling. The heat-absorbing capacity of CO2 is very limited, being only 10% that of water.
When CO2 is stored under pressure in a cylinder or fire extinguisher, it changes from vapor to
liquid. When it passes through the discharge valve of a fire extinguisher, the change takes place
from a liquid to a gas and the expansion chills it to low temperature.
Internal pressure generated by CO2 stored in a tank or cylinder is proportional to the temperature;
therefore, these extinguishers should not be placed in locations where heat is intense and they must
be protected from the direct rays of the sun during hot weather. At room temperature, the CO 2 gas
exerts a pressure of more than 800 psi in the extinguishers. The high internal pressure at normal
temperatures requires that container must be made of heavy materials.
An empty 15-pound capacity extinguisher weighs approximately 35 pounds. The 15-pound hand
extinguisher and the 50-pound hand-drawn wheel-type extinguisher are the most commonly used
in firefighting operation.
All CO2 extinguishers must be provided with the following seals:
1. A seal attached to the valve handle or wheel to hold the valve locking pin in place;
2. A plastic hood or cap placed over the safety valve to cover the frangible pressure-release
disk.
To ensure the proper operation of CO2 extinguishers, the seals must be standard replacement
items, as designed by the manufacturers.
Inspection:
1. Check pin seal on the extinguisher to ensure that it is intact;

2. Check the plastic seal to make sure that the seal is in place over the safety disk;

3. Check the extinguisher location to make sure that it is not subjected to high
temperatures or in the direct exposure to rays of the sun;
4. Check the hose for deterioration or weakness;
5. Check the horn for damage.
A missing plastic seal may indicate a ruptured safety disk and empty extinguisher. If either
the pin seal or the plastic seal is missing, weigh, recharge (if necessary), and reseal the
extinguisher.
The annual inspections of CO2 extinguishers should include weighing the shell to insure a
full charge. Lubricate also the running gears on wheel-type extinguishers. It should be recharge if
less than 90% of its capacity is present. (This is the same as a greater-than-10% loss of the net
capacity).
Dry-Chemical Extinguishers
Various compounds of dry-chemical agents are used. Some of the more common ones are
sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, and an ammonium phosphate which is multi-purpose
agent. These agents are chemically treated with a substance to keep them water resistant and free
flowing.
This also helps prevent packing of the chemical while stored inside the extinguishers may
be found in different sizes which range from 21/2 to 30 pounds. The 30-pound size is the most
common sized used.
The extinguishers may be cartridge-operated or may be of stored-pressure type. The design

of the stored-pressure type is similar to the pressurized-water type.
Inspection
The inspection includes checking of the hose, nozzle, and shell or leaks, cracks and
corrosion. Check cartridge if screwed tightly in position and that the seal is firmly attached and in
place.

Semi-annual inspection, the cartridge must be weighed to determine if there has been a loss
of not more than 10% of the excellent gas from cartridge. If more than 10% loss has occurred, the
cartridge must be replaced and/or recharged.
Annual inspection includes all of the previous checks and inspections, plus a complete
operational test, cleaning, and checking.
Dry Power Extinguishers
These types of extinguishers are designed for use on Class D fires. Their sizes may vary
from the small 1lb., to the 350-pound wheeled type extinguishers. The 30-pound types are the most
common type used in the U.S. Air Force. The agents used I the extinguishers may be in powder or
in granule form.
Using these agents on the wrong type of metal fire may result in a serious expulsion, release
of toxic gases, or both, thus endangering the users and others. One agent can be used on several
types of metal fires, while another agent can be used only on one specific type of metal fire. These
agents are also treated to remain water-resistive and free-flowing under stored conditions.
Inspection
The inspection procedures for these extinguishers are identical to those for dry-chemical
extinguishers are identical to those for dry-chemical extinguishers. One exception to this is certain
dry-powder agents have no “extinguisher” but are always stored in the container for shipping.
These containers should be inspected for damage or exposure to water, as moisture may
affect them. When these agents are needed for extinguishment, the lid is simply removed and the
agent is scooped, shoveled, or thrown by onto the burning metal.
Damaged Extinguishers
Leaked, corroded or otherwise damaged extinguisher shells or cylinders should be

discarded or returned to the manufacturer to repair. CAUTION: Never Try to Repair the Shell or
Cylinder Subjected to Pressure. If an extinguisher shows slight damaged or corrosion and it is safe
to use, it should be given a hydrostatic test by the manufacturer or a qualified testing agency.
Leaking hose, leaking gaskets, nozzles, can be replaced by fire brigade personnel.

