Topic 3. Geometry and Trigonometry

International Baccalaureate
MATHEMATICS
Analysis and Approaches (SL and HL)
Lecture Notes
Sonia Arora
TOPIC 3
GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY
3.1 THREE-DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY ................................................................................. 1
3.2 TRIANGLES – THE SINE RULE - THE COSINE RULE .................................................. 5
3.3 APPLICATIONS IN 3D GEOMETRY – NAVIGATION .................................................. 16
3.4 THE TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE – ARCS AND SECTORS ........................................ 22
3.5 SIN, COS, TAN ON THE UNIT CIRCLE – IDENTITIES ................................................ 29
3.6 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS ........................................................................................ 38
3.7 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ........................................................................................ 48
Only for HL
3.8 MORE TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES AND EQUATIONS ...................................... 61
3.9 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS .................................................................... 67
VECTORS
3.10 VECTORS: GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION .............................................................. 73
3.11 VECTORS: ALGEBRAIC REPRESENTATION ............................................................... 80
3.12 SCALAR (or DOT) PRODUCT – ANGLE BETWEEN VECTORS ................................ 87
3.13 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 2D............................................................................ 92
3.14 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 3D............................................................................ 98
3.15 KINEMATICS ........................................................................................................................... 105
3.16 VECTOR (or CROSS) PRODUCT ........................................................................................ 108
3.17 PLANES ...................................................................................................................................... 113
3.18 INTERSECTIONS AMONG LINES AND PLANES ......................................................... 120
3.19 DISTANCES .............................................................................................................................. 126
December 2022
3.1 THREE- D I M E N S I O N A L GEOMETRY
 3D COORDINATE GEOMETRY
We know that a point in the Cartesian plane has the form P(x,y).
In 3D space we add one more coordinate, thus a point has the
form P(x, y, z).
The distance between two points A(x1,y1,z1) and B(x2,y2,z2) is given

by
dAB = (x1 − x2 ) 2 + (y1 − y2 )2 + (z1 − z2 )2
while the midpoint of the line segment AB is given by

x1 + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z2
M( , , )
2 2 2
EXAMPLE 1
Let A(1,0,5) and B(2,3,1). Find
(a) the distance between A and B

(b) the distance between O and B
(c) the coordinates of the midpoint M of the line segment [AB]
(d) the coordinates of point C given that B is the midpoint of [AC]
Solution
(a) dAB = (1 − 2)2 + (0 − 3)2 + (5 − 1)2 = 1 + 9 + 16 = 26
(b) dOB = 2 2 + 32 + 12 = 14
1+ 2 0 +3 5 +1 3 3
(c) M( , , ) i.e. M( , ,3 )
2 2 2 2 2
(d) C(3,6,-3)
Notice: the coordinates of A,B,C (B midpoint) form arithmetic sequences
x: 1,2,3
y: 0,3,6
z: 5,1,-3
 VOLUMES AND SURFACE AREAS OF KNOWN SOLIDS
The volumes and the surface areas of 5 known solids are given
below:
Solid Volume Surface area
Cuboid
V = xyz S = 2xy + 2yz + 2zx
Pyramid
1 S = (sum of areas
V = (area of base)  (height)
3 of the faces)
Cylinder
V = πr 2 h S = 2π rh + 2π r 2
Cone
S = πrL + πr 2
1
V= πr 2 h where
3
L = r 2 + h2
Sphere
4
V= πr 3
S = 4π r 2
3
Notation
x, y, z : length-width-height
r: radius of circular base
h : vertical height
EXAMPLE 2
The volume and the surface area for the following solids
Cube of side x Cuboid of square base x
x
x x
Cube: V = xxx = x 3 S = 6x 2
Cuboid of square base: V = x2y S = 2x 2 + 4xy
EXAMPLE 3
Given that the volume of a cylinder is 25,
(a) express h in terms of r
(b) hence express the surface area in terms of r
Solution
25
(a) V = πr 2 h  πr 2 h = 25  h =
π r2
25 50
(b) S = 2π rh + 2πr 2 = 2πr + 2πr 2 = + 2πr 2
πr 2
r
EXAMPLE 4
Given that the surface area of a cylinder is 100π,
(a) express h in terms of r
(b) hence express the volume in terms of r
Solution
50 - r 2
(a) S = 2π rh + 2π r 2  2π rh + 2π r 2 = 100π  h =
r
50 - r 2
(b) V = πr 2 h = πr 2 = πr(50 - r 2 ) = 50π r - 50r 3
r
EXAMPLE 5
Find the volume and the surface area of a right pyramid of square
base of side 6 and vertical height 4.
Μ΄
Solution
The vertical height is h=4.
For the slant height AM we use the Pythagoras theorem on ANM.
AM2 = AN2 + NM2  AM2 = 4 2 + 32  AM = 5
The area of the triangle AED (and any side triangle) is

1 1
A =  ED  AM =  6  5 = 15
2 2
1 1
The volume is V = (area of base)  (height) =  62  4 = 48
3 3
The surface area is S = (area of square base)+4A = 62+4×( 15 ) =96
Notice about the angles between lines and planes:
Angle between line AM and plane BCDE = angle AM̂N
Angle between line AD and plane BCDE = angle AD̂N
Angle between the planes ADE and BCDE = angle AM̂N
Angle between the planes ACB and ADE = angle MÂM = 2× MÂN
3.2 TRIANGLES – THE SINE RULE - THE COSINE RULE
 BASIC NOTIONS
For any right-angled triangle
a b
θ
B c A
we define the sine, the cosine and the tangent of angle θ by:
b opposite c adjacent
sinθ = = cosθ = =
a hypotenuse a hypotenuse
b opposite
tanθ = =
c adjacent
Clearly
sinθ
tanθ =
cosθ
It also holds
Pythagoras’ theorem a 2 = b2 + c2
We can easily derive the so-called Pythagorean identity
sin 2θ + cos2θ = 1
Indeed,
2 2
b c b 2 + c2 a2
sin 2θ + cos2 θ =   +   = = =1
a a a 2
a 2
EXAMPLE 1
C 4
sinB =
5
5 4 3
cosB =
5
θ 4
tanB =
B 3 A 3
We can also confirm Pythagoras’ theorem: 5 2 = 32 + 42
Every angle has a fixed sine, cosine and tangent. For example
1 3 1 3
sin30o = , cos30o = , tan30o = =
2 2 3 3
If we know the sine, the cosine or the tangent of an acute angle θ

(i.e. θ<90), we can find θ by using the inverse functions of our GDC:
sin-1, cos-1 and tan-1
For example,
1 1
if sinθ = then θ = sin-1 = 30o
2 2
Thus, we can find the angle B of the triangle above:

4
B= sin-1 = 53.1°
5
3 4
(Notice that cos-1 and tan-1 give the same result)
5 3
Then
C=90°–53.1° = 36.9°
For two angles A and B
A and B are called complementary if A + B = 90o
A and B are called supplementary if A + B = 180o

 SIN, COS, TAN for basic angles: 0o, 30o, 45o, 60o, 90o
We mention a practical way to memorise them:
θ 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o

0 1 2 3 4
sinθ
2 2 2 2 2
For cosθ we obtain the same values in the opposite order
For tanθ we simply divide sinθ by cosθ.
Hence,
θ 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o

1 2 3 Notice
sinθ 0 1
2 2 2 1 3
=
3 2 1 3 3
cosθ 1 0
2 2 2 1 2
=
1 2 2
tanθ 0 1 3 -
3
REMARKS:
• For an acute angle (θ < 90ο) if we know the result sinθ we can
find the angle θ itself by using the inverse function sin -1 in our
GDC. Similarly, for cosθ and tanθ. For example,
If sinθ = 0.5 then θ = sin-1 0.5 = 30o

If cosθ = 0.3 then θ = cos-1 0.3 = 72.5o
• sinθ, cosθ, tanθ, cotθ are also defined for obtuse angles (θ> 90ο).
At the moment, it is enough to know that
supplementary angles have equal sines but opposite cosines:
e.g. sin30o = 0.5, sin 150o = 0.5

cos30o = 3/2 cos 150o = - 3/2
• The values of sinθ and cosθ range between -1 and 1.

 SINE RULE - COSINE RULE
For any triangle two rules always hold:
c b
B a C
a b c
SINE RULE = =
sinA sinB sinC
COSINE RULE a2 = b2 + c2 − 2 bc cos A
Notice: There are two more versions of the cosine rule:
b2 = c2 + a2 − 2 ca cosB c2 = a2 + b2 − 2 ab cos C
Consider, for example, the following triangle
104.5o
2 3
46.60 28.9o
B 4 C
We confirm by GDC that the SINE RULE holds:

4 3 2
 4.13  4.13  4.13
sin104.5 sin46.6 sin28.9
We can also confirm the three versions of the COSINE RULE:
42 = 32+22-2(3)(2)cos 104.5 (LHS = 16 RHS = 16)
32= 22+42-2(2)(4)cos 46.6 (LHS = 9 RHS = 9)
22= 42+32-2(4)(3)cos 28.9 (LHS = 4 RHS = 4)

EXAMPLE 2
Consider the following right-angled triangle
A
90o
c b
B a C
Then
a b c b c
= = a =
 =
sin90 o
sinB sinC sinB sinC
and so
b c
sinB = and sinC =
a a
as expected by the definition of sinθ
Also, a 2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc  cos90o implies
a2 = b2 + c2
that is the Pythagoras’ theorem, since cos90o = 0.
Moreover
b2 = c2 + a 2 − 2ca cosB  b2 = c2 + (b 2 + c2 ) − 2ca cosB
 - 2c2 = −2ca  cosB
c
 cosB =
a
b
as expected by the definition of cosθ. Similarly we get cosC =
a
Consequently,
SINE RULE generalizes the definition of sinθ
COSINE RULE generalizes of the definition of cosθ

and Pythagoras’ theorem
 THE SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
Any triangle has 6 basic elements: 3 sides and 3 angles.
If we are given any 3 among those 6 elements (except 3 angles!)