Testing Extinguishers:
State when, how, by whom extinguishers are service tested and hydrostatically tested:
Extinguishers, fire hose and other fire safety equipment (alarms, exit signs, emergency
lights) need to be checked on a regular basis to ensure they are in working condition. A quick
visual check is to be done at least monthly by the monitoring personnel in the area. Under OSHA
regulations extinguishers and hoses must be checked and documented at least once a year by a
qualified inspector.
A sign-off tag should be present for documentation purposes, to verify that the extinguishers have
been expected.
1. Service Test – a service test of an extinguisher to see to it that it is operating properly. This
test is normally conducted at least once a year during the scheduled maintenance cycle.
2. Hydrostatic Test – hydrostatic test is an internal pressure check of an extinguisher cylinder
or shell to detect possible failure under pressure. Normally, during the testing cylinder or
shell is filled with water (hydro). The test should be conducted immediately upon
discovering of any indication of mechanical injury corrosion to those extinguishers with
exert internal pressure.
Figure 25 – Hydro Static Test
The test indicates whether the extinguisher parts are capable of withstanding a designated
pressure. In general, the extinguisher if filled with water and liquid pressure is built up within the
container or shell with a pump.

Distortion, leaking, or rupture is a sign of failure. Never use gas or air pressure for pressure
testing because the compressed air or gas would expand with destructive force in case of an
extinguisher failure.
The following are extinguishers recommended for testing every 5 years:
1. Cartridge operated water extinguishers;

2. Stored pressure water extinguishers;
3. Dry Chemical with soldered brass or stainless steel shells;
4. Carbon Dioxide – NOTE: CO2 extinguishers with a cylinder made to DOT specifications
should be tested according to DOT requirements.
Types of extinguishers to be tested every 12 years:
1. Halon 1211
2. Halon 1301
3. Cartridge operated dry powder
4. Stored pressure dry chemical with aluminum, brazed brass or mold steel shells.
5. Cartridge-operated dry-chemical with mild steel shells.
Lesson 1.4 – CHARACTERISTICS OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
A firefighter must be able to determine the classification of fire in order to select the best
agent to apply and the best method of extinguishment to use. In a real fire situation, however, such
a building fire, fire fighters may never combat a single class of fire, but a combination of fire
classes. Buildings are made of many kinds of materials, such a s wood, masonry, steel, and tile.
Almost all buildings are provided with electricity, and some have gas stove furnaces.
The specific differences in the properties are known as characteristics peculiar to

themselves. All matter, including flammable materials will exist in at least one of three states.
These states-or groups are known as:
1. Liquids
2. Gases

3. Solids
Liquids defined
Liquids are fluids that do not generate more than 40 psia when heated to 100 degrees F
(psia is pound-per-square inch absolute).
To determine whether a fluid should be classed as a gas or liquid, it is tested.
Procedures in testing
1. Placed the fluid in a closed container equipped with pressure gauze, then raised the
temperature of the container and contents to 100 degrees F. as the fluid vaporizes and
creates a pressure, the gauze will show it.
2. Add the gauze reading to the atmospheric pressure, an absolute pressure reading is
obtained. The atmospheric pressure is the normal sea level of 14.7 psi.
Suppose the gauze reading is 29 psi plus the atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psi, the total
would be 43.7 (29. + 14.7) psia. This would identify the fluid as a gas. (over 40). If the
gauze reading is 25 psi and the atmospheric pressure is 14.7, the sum would be 39.7. The
fluid then would be just within the liquid class.
Types of Liquids
A. Flammable Liquids – these are liquids with a flashpoint below 100 degrees F and a vapor
pressure not over 40 psia at 100 F. They called Class I liquids, which are subdivided into
the following classes:
 Class IA – any liquid that has a flashpoint below 73 F, and a boiling point (BP)
below 100 F.
 Class IB – any liquid that has a flashpoint below 73 F, and a boiling point at or
above 100 F.
 Class IC – any liquid that has a flashpoint below 100 F, but not below 73 F.
B. Combustible Liquids – liquids that have a flashpoint at or above 100 F. they are subdivided
into the following categories:

 Class II – any liquid having a flashpoint at or above 100 F and below 140 F.
 Class IIIA – any liquid having a flashpoint at or below 140 F and below F.
 Class IIIB – any liquid having a flashpoint at or above 200 F.
Gases
Gases are classified by their chemical, physical properties, and usage.
A. Chemical Properties – chemical properties of gases are of prime interest to firefighters, as

they reflect the ability of the gas to react within it or with other materials. The chemical
properties of gases may be broken down as follows:
1. Flammable gases – any gas that which burn in normal concentrations of oxygen in
the air. These gases are subjected to the same conditions as flammable vapors.
2. Non-flammable gases – any gases that will not burn in air. Some of these will
support combustion and are oxidizers. Those that do not support combustion are
called inert gases.
3. Reactive gases – any gases that will react within itself or with other materials under
conditions other than fire, i.e. shock, heat and etc.
4. Toxic gases – any gases that may complicate firefighting efforts due to its serious
life hazards.
B. Physical Properties – is the physical behavior of a gas both outside and inside its container
and when accidentally released, these are of prime interest to fire fighters.
The Physical Classification are the following:
1. Compressed gases – matter which is solely in a gaseous state in its container with a
lower pressure limit of 25 psig (pound per square inch gauze) at a normal temperature
of 70 F to 100 F.

2. Liquified gases – matter which exist partly as a gas and partly as a liquid at a normal
temperature inside the container and remain under pressure as long as any liquid is in
the container.
3. Cryogenic gases – gas which remains as liquified gas in its container at temperature far
below normal temperature.
C. Usage – Classification of gases is made by their usages. However, there will be much
overlapping in these usages.
1. Fuel gases – gases which burn with air to produce heat, power, or light.
2. Industrial gases – gases used in industrial process such as: water treatment, welding
and cutting, refrigeration and etc.
3. Medical gases – gases used for medical purposes such as therapy and anesthesia.
Solids
Combustible solids are those which ignite burn and change chemically when subjected to
heat or fire. The heat must be approximately 350 F or higher. Above this temperature, ordinary
materials will give off enough vapors or gases to burn. Examples are wood, paper, and cloth.
There are other combustible solids which may ignite or detonate at lower temperatures.
These combustible solids are classed as hazardous chemicals and should be kept in suitable
containers. They should be separated from each other materials which react with them.
Combustible Metals – most of combustible metals are chemical elements which are part
of earth’s composition. Very few if any, are found in natural state, as in gold. The pure metal is
extracted from mineral or deposits by chemical processes.
Some of the combustible metals are the following:
1. Sodium 5. Magnesium
2. Titanium 6. Potassium
3. Uranium 7. Lithium
4. Zirconium 8. Sodium-potassium alloys

Fire Retardant Treatment
Two General types of Fire-Retardant:
1. Surface Coating – is usually used in combination with a paint, decompose at the point of
contact of a flame or other heat source to form blister filled with an infinite number of tiny
bubbles. These bubbles insulate the point against further effects of heat until additional
flame contact decomposes and disintegrates the blister.
2. Impregnation – it is usually done at a processing plant of factory by forcing solutions of
fire-retardant chemicals, under pressure, into the pores of the materials to be protected.
Both treatments vary on its effectiveness, depending on the material to be treated, the
chemicals used and, the efficiency of the coating or impregnation. Neither is the equal of
noncombustible construction. Some solids, such as metals, like magnesium and titanium
are often used as construction materials.
Lesson 1.5 – HAZARDOUS MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION
Hazard Classification
In the year 1976, the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) used as a hazard classification
and identification system all its own for explosive and other dangerous materials.
After many years of study, the DoD implemented the present classification system based
on a system recommended for international use by the United Nations Organization (UNO).
Below are the listings of all nine UNO Classes of Dangerous Materials:
Class 1 – Explosives
Class 1 is divided into four divisions which indicate the type of hazards expected.
A. Class Divisions 1.1 Class 1.