we are able to find the remaining 3 elements by using the sine rule
or the cosine rule appropriately.
Roughly speaking
If we know we use
(three sides) OR (two sides and an included angle) COSINE RULE
otherwise SINE RULE
In other words
we use the SINE RULE when we know an angle-opposite side pair.
EXAMPLE 3 (given three sides)
2 3
B 4 C
We use COSINE RULE
42 = 22 + 32 - 12 cosA 32 = 22 + 42 - 16 cosB
 3 = -12cosA  -11 = -16cosB
 cosA = - 0.25  cosB = 0.6875
C = 28.9o
 A = 104.5o  B = 46.6o
Finally,
C = 180o-A-B = 180o-104.5o-46.6o,
Thus
Notice: We may sometimes have no solutions at all. For example, if
a=10, b=3, c=2 it is not possible to construct such a triangle!
Indeed, the cosine rule gives us cosA = -7.25 which is not possible!
EXAMPLE 4 (given two sides and an included angle)
104.5o
2 3
B C
We use COSINE RULE:
BC2 = 22 + 32 - 12 cos 104.5o = 16
Thus BC = 4
Then we know all the three sides and hence B and C can be found
as above: B = 46.6o and C = 28.9o
EXAMPLE 5 (given one side and two angles)
104.5o
3
46.60
B C
In fact, we know the third angle as well:
C = 180o-A-B = 180o-104.5o- 46.6o, thus C = 28.9o
Now we can use the sine rule twice
3 BC sin
=  BC = 4
sin 46.6 104.5
3 AB sin
=  AB = 2
sin 46.6 28.9
EXAMPLE 6 (given two sides and a non-included angle)
2 3
46.60
B C
We use the sine rule
3 2
=  sinC = 0.484
sin 46.6 sin C
Hence, C = 28.9o (by GDC)
Then
A = 180o - 46.6o - 28.9o, that is A = 104.5o
The side BC can be found either by sine or cosine rule! It is BC=4
Notice: In fact, we obtain two values for C.
C = 28.9o (by GDC)
or C΄ = 180o - 28.9o = 151.1o
(since supplementary angles have equal sines).
But C΄ = 151.1o is rejected since
B + C΄ = 46.6o + 151.1o > 180o
But this is not always the case!
 THE AMBIGUOUS CASE
If we are given two sides and a non-included angle (as above) we

may have as a solution
▪ Two triangles
▪ One triangle
▪ No triangle at all
This is because the sine rule provides two values for an unknown
angle. For example if we find sinC = 0.5 then
C = 30o (this is sin-1C)

or C΄ = 180o - 30o = 150o
and these two values may result to different solutions.
In example 6 we found only one solution. But in the following

example we will find two solutions.
EXAMPLE 7 (given two sides and a non-included angle)
5 4
300
B C
We use the sine rule:

4 5
=  sinC = 0.625
sin 30 sin C
Hence,
C = 38.7o (by GDC)
or C΄ = 180o - 38.7o = 141.3o
CASE (1): If C = 38.7o then
A = 180o - 30o - 38.7o, thus A = 111.3o
and then
BC2 = 5 2 + 42 − 2(5 )(4)cos111.3  BC = 7.45
CASE (2): If C΄ = 141.3o then
A΄ = 180o - 30o - 141.3o, thus A΄ = 8.7o

and then
BC2 = 5 2 + 42 − 2(5 )(4)cos8.7  BC΄ =1.21
We may, sometimes, obtain no solution at all.
EXAMPLE 8 (given 2 sides and a non-included angle)
5 1
300
B a C
We use the sine rule:
1 5  sinC = 2.5
=
sin 30 sin C
which is impossible!
Hence, there is no such a triangle!
 JUSTIFICATION OF THE AMBIGUOUS CASE
In example 7, we were given B=30o, AB=5, AC=4 and we found

two solutions for C, and thus two possible triangles: ABC and ABC΄.
Indeed, the two triangles satisfying theses conditions are shown

below
5 4 4
300
B C΄ C
Notice that AC=4 can be placed in two different positions.
For the two possible values of angle C it holds
C+C΄=180o
(can you explain why?)

 THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE
A
1
c b Area = bc sinA
2
B a C
Notice that two sides and an included angle are involved in the
formula!
We can derive two similar versions for this formula:
1 1
Area = ab sinC Area = ac sinB
2 2
EXAMPLE 9
Look at again the triangle in example 1:
104.5o
2 3
46.60 28.9o
B 4 C
1
Area = 2 3 sin104.5 o  2.90
2
The other two versions give the same result:
1
Area = 2  4  sin46.6o  2.90
2
1
Area = 3 4  sin28.9o  2.90
2
(you may notice little deviations on the result due to rounding!)

3.3 APPLICATIONS IN 3D GEOMETRY – NAVIGATION
 ANGLE OF ELEVATION – ANGLE OF DEPRESSION
Suppose that an object is above the horizontal level of an observer.

The angle of elevation θ to the object is shown below:
Object
θ
Observer horizontal
If the object is below the level of the observer the angle of

depression θ to the object is shown below:
Observer horizontal
θ
Object
We very often see these notions in 3D shapes. For example,
The angle of elevation from A to G is the angle BÂG .

The angle of elevation from A to F is the angle CÂF (explain why!)
The angle of depression from H to B is the angle GĤB .

The angle of depression from H to C is the angle FĤC (explain why!)
EXAMPLE 1
An observer is situated at point A.

(a) Find the distance AG and the angle of elevation of point G.
(b) Find the distance AF and the angle of elevation of point F.
Solution
(a) We consider the triangle AGB.
By Pythagoras’ theorem,
AG2 = 4 2 + 32  AG = 5
The angle of elevation is BÂG . Hence,
3
tanBÂG =  BÂG =36.9o
4
(b) For point F we consider the vertical height FC and thus the
triangle AFC.
We firstly need the side AC. By Pythagoras theorem in ABC
AC 2 = 4 2 + 5 2  AC = 41
Now, by Pythagoras’ theorem in AFC,
AF 2 = 41 2 + 32  AF = 50
The angle of elevation is CÂF . Hence,
3
tanCÂF =  CÂF =25.1o
41
EXAMPLE 2
P
30 45
horizontal
B A
An object P is above a hill. Two observers A and B are situated as

in the diagram above.
The angle of elevation from A is 45o.
The angle of elevation from B is 30o.
The distance between A and B is 10m.
Find the vertical height h of the object P above the ground.
Solution
Consider the triangle
P
30° 45°
B 10 A x K
h h
tan45 =  =1 h = x
x x
h
tan30 = h
x  = 1  h 3 = x + 10
+ 10 x + 10 3
Therefore,
10
h 3 = h + 10  h( 3 − 1) = 10  h =  13.7 m
3 −1
Notice: Another approach is to work in triangle ABP first, to find

h
AP=19.318 and then by sin 45 = , we find h  13.7
19.318
EXAMPLE 2
An observer is situated at point A.

(c) Find the distance AG and the angle of elevation of point G.
(d) Find the distance AF and the angle of elevation of point F.
Solution
(a) We consider the triangle AGB.
By Pythagoras’ theorem,
AG2 = 4 2 + 32  AG = 5
The angle of elevation is BÂG . Hence,
3
tanBÂG =  BÂG =36.9o
4
(b) For point F we consider the vertical height FC and thus the
triangle AFC.
We firstly need the side AC. By Pythagoras theorem in ABC
AC 2 = 4 2 + 5 2  AC = 41
Now, by Pythagoras’ theorem in AFC,
AF 2 = 41 2 + 32  AF = 50
The angle of elevation is CÂF . Hence,
3
tanCÂF =  CÂF =25.1o
41
 NAVIGATION - BEARING
When we navigate on a map we should have in mind the four main

directions
North, East, South, West
as well as the four intermediate directions as shown below.
The angle between any consecutive directions is 45o.
Thus, for example,
• if two persons walk towards the North and East directions

respectively the angle between their directions is 90o.
• if two persons walk towards the North and Southeast directions

respectively the angle between their directions is 135o.
Another keyword in navigation is the bearing. Suppose that a

moving body goes from point A to point B.
The bearing of the course AB is the clockwise angle

between the North direction and AB.
The following diagram will clarify this notion.

According to the diagram:
North
North
50o
the bearing of the course AB is 50o

the bearing of the course BA is 230o (explain why!)
EXAMPLE 3
A car travels:
from point A to point B in bearing 50o,
then from point B to point C with bearing 1500,
then goes back to point A with bearing 270o.
The distance AC is 10km.
Draw a diagram to show the details find the distances AB and AC.
Solution
B 1500
500 300
500 300
A 10 km C
According to the diagram Â = 40o, B̂ = 80o, Ĉ = 60o
Then, by using the sine rule

10 AB BC
= =
sin80 sin60 sin40
we find AB = 8.79km and BC = 6.53km

3.4 THE TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE – ARCS AND SECTORS
The values of the angles can be represented well on the following

trigonometric circle:
90o
120o 60o
135o 45o
150o 30o
+
180o 0o
360o
210o 330o
225o 315o
240o 300o
270o
In fact, each value on the circle indicates the angle between the
corresponding radius and the positive x-axis radius (red arrow).
The angle formed after a complete circle is 360°.
The angle formed after half a circle is 180°.
However, after completing a full circle (1st period) we can continue

counting:
361°, 362°, 263° and so on
The next full circle (2nd period) finishes at 2×360° = 720°.
Similarly, we can move clockwise, considering negative angles:
-1°, -2°, -3° and so on
For example, 270° can also be seen as -90°.
Therefore, an angle may have any value from - ∞ to +∞.