Mass detonating explosives comparable to Quantity-Distance (Q-D) Class 7 and M designated

items.
Assigned to this class are principally blast hazards. They may be expected to mass detonate
when a small portion is initiated by any means, such as fire, severe concussion or impact impulse
of an initiating agent.
B. Division 1.2
Non-mass detonating fragment producing explosives. These items for which the principal
hazards may be fragments, toxicity, or blast.
C. Class Divisions 1.3
It includes explosives that present a mass fire hazard. Items assigned to this class usually burn
vigorously with little or no possibility of extinguishing fires that have gained headway in storages
situations.
Explosions normally are confined to pressure propagating shock wave or damaging blast
pressure beyond the specified magazine distance.
Serious fire-spread hazard can exist from projected burning fragments of propellant, incendiary
materials packing materials, etc.
D. Class Division 1.4
It includes explosives with a moderate fire hazard. Items assigned to this class primarily present
fire hazard producing no blast and virtually no fragmentation or toxic hazard beyond the normal
fire hazard (clearance) distance.

Class 2 – Gases: Compressed, liquids or dissolved under pressure.
Class 3 – Flammable Liquids
Class 4 – Flammable Solid
Class 5- Oxidizing Substances and Organic Peroxides
Class 6 – Poisonous (toxic) and Infectious Substances
Class 6 is divided into 2 divisions
A. Class Division 6.1 – Poisonous (toxic) gas, vapors or substances:
These materials are comparable to Q-D Class 8, includes those CB agents and items are not
normally assembled with explosive components, or where explosive components present little or
no blast or fragment hazards. No quantity distances separations have been specifically established
for this class. Special safety criteria or instructions have not been provided with the stock involved
and safety separations appears necessary because of agent persistency, volatility, toxicity, or other
features, requests for information should be made to higher headquarters.
B. Class Division 6.2
Substances containing disease-producing micro-organisms. This class division category is

included for information only.
Class 7 – Radioactive Substances
Class 8 – Corrosives
Class 9 – Miscellaneous dangerous substances (substances which present a danger not a covered
by the other classes).

Materials that must be moderately

heated before ignition will occur.
Water spray may be used to
Material too dangerous to
extinguish the fire because the
health to expose to fire
material can be cooled below its
fighters.
flashpoint.
Required
Materials that are normally
stable and therefore do not
produce a hazard to fire
fighters.
Figure 26 – The 704 Diamond
NFPA Standard No. 704, Fire Hazards of Materials
Visually illustrates the hazards to fire fighting fires in fixed installations such as chemical
processing areas, storage and warehouse facilities, and laboratory entrances. The “704 Diamond”
colored numbers are used to illustrate the degree of hazard in health and the flammability and
reactivity of hazardous materials.

The higher the number (0-4), the greater the degree hazard. These numbers and symbols
are easily recognized by firefighters and they can take immediate steps to protect themselves.
Unfortunately, this method has not been widely adopted by the general public or governmental
units other than the fire departments.
The Department of Transportation (DOT) labeling system is perhaps the most widely used.
New, and more descriptive placards and labels have been selected that permit fire fighters and
emergency service people all over the world to visually understand the hazards they face at the
scene of an emergency.
Some of the more common labels and placards are described here (see Figure 33) and
should be explored in depth.
COLORED SCHEME FOR NEW CARDS
PLACARDS COLORS
DANGEROUS Upper and lower triangles in red; Inscription in black and
white
EXPLOSIVES A AND Orange background; symbol and Inscription in black