 DEGREES AND RADIANS
Consider the following circle of radius r =1 (unit circle).
θ
A
O
The circumference of the circle is 2πr = 2π.
Start from point A and move anticlockwise. What is the length of

the arc AB?
If θ = 0ο then AB=0
If θ= 360ο then AB=2π (full circle)
If θ= 180ο then AB=π (semicircle)
If θ= 90ο then AB=π/2 (quarter of a circle)
Thus, an alternative way to measure the angle θ=AÔB is to

measure the corresponding arc AB. The new unit of measurement
is called radian.
DEGREES (deg) RADIANS (rad)
90o π/2
180o π 0
O 0o o
360 O 2π
270o 3π/2
Let us see the basic angles, in degrees and radians, on the
trigonometric circle.
π/2
2π/3 90o π/3
120o 60o
3π/4 π/4
135o 45o
5π/6 π/6
150o 30o
+
π 0o 0
180o
360o 2π
210o 330o
7π/6 11π/6
225o 315o
5π/4
240 o
300o 7π/4
4π/3 270o 5π/3
3π/2
We can also move in the opposite direction (clockwise) and consider

negative angles:
-π -180o 0o 0
-150o -30o
-5π/6 -π/6
-135o -45o
-3π/4 -π/4
-120o -60o
-90o -π/3
-2π/3
-π/2
NOTICE:
The ratio between degrees and radians is given by
degrees 180 0
=
radians π
EXAMPLE 1
Let θ1 =300, θ 2 =800, θ 3 =270. Transform in radians.
deg
We use the ratio :
rad
For θ : 30 o 180 0  180x = 30π  x = 30π = π rad
=
1 x π 180 6
For θ : 80 o 180 0  180x = 80π  x = 80π = 4π rad
=
2 x π 180 9
27π
For θ : 27 o 180 0  180x = 27π  x = =0.471rad
=
3 x π 180
EXAMPLE 2
π 4π
Let θ1 = rad, θ2 = rad, θ3 =2 rad. Transform in degrees.
3 9
deg
We use the ratio :
rad
180π
For θ : x 180 0  x = 60ο
=  πx =
1 π/3 π 3
For θ : x 180 0 4  180π
=  πx =  x = 80ο
2 4π /9 π 9
x 180 0 360
For θ3: =  πx = 360  x = =114.6ο
2 π π
NOTICE (not necessary to remember though!!!)
180 π
1 rad = = 57.3o 1o = = 0.0174 rad
π 180
 THE ANGLE VALUES OF A POINT ON THE UNIT CIRCLE
Consider the point on the unit circle corresponding to 30ο.
Let’s start from 0ο and move anticlockwise. We pass through 30ο

and after completing a full circle, we pass through the same point
at 30ο+360ο =390ο
and then again at 30ο+360ο×2 =750ο
and so on.
In other words, we add (or subtract) multiples of 360ο:
In this way, the same point has infinitely many angle values:
30ο+360οk where kZ
Working in radians, we add multiples of 2π, so that the point has

the infinitely many angle values:
π
+2kπ where kZ
6
Thus, for k = … -1, 0, 1, 2, … we obtain the values
…, -330ο, 30ο, 390ο, 750ο, … [in degrees]

11π π 13π 25π
…, − , , , , … [in radians]
6 6 6 6
Therefore, any point θ on the circle has infinitely many values:

 ARCS AND SECTORS
Consider a circle of radius r. Let θ be the angle shown below

measured in radians!
B
r
θ
O
A
The length of the arc AB is given by L=rθ
1 2
The area of the sector OAB is given by A= r θ
2
In particular, if we consider θ=2π (complete circle), we obtain
L = rθ = 2πr (the circumference of the circle)

1 2
A = r θ = πr2 (the area in the circle)
2
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the following sector of a circle with r=5m and θ=0.6rad:
0.6
Then
Length of arc: L = rθ = 5(0.6) = 3
1 2 1 2
Area of sector: A = r θ = 5 (0.6) = 7.5 m2
2 2
Perimeter of sector: L+r+r = 3+5+5 = 13m
EXAMPLE 4
3
30o
A
O
Let r =3cm and θ=30ο. Find

a) the length of the arc AB b) the area of the sector OAB
c) the distance AB d) the area of the triangle OAB
Solution
π
First of all we have to transform θ in radians: θ =
6
π π
a) L = rθ = 3 = = 1.57 cm
1 62 2 3π
b) Asector = r θ= 1 2π = 2.36 cm2
3 =
2 2 6 4
c) For AB we use COSINE RULE:
π
AB2 = 32+32-2.3.3cos  AB = 2.41154 = 1.55 cm
1 . π 6
d) Atriangle = 3 3sin = 2.25 cm2
2 6
Notice in the example above

• length of arc AB > length of side AB : 1.57 > 1.55
• area of sector OAB > area of triangle OAB : 2.36 > 2.25
as expected!
Furthermore, the area of the segment between side AB and arc AB
is the difference Asector-Atriangle =2.36-2.25=0.11.
In general,
1 2
Asegment = r (θ-sinθ)
2
(can you explain why?).

3.5 SIN, COS, ΤΑΝ ON THE UNIT CIRCLE
 sinθ AND cosθ
Consider again the unit circle (radius r =1) on the Cartesian plane.
y P(x,y)
θ
-1 O x 1
-1
Let P(x,y) be a point on the circle,

OP = r = 1
θ = angle between OP and x-axis
Then
opposite y
sinθ = = =y and cosθ = adjacent x
= =x
hypotenuse 1 hypotenuse 1
Thus, if we think the angle θ as a point on the circle:
sinθ θ
sinθ = y coordinate of θ
cosθ = x coordinate of θ cosθ
This description helps us to define sinθ and cosθ not only for angles
within 00θ 900, but for any value of θ on the circumference.
900< θ <1800 1800< θ <2700 2700< θ <3600

2nd quadrant 3rd quadrant 4th quadrant
θ sinθ
cosθ cosθ
cosθ
sinθ sinθ
θ θ
Let us move the y-axis (which shows sinx) to the left of the circle:
sinθ
1 900
0.5 1500 300
0 1800 00 or 3600
-0.5
2100 3300
-1
2700
sinθ is the y-coordinate of θ

θ 00 300 900 1500 1800 2100 2700 3300 3600
sinθ 0 0.5 1 0.5 0 - 0.5 -1 - 0.5 0
This diagram explains why supplementary angles have equal sines.

Let us move now the x-axis (which shows cosx) under the circle:
900
1200 600
1800 00
3600
2400 3000
2700
cosθ
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
cosθ is the x-coordinate of θ

θ 00 600 900 1200 1800 2400 2700 3000 3600
cosθ 1 0.5 0 - 0.5 -1 - 0.5 0 0.5 1
This diagram explains why opposite angles have equal cosines.
NOTICE
As we have said, any point on the circle represents infinitely many
angle values. In that sense, all these angles have the same sine and
the same cosine.
For example, the point of 300 also represents the values
300+3600k: …, -330ο, 30ο, 390ο, 750ο, …
Check by your GDC:

sin300 = 0.5 cos300 = 3/2
sin3900 = 0.5 cos3900 = 3/2
sin7500 = 0.5 etc cos7500 = 3/2 etc
A similar observation applies when θ is in radians!

π
All values + 2kπ : have the same sine and cosine
6
We understand that
-1  sinθ  1 -1  cosθ  1
sinθ
cosθ
 tanθ
Consider now the unit circle below and an additional vertical axis
passing through point A (it is tangent to the circle!)
O A
1
Then
opposite AB
tanθ = = =AB
adjacent 1
Thus, the value on this axis indicates the value of the tangent:
tanθ
3 =1.73
900
1
600
450 1 = 0.58
300 3
θ 00 300 450 600 900
tanθ 0 1/ 3 1 3 +
Again, this description helps us to define tanθ not only for angles θ
within 00 θ 900 .
tanθ
1
1350 450
1800 0
2250 3150
-1
x 00 450 1350 1800 2250 3150 3600
tanθ 0 1 -1 0 1 -1 0
It is clear that diametrically opposite angles have equal tangents.

NOTICE
• Not only θ, but all values
θ + 180k ο (in degrees)
θ + kπ (in radians)
have equal tangents (we just add or subtract semicircles).
• It is obvious that tanθ is not defined for θ=900 or θ=-900. In
fact, tanθ is not defined for
π
90 ο + 180k ο (in degrees) + kπ (in radians)
2
For any other value of θ,
- < tanθ < +


tanθ
It is worthwhile to notice that for opposite angles, θ and –θ
-θ
cos(-θ) = cosθ [even function]

sin(-θ) = -sinθ [odd function]
tan(-θ) = -tanθ [odd function]
 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
The trigonometric numbers are interconnected by some relations

known as trigonometric identities.
We have already seen the fundamental Pythagorean identity
sin2θ + cos2θ = 1
Thus, for example. if we know sinθ we can find cosθ (provided we

know the quadrant of θ).
The following identities are known as double angle identities.
They connect the trigonometric numbers of 2θ with those of θ.
cos2θ = cos2θ-sin2θ
cos2θ = 2cos2θ- 1 2tanθ

sin2θ = 2sinθcosθ tan2θ =
1- tan 2θ
cos2θ = 1-2sin2θ
[only for HL]
EXAMPLE 1
3
Let sinθ = . Find
5
cosθ, tanθ, sin2θ, cos2θ, tan2θ
if
(a) θ < 90o (acute)
(b) 90o < θ < 180o (obtuse)
Solution
By the fundamental identity sin2θ + cos2 2θ = 1, we obtain
3
cos θ = 1- sin θ = 1-
2 2 = 1- 9 16
  25 = 25 ,
5 
thus
4
cosθ = 
5
4 4
If θ is acute (1st quadrant) cosθ = , if θ is obtuse cosθ =-
5 5
(a) Since θ < 90o
4
cosθ =
5
sinθ 3
tanθ = = ,
cosθ 4
3 4 24
sin2θ = 2sinθcosθ = 2 =
5 52 252
cos2θ = cos2θ-sin2θ =  4  -  3  = 7
   
5  5  25
sin2θ 24
tan2θ = = .
cos2θ 7
(b) Since 90o<θ<180o
4
cosθ =-
5
tanθ = sinθ 3
= - ,
cosθ 4
3 4 24
sin2θ = 2sinθcosθ = 2 (- ) = -
5 25 25
2
cos2θ = cos2θ-sin2θ =  − 4  -  3  = 7
   
 5 5  25
tan2θ = sin2θ 24
= - .
cos2θ 7
NOTICE
Consider the double angle identity
sin2θ = 2sinθcosθ
That means
sin30o = 2sin15ocos15o
sin100o = 2sin50ocos50o
or
sin4θ = 2sin2θcos2θ
sin10θ = 2sin5θcos5θ
Similar variations can be obtained by the other identities, e.g.
cos30o = 1-2sin215o
cos4θ = 1-2sin22θ
NOTICE
If we divide the Pythagorean identity sin2θ + cos2θ = 1 by cos2θ,
we obtain
1
tan2θ + 1 =
cos2θ
This identity connects tanθ with cosθ. Τhus, all three trigonometric
numbers sinθ, cosθ, tanθ are interconnected.
However, we can easily obtain this interconnection by using the
right-angled triangle method:
2
For example, let θ be an angle in the first quadrant with sinθ = .
3
We construct a right-angled triangle to represent this information.
3
2
By using the Pythagorean identity, we find the third side: 5
Thus, we know all three trigonometric numbers:
2 5 2
sinθ = . cosθ = . tanθ = .
3 3 5
In fact, this method provides the absolute value of the

trigonometric numbers. If θ belongs to another quadrant we must
take care of the sign () as well.
For example, in the example above, if θ is in the 2 nd quadrant, it is
2
still sinθ = , but we know that cosθ and sinθ are negative. So
3
5 2
cosθ = - . tanθ = -
3 5
3.6 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
 Remember that
SAME SIN SAME COS SAME TAN
π-θ θ θ θ
1800-θ θ θ θ
-θ
θ±1800
-θ
θ±π
Consider for example the equation

1
sinx =
2
1 1
We know that sin30o = . But also sin150o =
2 2
These two values give the complete set of solutions:
x=30o+360k,
x=150o+360k, (kZ)
(the two formulas above are known as general solution).
We usually ask for the solutions within a particular domain
Methodology:
1
Equation: sinx =
2
Think: sinx = sin30o [you may skip this step]
General solution: x=30o+360k,

x=150o+360k,
Particular solutions: Try for k = 0,±1,±2, … to find
solutions within the given domain
In general, for the following equations,
sinx=a
cosx=a
tanx=a
we find the principal solution θ and express them in the form
sinx=sinθ
cosx=cosθ
tanx=tanθ
The general solutions are given below:
EQUATION IN DEGREES IN RADIANS
x= θ + 360οk x=θ +2kπ

sinx=sinθ
x=(180ο-θ) + 360οk x=(π-θ) + 2kπ
x= θ + 360οk x= θ + 2kπ
cosx=cosθ
x=-θ + 360οk x=-θ + 2kπ
tanx= tanθ x=θ + 180οk x=θ + kπ
EXAMPLE 2
1
Solve the equations: (a) sinx= , 0°  x  360°
2
1
(b) cosx= , 0°  x  360°
2
Solution
1
(a) sinx=  sinx=sin30°
2
150o 30o
General solution: x=30o + 360ok
x=150o + 360ok
Within the given domain:
The 1st equation gives only x=30o (for k=0)
The 2nd equation gives only x=150o (for k=0)

1
(b) cosx=  cosx=cos60° 60o
2
General solution: x=60o + 360ok
x=-60o + 360ok
-60o
Within the given domain:
The 1st equation gives only x=60o (for k=0)
The 2nd equation gives only x=300o (for k=1)
In the following example, let us see an equation under three

different domains.
EXAMPLE 3
Solve the equation tanx=1
(a) for 0°  x  360°
(b) for -180°  x  180°
(c) for -180°  x  450°
Solution
tanx=1  tanx=45o 45o
General solution: x=45o + 180ck
(a) Within 0°  x  360° we obtain
x=45o x=225o
(b) Within -180o  x  180o
x=-135o x=45o
x=-135o x=45o x=225o x=405o
(c) Within -180o  x  450o

NOTICE
Particularly for the equations
sinx=0 and cos x=0
90o
180o 0o
-90o
there exist two different approaches for the general formula.

(a) For sinx=0
x = 0°+360°k x = 0+2kπ
sinx=0
x = 180°+360°k x = π+2kπ
Since the two basic solutions are diametrically opposite, we

may merge the two general solutions into one:
sinx=0 x = 180°k x = kπ
(b) For cosx=0
x = π +2kπ
x = 90°+360°k 2
cosx=0
x = -90°+360°k x = − π +2kπ
2
Since the two basic solutions are diametrically opposite, we

may merge the two general solutions into one:
cosx=0 x = 90°+180°k x = π +kπ

2
(c) Practically,
solutions of sinx=0 solutions of cosx=0
..., -180°, 0°, 180°, 360° , … ..., -90°, 90°, 270° , 450° …
..., - π , π , 3π , 5π , ...
..., -π, 0, π, 2π, 3π, ...
2 2 2 2
The general solutions of the basic trigonometric equations are
presented below.
General solution
Equation Basic solution
in degrees in radians
π
x= + 2kπ
1 π x = 30 + 360k 6
sinx = 30 =
2 6 5π
x = 150 + 360k x= + 2kπ
6
π
x= + 2kπ
2 π x = 45 + 360k 4
sinx = 45 =
2 3π
4 x = 135 + 360k x= + 2kπ
4
π
x= + 2kπ
3 π x = 60 + 360k 3
sinx = 60 =
2 2π
3 x = 120 + 360k x= + 2kπ
3
π
x =− + 2kπ
sinx = −
1 - 30 = - π x = −30 + 360k 6
2 6 5π
x = −150 + 360k x=− + 2kπ
6
π
x=− + 2kπ
sinx = −
2 - 45 = - π x = −45 + 360k 4
2 4 3π
x = −135 + 360k x =− + 2kπ
4
π
π x=− + 2kπ
3 - 60 = - x = −60 + 360k 3
sinx = −
2 3 2π
x = −120 + 360k x =− + 2kπ
3
Extreme cases
π π
90 = x = + 2k π
sinx = 1 x = 90 + 360k 2
2
π π
-90 = - x=− + 2k π
sinx = −1 x = −90 + 360k 2
2
For sinx = 0
sinx = 0 0 x = 180k x =kπ

General solution
1 π π
cosx = 60 = x= + 2kπ
x = 60 + 360k 3
2 3
2 π π
cosx = 45 = x= + 2kπ
x = 45 + 360k 4
2 4
3 π π
cosx = 30 = x= + 2kπ
x = 30 + 360k 6
2 6
1 2π 2π
cosx = − 120 =
x = 120 + 360k x= + 2kπ
2 3 3
2 3π 3π
cosx = − 135 =
x = 135 + 360k x= + 2kπ
2 4 4
3 5π 5π
cosx = − 150 = x= + 2kπ
x = 150 + 360k 6
2 6
Extreme cases
cosx = 1 0 = 0 x = 360k x = 2k π
cosx = −1 180 = π x = 180 + 360k x = π + 2k π
For cosx = 0
π π
90 = x= +k π
cosx = 0 2 x = 90 + 180k 2
General solution
60 = π π
tanx = 3 x = 60 + 180k x= + kπ
3 3
45  = π π
tanx = 1 x = 45 + 180k x= + kπ
4 4
30 = π π
tanx = 1/ 3 x = 30 + 180k x= + kπ
6 6
tanx = 0 0 = 0 x = 180k x =kπ
tanx = −1/ 3 -30 = − π x=−

π
+ kπ
x = −30 + 180k 6
6
-45 = π π
tanx = −1 −
x = −45 + 180k x=− + kπ
4 4
-60 = π π
tanx = − 3 −
x = −60 + 180k x=− + kπ
3 3
Let us see some slightly different equations of this form.
EXAMPLE 4
3
Solve the equation sin2x= ,
2
(a) in the domain 0o  x  360o (in degrees)
(b) in the domain 0  x  2π (in radians)
Solution
(a) sin2x= sin60°

The general solution is
2x=60o+360ok  x=30o+180ok (1)
2x=120o+360ok  x=60o+180ok (2)
(1) gives x=30o x=210o (2) gives x=60o x=240o
π
(b) sin2x=sin .
3
π π π + 6kπ
2x= +2kπ  x= + kπ= (1)
3 6 6
2π π π + 4kπ
2x= +2kπ  x= + kπ = (2)
3 3 3
π 7π π 4π
(1) gives x= x= (2) gives x= x=
6 6 3 3
EXAMPLE 5
Solve the equation cos3x=0, -180o  x  180o
Solution
cos3x=cos900.
3x=90o+180ok  x=30o+60ok
Therefore x=30o x=90o x=150o x=-30o x=-90o x=-150o

EXAMPLE 6
2
Solve the equation cos2x= 0  x  2π
2
Solution
π
cos2x=cos
4 π π π +8π
Hence 2x= +2kπ  x= +kπ = (1)
4 8 8
π π -π +8π
2x= − +2kπ  x= − +kπ = (2)
4 8 8
π 9π 7π 15π
(1) gives x= , x= (2) gives x= , x= .
8 8 8 8
EXAMPLE 7
Solve the equation tan3x= 3
(a) in the domain -180o  x  180o (in degrees)
(b) in the domain -π  x  π (in radians)
Solution
(a) tan3x=tan60o
Hence 3x=60o+180ok  x=20o+60ok
For k=0,1,2, ... we obtain x=20o, x=80o , x=140o
For k=-1,-2, ... we obtain x=-40o, x=-100o , x=-160o
(c) tan3x=tan60o
π π kπ
Hence 3x= +kπ  x= + = π + 3kπ
3 9 3 9
π 4π 7π
For k=0,1,2, ... we obtain x= , x= , x=
9 9 9
2π 5π 8π
For k=-1,-2, ... we obtain x=- , x=- , x=-
9 9 9
More complicated trigonometric equations usually reduce to simple
equations as above.
EXAMPLE 8
Solve the equation sin2x=sinx, 0o  x  360o
LHS, sin2x, can be simplified by using the double angle formula.
sin2x=sinx  2sinxcosx=sinx
 2sinxcosx-sinx=0
 sinx(2cosx-1)=0
 sinx=0 or 2cosx-1=0
 sinx=0 or cosx=1/2
We solve the two simple equations
• sinx=0  x=0o, or x=180o or x=360o
• cosx=1/2  x= 60o or x=300o
Hence, the equation has five solutions 0o, 60o, 180o, 300o, 360o.
REMARKS:
• If the equation is given in radians under the restriction 0  x  2π
we obtain
sinx=0  x=0, or x=π or x=2π
cosx=1/2  x= π/3 or x= 5π/3
Thus the five solutions are 0, π/3, π, 5π/3 and 2π
• If 180o  x  180o we obtain x=0o, x=±60o, x=±180o
• If -π  x  π we obtain x=0, x=±π/3 , x=±π
An interesting case is the following where the trigonometric

equation has a quadratic form.
EXAMPLE 9 (Quadratic form)
Solve the equation 2cos2x-3cosx+1=0, 0x π
If you let y=cosx, the given equation has the form 2y2-3y+1=0
The roots of this equation are y=1 and y=1/2
Thus
• cosx=1. This equation has only one solution: x=0
• cosx=1/2. This equation has only one solution: x=π/3
Therefore, there are two solutions: x=0, x=π/3
EXAMPLE 10
Solve the equation 3(1-cosx)=2sin2x, 0xπ
(We wish to have only cosx or only sinx. Hence, we use the
Pythagorean identity to substitute sin2x by 1-cos2x)
3(1-cosx)=2(1-cos2x)  3-3cosx=2-2cos2x
 2cos2x-3cosx+1=0
This is in fact the equation in example 8 above.