EXPLOSIVES B
NON-FLAMMABLE GAS Green background; symbol and Inscription in white
OXYGEN, OXYDIZER and Yellow background; symbol and Inscription in black
ORGANIZ PEROXIDE
POISON GAS, POISON and White background; symbol Borderline, and Inscription in
CHLORINE Black
FLAMMABLE and Red background; symbol and Inscription in white
COMBUSTIBLE
FLAMMABLE SOLID White background with seven vertical red stripes; symbol and
inscription in black
FLAMMABLE SOLID Triangle at top blue with white symbol; rest of placard white
with seven vertical red stripes and inscription in black

RADIOACTIVE Top portion yellow with black symbol lower portion white
with black inscription
CORROSIVE Center and lower areas black; inscription in white; symbol in
black and white
NOTE: The word “Gasoline” may be used in place of “Flammable” for highway transportation of
gasoline. The words “Fuel oil” may be used in placed of Combustible” for highway transportation
of fuel oil that is not classed as a “flammable liquid.”
IMPORTANT
1. All four sides of the vehicle must be placarded. Placement of the front placard may occur
on either the cab or the cargo body.
2. Placard must be placed at least 3 inches away from any other marking or sign. Double
placarding should be adjacent to each other.
3. Combinations of vehicle, each of which contains hazardous materials, shall be placarded
in accordance with the above chart.
Figure 27 – Hazardous Material Placarding Requirements

 Joner C. Villaluz and FINSP. Rodolfo Alocelja; Fire Investigation and Fire
Technology; 2003 Wiseman’s Books Trading,Inc
 William A. Revisa and Leo Carlo B. Rondiona; Fire Organization And Administration
with Fire Operations; 2003 Wiseman’s Books Trading,Inc
 Leo Bustra; Fire Behaviour and Arson Investigation; 2003 Wiseman’s Books
Trading,Inc
Prepared by: Verified and validated by: Approved by:
MARLYN L. ARADO, RC MR. RAMEL B. PEPITO, RC., CST, MSCJ VIRGIL LEO E. GUMANOY, PHD
Instructor College Dean Vice President for Academic Services


Arson

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Arson

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Arson

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION 1

At the end of the unit, the students must have:

 Discussed the theories of Combustion

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

Lesson 1: Theories of Combustion

1. Fire Triangle Theory

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

1. reduce the temperature (cooling) 2. Cut-off the oxygen

3. Cut-off the oxygen

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

 1. Heat – a form of energy measured in degree of temperature, the product of combustion

 1. Solid – molecules are closely packed together.

Common types of solids:

A. Bulky B. Finely C. Dust

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

Common types of Gases:

Common types of Liquids:

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

The fourth element of the tetrahedron explanation is known as chemical reactivity, or

Elements of Fire Tetrahedron

 1. Oxygen (oxidizing agent) – material/substance that yield oxygen or oxidizing gases

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

Common Types of Energy

a) Heat generated from a burning match

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

Factors involving Electrical Heating:

a) Current flow through a resistance

a) Fission heats water to drive steam turbines and produce electricity

An energy created by friction and compression.

Heat of Compression – heat is generated when gas is compressed in a container or cylinder.

Energy exist in two types:

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

b) Kinetic Energy – an energy possessed by a moving object.

HEAT OF COMPRESSION HEAT OF FRICTION

Figure 4 – Mechanical Energy

Figure 5 – Combustion – a Self-sustaining

Combustion of Burning – is a complex sequence of

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

The Nature of Fire

This process is known as PYROLYSIS.

The Process of Pyrolysis:

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

The Most Common Type of Free-radicals (combustible vapors):

Figure 7 – Products of Combustion

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

Types of Poisonous Gases:

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

A flame is a visible (light-emitting) part of a fire. It is caused by a highly exothermic

A. According to Color and Completeness of Combustions.

1. Luminous Flame – a reddish-orange in color; it deposits soot because it is a product

Figure 8 – Luminous Flame and Non-Luminous Flame

B. According to Burning Fuel and Air Mixture

1. Premixed Flame – example of a Bunsen burner.

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

Figure 9 – Premixed and Diffusion Flame