Therefore, there are two solutions: x=0, x=π/3
B
Equations of the form Asinx=Bcosx, take the form tanx=
A
EXAMPLE 11
Solve the equation 3 sinx=cosx, 0  x  2π

1
It takes the form tanx= .
3
π
The general solution is x= +κπ
6
There are two solutions: x=π/6, and x=7π/6.

3.7 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
 f(x) = sinx
Let us construct the graph of this function in the traditional way,

that is in the Cartesian plane Oxy.
π 3π
x 0 π 2π …
2 2
f(x) 0 1 0 -1 0
We have:
Domain: xR
Range: y[-1,1] [since ymin=-1 and ymax=1]
For functions of this form we also define
Central line: y = 0
Amplitude = 1 (distance between max and central line)
Period: T= 2π (the length of a complete cycle)
Notice that
ymax − ymin
Amplitude = ymax-central value (it is also )
2
Period=2π means that the curve is repeated every 2π units
Use your GDC to see the graph and compare with the curve above
Set V-Window: x from -2π to 2π

y from -2 to 2
 f(x) = cosx
Let us now construct the graph of this function.
π 3π
x 0 π 2π …
2 2
f(x) 1 0 -1 0 1
Again Domain: xR

Range: y[-1,1] [ymin=-1 and ymax=1]
Central line: y = 0
Amplitude = 1
Period: T= 2π
NOTICE:
• For both functions y=sinx and y=cosx, the horizontal distance
between two consecutive max = 2π (one period)

between two consecutive min = 2π (one period)
between consecutive max and min = π (half a period)
• Use your GDC to see the graph in degrees. Period = 360°
Set V-Window: x from -360° to 360°

y from -2 to 2
TO
PIC
TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Sonia Arora
 f(x) = tanx
Next, we construct the graph of y=tanx.
π π π π
x - - 0 …
2 4 4 2
f(x) - -1 0 1 -
We have:
π 3π
Domain: xR- {  ,  ,…}
2 2
Range: yR [there is no min, no max, no amplitude]
Central line: y=0
Period: T =π
π π
Vertical asymptotes: x= , x= − , etc
2 2
NOTICE
Remember our discussion about asymptotes in Topic 2.
A vertical line x=a is an asymptote of the graph y=f(x) if
• the function is not defined at x=a, and

• for values of x very close to a the value of y=f(x)
approaches +  or - 
50
 TRANSFORMATIONS OF sinx AND cosx
Consider the function f(x) = sinx + 2.

Its graph is a vertical translation of sinx, 2 units up:
Clearly, Central line: y=2

Range: y[1,3] [ymin=1 and ymax=3]
Amplitude=1 and Period: T=2π remain the same.
Consider the function f(x) = 3sinx.

Its graph is a vertical stretch of sinx with scale factor 3:
Clearly, Amplitude = 3
Range: y[-3,3] [ymin=-3 and ymax=3]
Central line: y=0 and Period: T=2π remain the same
Notice: the amplitude of f(x)=-3sinx is still 3

Consider the function f(x) = sin2x.

Its graph is a horizontal stretch of sinx with scale factor 1/2:
Now, Period: T = π
Central line: y=0, Amplitude=1, Range: y[-1,1] remain the same
In general, the function
f(x) = AsinBx + C
with A>0, is obtained by three transformations on sinx:

a vertical stretch with scale factor A,
a horizontal stretch with scale factor 1/B,
a vertical translation by C units (up or down),
(If A<0 we also have a reflection in x-axis at the beginning)

Consequently, for the new function f(x):
C is the central value. The central line is y=C
|A| is the amplitude

2π 2π
T= Is the period. Hence B =
B T
Notice:
• f(x) ranges between the values C±A
• Similar observations apply for f(x) = AcosBx +C
EXAMPLE 1
The graph of f(x) = AsinBx + C, is given below (A>0). Find A,B,C.
• Central line at y=15, so C=15

• Amplitude = 5, so A=5
• Period T= 8, hence 2π 2π π
B= = =
T 8 4
π
Therefore, the equation of the function is f(x) = 5sin( x) + 15
4
EXAMPLE 2
The graph of f(x) = AcosBx +C is given below (A>0). Find A,B,C.
ymax + ymin
• Central line at =5, so C=5
2
• Amplitude = ymax-C =15, so A=15
2π 2π
• Period Τ= π, hence B = = =2
T π
Therefore, the equation of the function is f(x) = 15cos(2x) + 5
We distinguish four basic types of trigonometric functions:
sinx -sinx cosx -cosx
y-intercept y-intercept y-intercept y-intercept

central/going up central/going down max min
Notice that the amplitude is always positive but the coefficient A of

sinx or cosx can be positive or negative.
EXAMPLE 3
Express the following graph as a trigonometric function.
We can easily find that
Central line: y=5 hence C=5
Amplitude = 15
2π
Period: T=π hence B=
=2
π
The function of type –sinx (y-int central/going down), so A=-15
Therefore, the equation of the function is
f(x) = -15sin(2x) + 5
Conversely, if we are given a trigonometric function we can easily
draw the graph
EXAMPLE 4
Draw the graph of the function f(x) = 5sin2x+7, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
Solution
Central value = 7
Amplitude = 5
max=12, min=2 (since f(x) ranges between 7±5)
2π
Period T = = π
2
Thus, we have to draw two periods.
The function is of type sinx (y-intercept central/going up).
The graph is
Finally, remember the horizontal transformations f(x-a):
sin(x-D)
translation D units to the right
cos(x-D)
Therefore, for the functions
f(x) = Asin[B(x-D)] + C f(x) = Acos[B(x-D)] + C
A,B,C are determined as above.

D shows a horizontal translation.
Practically, the value of D depends on the type of the function.
When we see a graph we spot the points shown below!
D1 for type sinx
D2 for type cosx
D3 for type -sinx
D4 for -cosx
The value of D is the x-coordinate of the corresponding point above
EXAMPLE 5
Consider the graph of a trigonometric function given below.
14 y
12
10
2
x
π/4 π/2 3π/4 π 5π/4 3π/2
Central value = 7, thus C =7

Amplitude = 5, thus |A|=5
Period T = π , thus B=2π/π = 2
The most appropriate form is of type -cosx (y-intercept min).
f(x)= -5cos2x+7
However, the same function can be expressed as
π
[type sinx] f(x)= 5sin[2(x- )]+7
4
π
[type cosx] f(x)= 5cos[2(x- )]+7
2
3π
[type -sinx] f(x)= -5sin[2(x- )]+7
4
 TRANSFORMATIONS OF tanx
In a similar way,
f(x) = AtanBx +C
is a transformation of tanx. For the new function
|A| is the scale factor of a vertical stretch

π
T= is the period
B
C is the new central value (units up or down)
EXAMPLE 6
f(x)= 10tan4x +30
central value= 30
NO min, NO max (A=10 simply shows a vertical stretch of tanx)
π
Period =
4
Finally,
tan(x-D) translation D units to the right or to the left
Therefore, for a function of the form
f(x) = Atan[B(x-D)] +C
A,B,C are determined as above,

D shows a horizontal translation of tanx
ONLY FOR
HL
3.8 MORE TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES AND EQUATIONS
 SEC, COSEC, COT
In the HL course we consider three more trigonometric numbers.
1 1
secant: secθ = cosecant: cscθ =
cosθ sinθ
1
cotangent: cotθ =
tanθ
Particularly for cotθ, there is a geometrical representation, very

similar to that of tanθ.
Consider the unit circle below and an additional horizontal axis

passing through point A.
A B
O 1
As θ is moving around the circle
cotθ = AB
Thus, for example,

1
cot90° = 0, cot45° = 1, cot30° = 3, cot60° = ,
3
 MORE TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
If we divide the Pythagorean identity cos2θ + sin2θ =1
1
by cos2θ we obtain tan2θ + 1 = = sec2θ
cos2θ
1
by sin2θ we obtain cot2θ + 1 = = csc2θ
sin2θ
For the sum A+B and the difference A-B of two angles it holds
sin(A ± B) = sinAcosB ± cosAsinB
cos(A ± B) = cosAcosB ∓ sinAsinB
tanA  tanB
tan(A ± B)=
1 ∓ tanAtanB
Notice if we set A=B=θ to the formulas for A+B we obtain the

double-angle identities.
EXAMPLE 2
Find sin75o and tan15o by using appropriate identities.
Solution
sin75o = sin(45o+30o) = sin45ocos30o + cos45osin30o
2 3 2 1 6+ 2
= + =
2 2 2 2 4
tan60 o − tan45 o
tan15o = tan(60o-45o) =
1 + tan60 o tan45 o
3 −1 3 −1
= =
1 + 3 1 3 +1
(if we rationalise the last result we obtain 2 − 3 )

 MORE GENERAL TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
The following results will help:
A=B+2kπ
If sinA=sinB
A=(π-B)+2kπ
A=B+2kπ
If cosA=cosB
A=-B+2kπ
If tanA=tanB A=B+kπ
REMARK If the equations are given in degrees:

2kπ becomes 360ok kπ becomes 180ok
The basic trigonometric equations we have seen so far, can take the
form of the equations above:
sinx=a  sinx=sinθ
cosx=a  cosx=cosθ (where θ is the principal solution)
tanx=a  tanx=tanθ
EXAMPLE 2
The trigonometric equation
sin(10x)=1/2
can take the form
(in radians) (in degrees)

π
sin(10x)=sin sin(10x)=sin30o
6
π π + 12kπ
10x= +2kπ  x= 10x=30o+360ok  x=3o+36ok
6 60
5π 5π + 12kπ
10x= +2kπ  x = 10x=150o+360ok  x=15o+36ok
6 60
However, we can also solve equations where
both A and B are in terms of x.
EXAMPLE 3
Solve the equation sin3x=sinx, 0  x  2π
3x = x + 2kπ
sin3x=sinx  
3x = π- x + 2kπ
2x = 2kπ
 
4x = π + 2kπ
π + 2kπ
 x=kπ or x=
4
Hence, the solutions are
π 3π 5π 7π
x=0, x=π, x=2π, x= , x= , x= , x= .
4 4 4 4
EXAMPLE 4
Solve the equation cos3x=cosx, 0  x  2π
3x = x + 2kπ
cos3x=cosx  
3x =-x + 2kπ
2x = 2kπ
 
4x = 2kπ
kπ
 x=kπ or x=
2
π 3π
x=0, x=π, x=2π, x= , x= .
2 2
EXAMPLE 5
Solve the equation tan3x=tanx, 0  x  2π
kπ
tan3x=tanx  3x=x+kπ  2x=kπ  x=
2
π 3π
x=0, x= , x=π, x= , x=2π.
2 2
Remember that
π π π π
sin =cos and cos = sin
3 6 3 6
This is true for any pair of complementary angles. Therefore,
π
cosA=sinB can take the form cosA=cos( -B)
2
EXAMPLE 6
Solve the equation cos3x=sinx, 0  x  2π
π
We can write sinx as cos( -x). Thus
2
 π
3x =
- x + 2kπ
π  2
cos3x= cos( -x)  
2 3x =- π + x + 2kπ
 2
 π
4x = + 2kπ
 2
 
2x =- π + 2kπ
 2
π kπ π
 x= + or x =- + kπ
8 2 4
π 5π 9π 13π 3π 7π
x= , x= , x= , x= and x= , x= .
8 8 8 8 4 4
Finally, sinx and tanx are odd functions, i.e.
-sinx = sin(-x) -tanx = tan(-x)
Hence,
sinA=-sinB can take the form sinA=sin(-B)
tanA=-tanB can take the form tanA=tan(-B)
However,
cosA=-cosB takes the form cosA=cos(π-B)
since cos(π-x)=-cosx (prove it!)

EXAMPLE 7
Solve the equation sin3x=-sinx, 0  x  2π
We can write -sinx as sin(-x). Thus

 3x =-x + 2kπ
sin3x= sin(-x)  
3x = π + x + 2kπ
 4x = 2kπ

2x = π + 2kπ
kπ π
 x= or x= + kπ
2 2

π 3π
x=0, x= , x= π , x= , x=2 π
2 2
For the reciprocal trigonometric functions, we observe that
1
• secx=a is equivalent to the equation cosx=
a
1
• cscx=a is equivalent to the equation sinx=
a
1
• cotx=a is equivalent to the equation tanx=
a
EXAMPLE 8
Solve the equation secx=2.
This is equivalent to cosx=1/2
Thus, the general solutions are
in radians in degrees
π π
x= +2kπ, x=- +2kπ x=60o+360ok, x=-60o+360ok
3 3
3.9 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (for HL)
 sin-1x
Look at the graph of f(x)=sinx. This is not a “1-1” function

(horizontal line test!)
π π
However, if we restrict f(x)=sinx to [- , ], we may define f-1.
2 2
f(x)=sinx f-1(x)=sin-1x
1 π
2
π π
− 0 -1 0 1
2 2
π
−
-1
2
π π
DOMAIN f: x [- , ] DOMAIN f-1: x [-1,1]
2 2
π π
RANGE f: y [-1,1] RANGE f-1: y [- , ]
2 2
 cos-1x
Similarly, if we restrict f(x)=cosx to [0,π], we may define f-1.
f(x)=cosx f-1(x)=cos-1x
1 π
0 π
-1
-1 0 1
DOMAIN f: x [0,π] DOMAIN f-1: x[-1,1]
RANGE f: y [-1,1] RANGE f-1: y [0,π]
TO
PIC
 tan-1x
π π
Similarly, if we restrict f(x)=tanx to (- , ), we may define f-1.
2 2
f(x)=tanx f-1(x)=tan-1x
y y
π
2
π π
− 0 0
2 2
π
−
2
π π
DOMAIN f: x (- , ) DOMAIN f-1: xR
2 2
π π
RANGE f: yR RANGE f-1: y(- , )
2 2
We also use the notation

arcsinx for sin-1x
arccosx for cos-1x
arctanx for tan-1x
Therefore,
arcsinx=y  siny=x
arccosx=y  cosy=x
arctanx=y  tany=x
Notice
Mind the difference between
sin-1x which is the inverse function (arcsinx)
1
which is the reciprocal (secx)
sinx
TO
PIC
Notice also that
for x[-1,1] for x[-1,1] for xR

arcsinx arccosx arctanx
lies in the semicircle lies in the semicircle lies in the semicircle
π π π π
[- , ] [0, π ] ]- , [
2 2 2 2
In fact, arcsin(a) is the principal solution of the equation sinx=a
EXAMPLE 1
By using the trigonometric tables of known angles

π π
arcsin0.5 = arcsin(-0.5) = -
6 6
π 2π
arccos0.5 = arccos(-0.5) =
3 3
π π
arctan1 = arctan(-1) = -
4 4
For x=0
π
arcsin0 = 0 arccos0 = arctan0 = 0
2
For a non-basic angle we use the GDC, e.g. arctan5 = 1.37
TO
PIC
NOTICE:
Since sinx and arcsinx are inverse to each other (and similarly for
the other functions) it clearly holds
sin(arcsinx)=x
cos(arccosx)=x
tan(arctanx)=x
π π
Notice however that arcsin(sinx)=x holds only for - ≤x≤ )
2 2
Indeed,
π 1 π
arcsin(sin ) = arcsin =
6 2 6
5π 1
but arcsin(sin ) = arcsin π 5π
= ≠
6 2 6 6
Similarly, arccos(cosx)=x and arctan(tanx)=x hold only in a

restricted domain.
EXAMPLE 2
π
Show that arctan3-arctan0.5=
4
Let A= arctan3, B= arctan0.5.
tanA − tanB 3 − 0.5

tan(A-B) = = =1
1 + tanAtanB 1 + 3(0.5)
Thus A-B is either π/4 or -3π/4.
But arctan3 > arctan0.5, so A-B > 0
Hence,
π
arctan3-arctan0.5 =
4
TO
PIC
EXAMPLE 3
Find
2
A=tan(arctan )
3
2
B=sin(arctan )
3
2
C=cos(arctan )
3
The first result is immediate

2
A=
3
For the other two results we use the “triangle method”:
2
Let θ=arctan . Then
3
2
tanθ=
3
We represent this information on a right-angled triangle:
13 We find the third side by using

2 Pythagoras theorem.
θ
3
Then
2
Β=sinθ=
13
3
C=cosθ=
13
TO
PIC
The following paragraphs
are on
VECTORS
TO
PIC
3.10 VECTORS: GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION (for HL)
 DEFINITION
We distinguish two kinds of quantities in nature:
SCALARS vs VECTORS
(magnitude) (magnitude and direction)
examples: examples:
age
(28) length force
(4m)
(7N) velocity
temperature 35m/sec)
(25oC)
Thus, for a vector it is not enough to know the magnitude. We also

need to know its direction (eg 35m/sec towards southeast)
Geometrically, a vector is represented by an arrow and denoted by
a letter: u or two letters: AB

[A=tail, B=head]
u B
A
The length of the vector is called magnitude (it is a scalar).

It is denoted by | u| or | AB |
Until now, we used to play with numbers: add numbers, multiply

numbers etc. In this topic, we will “play with vectors: we will add
vectors, multiply vectors etc.
TO
PIC
 EQUAL VECTORS
Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the
same direction. Thus, two equal vectors must be parallel.
u u=v
v
In other words, a vector does not have a specific position; it is

exactly the same as long as it is translated in a parallel position.
Hence, in a parallelogram
A B AB = DC AD = BC
BA = CD DA = CB
D C
 ADDITION OF VECTORS: u+ v
In order to add two vectors we must place them one after the
other (head to tail)
u v
Then the sum u + v is given by the following shape
u
v
u+v
Here, it is more convenient to use the head and tail notation
A AB + BC = AC
C
[think as follows: If you go from A to B (vector AB) and then from B to C

(vector BC), the result is that you go from A to C (vector AC)]
TO
PIC
 THE OPPOSITE VECTOR: - u
u -u
It has the same magnitude but the opposite direction. Again, the
two vectors are parallel. It is more convenient to use the head and
tail notation
B
AB = −BA
A
NOTICE:
• From now on in the head and tail notation we will be writing
AB instead of AB as the direction from A to B is obvious.
• It is easy to verify that
u+ v = v +u (commutative law)
u+( v +w ) = ( v +u)+w (associative law)
• A vector AB can be written as a sum of consecutive vectors in

several ways. For example:
AB=AC+CB
AB=AC+CD+DE+EB etc
The only thing we preserve is to start from A and finish at B.
• Head and tail notation helps to add several vectors even without
drawing them:
AB+CD+BC = AB+BC+CD = AD
AB-AC=AB+CA=CA+AB=CB
• If |u|=5 and | v |=3 then | u+ v | is not necessarily 8. It is expected

to be less than 8. Indeed, the triangle inequality gives
u
v
u+v |u+ v |  |u|+| v |
Only if u and v have the same direction it holds: |u+ v |=| u|+| v |
 THE ZERO VECTOR: 0
It is a vector of zero magnitude and no direction!
Notice that
u- u= 0 or AB-AB = AB+BA = AA = 0
 MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR: ku
Instead of u+u we can write 2 u.
u 2u
Similarly, if k is a natural number

ku=u+u+ … +u (k times)
In general, if k is any positive scalar (kR + ) the product ku is

defined as a new vector of the same direction and magnitude k| u|.
u ku
For k<0 the vector ku simply has the opposite direction.

Thus for two vectors u and v
u // v  u =k v for some kR
NOTICE:
It is easy to verify that
k( u+ v ) = k v +ku (distributive law)

(k+m) u = ku+mu (distributive law)
k(mu) = (km) u
1 u = u
0u = 0
k0 = 0
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the following cube
E H
F G
D C
A B
Let a=AB, b =AD c =AF.

Any other edge can be corresponded to a, b , c .
Namely,
a=AB=DC=FG=EH.
b=AD=BC=FE=GH
c =AF=BG=DE=CH
Can you express FC in terms of a, b and c ?
First of all we must find a path from F to C: FC=FG+GB+BC

Then we observe
FC= a- c +b
 VECTORS ON THE CARTESIAN PLANE
Remember that a parallel translation of any vector results to an

equal vector:
If we can consider the Cartesian Plane, any vector on the plane can
be moved so as to start from the origin O.
B
A
Thus any vector on the plane can be written in the form OA.
Suppose that the coordinates of the point A are: A(a,b)
A
b u
O a
a
We agree to denote the vector u=OA by  
b
a
We say that u=OA=   is the position vector of the point A(a,b).
b 
Notice also that the length of OA is a2 + b2 (according to the

Pythagoras’ Theorem). This is in fact the magnitude of u=OA.
EXAMPLE 2
Consider the following vector u and its equivalent vector OA.
4 A u
x
O
3
Notice that the point A has coordinates (3,4)

3 
The position vector of the point A(3,4) is OA=  
4 
3 
In practice, by a vector u=   we imply that we are moving
4 
3 units in the x-direction and
4 units in the y-direction
This description introduces an alternative approach for vectors in

the following paragraph.
3.11 VECTORS: ALGEBRAIC REPRESENTATION (for HL)
 2- DIMENSIONAL VECTORS
a
 
A vector u is a pair of numbers in column form:   .
b 
a
A vector u=   is represented on the Cartesian plane as an arrow
b 
from the origin O to the point P(a,b). We say that u=OP is the
position vector of the point P.
P
b
u
O a
The magnitude of a vector u is defined by |u|= a2 + b2
EXAMPLE 1
3  - 3 1 0
Consider the vectors u =   , v =  , w =  , r = 
4  4  1  0 
The corresponding magnitudes are
|u|= 32 + 42 = 25 = 5 | v |= (-3) 2 + 4 2 = 25 = 5
|w |= 12 + 12 = 2 |r |= 0 2 + 0 2 = 0
 ADDITION OF VECTORS: u+ v
a 1  a2  a1 + a2 
If u=   and v =   then u+ v =  
b
 1 b
 2 b
 1 + b 2 
 THE OPPOSITE VECTOR: - u
a - a 
If u=   then - u=  
b  - b 
 THE ZERO VECTOR: 0

0

0= 
 0 
 MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR: k u
a
  ka
If kR (scalar) and u=   then ku=  
b   kb 
If k>0, we say that u and ku have the same direction

If k<0, we say that u and ku have the opposite direction
EXAMPLE 2
3  2 
Consider the vectors u=   , v =   . Then
4 5
   
3   2  5  3   2  1   2  3  -1
u+ v =   +   =   , u- v =   +   = , v - u=   -   = 
 4  5  9  4  5  -1  5   4  1 
3  6 15  - 9  - 3 
2 u=2   =   , 5 u=   , -3 u=  , -1 u=- u=  
4  8  20  - 12  - 4 
3   2  6 6  12 
2 u+3 v =2   +3   =   +  = 
4  5  8   15   23 
NOTICE
3  6
For u=   , it is | u|=5. For 2 u=   , |2 u|= 62 + 82 = 100 =10.
4 8 
1
Similarly, the magnitude of 10 u is 50, the magnitude of u is 1.
5
In general, the magnitude of k u is |k| times the magnitude of u,
that is
|ku|= |k|| u|
 THE UNIT VECTOR
The unit vector corresponding to u is defined by
1 →
û = u
|u |
It is in fact a vector in the same direction with magnitude 1.
EXAMPLE 3
3  2 
Consider the vectors u=   , v =   . Then
4 5
   
|u|= 32 + 42 = 25 = 5 | v |= 22 + 5 2 = 29
The corresponding unit vectors are

1 3/5  1  2   2/ 29 
û = u=  , vˆ =  = 
5  4/5  29 5  5/ 29 
We can easily confirm that the magnitudes of the unit vectors û
and vˆ are both equal to 1.
Question: Can you find a vector a parallel to u and a vector b

parallel to v , both of them having magnitude 20?
Since |u|= 5 , the vector a=4 u has magnitude 20
Since | v |= 29 , it is less obvious to find b. The general method is

to find the unit vector vˆ first (which has magnitude 1) and then
we multiply by the required legnth: b =20 vˆ = 20 v

29
 THE NOTATION u=a i +b j

a
A vector u=   may also be written in the form u=a i +b j
b
1  0
where i =   , j =  
   
0 1 
Notice: In practice, whenever we see an expression like that, say

u=3 i +4 j , we will be using the column vector form, that is u= 3 
 ,
4 
to make our life easier!!!
 EXPLANATION FOR u=a i +b j
a 
Notice that any vector on the x-axis has the form  
 0
0
any vector on the y-axis has the form  
b 
the unit vector on the x-axis is i = 1 

Especially,  
0 
 0
the unit vector on the y-axis is j =  
1 
3  0
Consider for example the vectors u 1 =   , u 2=  
0  4
u
u2
O i u1
3  3  3   0 
Then u=   can be written as u=u 1+u 2 [indeed,   =   +   ]
4  4 0 4
But u 1=3 i and u2=4 j , thus the vector u can be expressed as
u=3 i +4 j
In general,
a
  = a i +b j
b 
 CONNECTION BETWEEN GEOMETRIC AND ALGEBRAIC

REPRESENTATION
In paragraph 4.1 we gave a geometric description of a vector and

the operations u+ v and ku.
In this paragraph we have presented an algebraic description of
these notions. Do these descriptions agree?
We will make use of some examples to demonstrate this connection.
• For u+ v
3  5  8 
Let u=  and v =  . Then u+ v =  
4 - 2  2 
Geometrically, let us draw u and v , starting from the origin, so
that u and v are consecutive:
for u we are moving 3 units horizontally, 4 units vertically
for v we are moving 5 units horizontally, -2 units vertically
then we observe that
for u+ v we are moving 8 units horizontally 2 units vertically
v
u
u+ v
O
Hence, the geometric description of u+ v that we have seen in

paragraph 4.1 keeps up with the algebraic description in this
paragraph.
• For ku
a
If u=   is a vector of magnitude m
b
 2a
then clearly 2 u=   is a vector in
 2b 
the same direction with magnitude 2m
Again, the geometric and the algebraic definitions of 2 u (and

ku in general) coincide!
 3- DIMENSIONAL VECTORS
In the 3-dimensional space a vector has the following form
a
 
u= b  or equivalently u=a i +b j +c k
c 
 
1  0 0
     
where i =  0  , j = 1  , k =  0 
0 0 1 
     
u
y
c
b
k j
O
x
a
i
The magnitude of u is defined by |u|= a2 + b2 + c2
All the other notions (eg u+ v , k u, unit vector) are defined in an

analogue way!
EXAMPLE 4
1  2 
   
Consider the vectors u= 2  , v = 5  . Then
3  - 4 
   
1
   2 3
    4  7 
         
• 3 u+2 v =3  2  +2 5  =  6  + 10  = 16 
3  - 4  9  -8  1 
         
• |u|= 12 + 22 + 32 = 14
1/ 14 
1 →  
• The unit vector corresponding to u is û = u = 2/ 14 
|u |  
3/ 14 
 
 POINTS AND VECTORS
2D 3D
Points A(x 1,y1) and B(x 2,y2) A(x 1,y1,z1) and B(x 2,y2,z2)
x1 + x 2 y1 + y2 x1 + x 2 y1 + y2 z1 + z 2
Mid-point M( , ) M( , , )
2 2 2 2 2
position  x1  x2   x1   x 2 
OA= , OB= OA= y , OB= y
vectors      1  2
of A and B  y1   y2  z 
 1
z 
 2
 x 2   x1   x 2 − x1 
 x 2   x1   x 2 − x1       
vector AB   - =   y2  -  y1  =  y2 − y1 
y
    
2
y1
y 2
− y 1  z  z  z − z 
 2  1  2 1
distance (A,B)
it is in fact the (x 1 − x 1 ) 2 + (y1 − y2 )2 (x 1 − x 1 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 + (z1 − z 2 ) 2
magnitude |AB|
EXAMPLE 5
2D 3D
Points A(1,2) and B(3,4) A(1,2,3) and B(4,5,6)
5 7 9
Mid-point M(2,3) M( , , )
2 2 2
1  4 
1  3   
position vectors OA= , OB= OA= 2 , OB= 5
       
of A and B 2 4 3  6 
   
 4  1   3 
3  1   2       
vector AB   -   =  5  -  2  =  3 
 4  2 2  6  3   3 
     
distance (A,B)
it is in fact the 22 + 22 = 8 32 + 32 + 32 = 27
magnitude |AB|
3.12 DOT PRODUCT – ANGLE BETWEEN VECTORS (for HL)
 THE GEOMETRIC DEFINITION (the ugly one!)

Let u and v be two vectors and θ be the angle between those two
vectors
θ u
The dot product (or scalar product) of u and v is defined to be a

number given by
u . v =|u|| v |cosθ
For example, if u and v are vectors of magnitudes 5 and 4

respectively and the angle between them is θ=600 then
u. v =|u|| v |cosθ=(5).(4).(0.5) = 10
Mind that the result is a number (scalar) and not a vector.

Notice that
If θ=900 then u. v =0 [ u⊥ v , perpendicular vectors]
If θ=0o then u . v =|u|| v | [ u v , parallel-same direction]
If θ=1800 then u. v =-|u|| v | [ u v , parallel-opposite direction]
Thus, the dot product can take any value between the minimum
value -|u|| v | and the maximum value |u|| v |
In particular, the product u. u is denoted by u 2. Since the angle

between u and itself is 0, u 2 is equal to |u||u|, hence
u 2=|u|2
1  0
Notice that for the unit vectors i=   and j=   it holds
0  1 
i2= 1 , j2=1, i.j= 0 and j.i=0
 THE ALGEBRAIC DEFINITION (the pretty one!)
a 1  a2 
Let u=   and v =   be two vectors. The scalar product (or dot
b
 1 b
 2
product) of u and v is given by
2
u. v =a1a2+b1b2
5  u. . .
For example, if u=  and v =  then v =2 5+3 4=22
3  4 
 BASIC PROPERTIES
It can be shown that the dot product satisfies the following basic
rules:
o u. v = v . u (commutative law)
o u .( v1 + v 2 )= u . v1 + u . v 2 (distributive law)
o k( u. v )=(ku). v = u . (k v )
 SHORT EXPLANATION FOR THE “PRETTY” DEFINITION

a 1  a2 
Let u=   =a1i+b1j and v =   = a2i+b2j. Then
b
 1 b2 
u. v = (a1i+b1j).(a2i+b2j)= a1a2i2 + a1b2i.j + b1a2j.i + b1b2j2= a1a2+b1b2
(since i2=j 2=1 and ij=ji=0)
 THE ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS

If we combine the “ugly” and the “pretty” definitions we obtain a
nice way to calculate the angle between two vectors. The “ugly”
definition gives
→
u v
cosθ = → →
| u || v |
Hence, if we are given two vectors u and v , we can easily calculate

→ →
| u | , | v | and the dot product u. v by using the “pretty” definition
and the formula above gives the angle θ.
EXAMPLE 1
3  1 
Consider the vectors u =   , v = .
4 -2
   
Find
a) their magnitudes
b) their dot product u. v
c) the angle θ between them
We have
→ →
a) | u | = 5, | v |= 5
b) u. v = 3.1+4.(-2)=-5
→ 1
c) cosθ = u  v = − 5 = , and the GDC gives θ=116.560
→ → −
| u || v | 5 5 5
The dot product is a nice tool to verify whether two vectors are
perpendicular or not:
 PERPENDICULAR VECTORS AND PARALLEL VECTORS
Recall two basic properties: For two non-zero vectors u and v :
u ⊥ v  u. v =0 (perpendicular vectors)
u// v  u=k v for some kR (parallel vectors)
EXAMPLE 2
3  4 
a) Show that u=   , v =   are perpendicular
4
   - 3 
2
b) Find some perpendicular vectors to the vector u= 
5
 
Solution
a) u. v =3.4+4.(-3)= 0, hence u ⊥ v . Indeed, look at the following
diagram
3 
u=  
4
4 
v = 
- 3 
b  - b a
b) In general both   and   are perpendicular to u=   since
-a a  b
the dot product for both pairs is a.b-ab=0.
2
Thus, some perpendicular vectors to u=   are the following
5 
5  10  15   − 5  - 10  - 15 
  , ,   and  ,  , 
- 2  - 4  - 6  2  4  6 
EXAMPLE 3
3  x 
Let u=  . Find the value of x if v =  is
4 - 6 
a) perpendicular to u b) parallel to u
Solution
a) u ⊥ v  u. v = 0  3x+4(-6)=0  3x=24  x=8
3   x 
b) u// v  =λ for some λ.
   
4 - 6 
But it is more practical to say that the ratios of the corresponding
coordinates are equal:
x −6
=
3 4
9
Therefore, x=-
2
 THE PROPERTY |u| 2 =u 2
This property very often helps us to get rid of magnitudes. Look at

the following example!
EXAMPLE 4
For two non-zero vectors u and v it holds |u+ v |=|u- v |. Show
that u and v are perpendicular.
|u+ v |=|u- v |  |u+ v |2=|u- v |2 [just squaring]

 ( u+ v )2=( u- v )2 [property |u| 2 =u 2 ]
 u2+2 u. v + v 2=u2-2 u. v + v 2
 4 u. v =0  u. v =0  u ⊥ v
 3D VECTORS
a  a2 
 1  
For two vectors u= b and v = b the dot product is given by
c 1   c 2 
 1   2 
u. v =a1a2+b1b2+c1c2
Whatever we said about 2D vectors also applies here!
EXAMPLE 5
4  5 
   
Show that u= 2 , v = - 3  are perpendicular. Indeed
- 1 14 
   
u. v = 4.5+2(-3)+(-1)(14) = 0, thus u ⊥ v
EXAMPLE 6
 1 1 
   
Find the angle between u=  1  and v =  2  . We have
   
 1 3 
→
u v 6
cosθ = = =0.926, hence θ=cos-1(0.926)= 22.20
→ → 3  14
| u || v |
3.13 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 2D (for HL)
 VECTOR EQUATION
a 1 
Let A(a1,a2) be a point with position vector a= 
a2 
b1 
b=   be a vector
b2 
There is a unique line passing through A which is parallel to b .
A(a1,a2)
b 
b=  1 
b2 
x
 
The position vector r =   of the random point P(x,y) in this line is
y
 
given by
or  x  a1  b 1 
r = a+λb   =   +λ  
 y   a2   b2 
where λ is a parameter.
 SHORT EXPLANATION
x 
r = 
 y
 a1 
a=   P
a 2 
A b 
b=  1 
b2 
The position vector of the point P(x,y) is

r =OP=OA+AP
But OA= a and AP // b  AP=λb for some λR. Thus
r = a+λb
 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
 x  a 1  b1 
x=a1+λb1
  =   +λ   gives
 y  a 2  b2  y=a2+λb2
 CARTESIAN EQUATION
x − a1 y − a2
If we solve both equations for λ we get λ= and λ= .
b1 b2
Therefore, the relation between the parameters x,y is
x − a1 y − a2
=
b1 b2
EXAMPLE 1
3 
Let A(1,2) be the given point and b =   be the direction vector.
4 
Then the line passing through A, parallel to b is
1  3   x  1  3 
Vector equation: r =   +λ   or   =   +λ  
 2  4  y  2  4 
Parametric equations: x=1+3λ
y=2+4λ
Now solve for λ and get
Cartesian equation: x −1 y−2
=
3 4
The Cartesian equation may be written in more traditional forms:
ax+by=c or y=mx+c
Indeed, the last equation gives

x − 1 y − 2  4x-4=3y-6 
= 4x-3y=-2
3 4
4 2
If we solve for y we obtain the traditional form: y= x+
3 3
NOTICE
 x  1  3 
Let us consider again the equation   =   +λ  
y  2   4 
3

It is the line which is parallel to b=   and passes through A(1,2).
 4 
As λ changes we obtain several points of the line.
Some points of the line Some direction vectors

1  3 
  (the given one)   (the given one)
2 4
4  6
  (for λ=1)  
6  8 
7  9  3 
  (for λ=2)   multiples of  
10  12  4
- 2  - 3 
  (for λ=-1)  
- 2  - 4 
Hence, if we consider another point from the first column and

another vector from the second column the resulting line is still the
same! For example the vector equation
 x  7  6 
 =   +λ  
 y  10  8 
describes the same line!
(Confirm that the Cartesian equation derived is exactly the same)
 GIVEN TWO POINTS A(a1,a2) AND B(b1,b2)

What is the equation of the line passing through A and B?
For the first bracket we choose one of the points: say A(a1,a2)
b1  a1 
As a direction vector we consider the vector b=AB=   - 
b 2  a 2 
Then
r = a+λb.
EXAMPLE 2
Find the line which passes through A(1,2) and B(4,7)
1   4- 1 3 
We consider a=   and b=AB=  = 
 2 7- 2  5 
Hence, the line is
1  3 
r =   +λ  
 2  5 
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the line y=3x+2. Find a vector equation of the line.
Firstly, let us find two points of this line:

For x=0, y=2 and for x=1, y=5
Hence, we are looking for the line which passes through A(0,2) and
B(1,5).
 0  1
r =   +λ  
 2  3 
1
 
(since AB=   )
3 
EXAMPLE 4 (the inverse of EXAMPLE 3)

Let
 0  1 
r =   +λ  
 2 3
Find the Cartesian equation.
The parametric equations are
x=0+1λ
y=2+3λ
Solving both equations for λ we find
(λ= ) x − 0 y − 2
=
1 3
That is, 3x=y-2, or y=3x+2 as expected!
If we are given two lines
r1 = a1 +λ b1 (L1)
r2 = a2 +μb2 (L2)
two questions arise:
1) Find the intersection point P of these lines
2) Find the angle θ between these lines (usually the acute angle)
L1 b2
P
θ
b1
L2
 INTERSECTION POINT OF TWO LINES
Methodology:
• set r1 =r2 ,
• find λ (or μ),
Substitute to L1 (or L2) to find the point.
EXAMPLE 5
Find the intersection point of the lines
1  3  2  1 
r1 =   +λ   and r2 =   +μ  
 2  4  - 2   4
1 + 3λ   2 + μ  3λ − μ = 1 3λ − μ = 1
r1 =r2   =    
 2 + 4λ  - 2 + 4μ  4λ − 4μ = −4 λ − μ = −1
The solution of this system is λ=1 and μ=2

4
For λ=1 the first vector equation gives r1 =  
6 
Therefore, the intersection point is (4,6).
 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES
It is enough to find the angle between b1 and b2

(since L1// b1 and L2// b2 )
Notice: We usually consider the acute angle between the lines.

Hence, if θ>90 we consider the angle 1800-θ.
EXAMPLE 6
Find the angle between the lines
1  3  2  1 
r1 =   +λ   and r2 =   +μ  
 2  4  - 2   4
3  1 
It suffices to find the angle between b1 =   , and b2 =  
4 4
   
We have
b1 . b2 = 3.1+4.4=19 and |b1 |= 5, | b2 |= 17
so
19
cosθ = =0.922, and the GDC gives θ=22.80
5 17
3.14 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 3D (for HL)
Working in a similar way:

4
 
The line passing through A(1,2,3) and parallel to b = 5  has
6 
 
vector equation: x   1   4 
     
r = a+λb or  y  =  2  +λ  5 
 z  3   
    6 
x=1+4λ
parametric equations:
y=2+5λ
z=3+6λ
x −1 y−2 z −3
Cartesian equations*: = =
4 5 6
Notice that any point on this line has the form

P(1+4λ, 2+5λ, 3+6λ)
The rest analysis is similar! Let us find for example the line which
passes through two given points:
EXAMPLE 1
(a) Find the line which passes through A(1,2,3) and B(5,2,-1)
(b) Does the point C(21,2,-17) lie on the line?
Solution
1  5 - 1   4 
     
(a) We consider a=  2  and b =AB=  2- 2  =  0 
  - 1- 3 - 4 
3     
Hence, the line is r = a+λb , that is
* We just solve the parametric equations for λ and equate the results
1  4 
   
r =  2  +λ  0 
3   
  - 4 
(b) The point C lies on the line if
 21  1  4 
     
2  =  2  +λ  0  for some λ
     
- 17  3  - 4 
We obtain three equations:
21=1+4λ  λ=5
2=2 (which is true anyway)
-17=3-4λ  λ=5
Therefore, yes C lies on the line (we obtain C for λ=5).
Let us see what happens when we are given two lines

r1 = a1 +λ b1 (L1)
r2 = a2 +μb2 (L2)
 INTERSECTION POINT OF TWO LINES
In the 3D space, three cases may occur:
• The lines are parallel (special case: they coincide)

• The lines intersect
• The lines are skew (neither parallel nor intersecting)
Methodology:
• If b1 // b2 the lines are parallel (moreover, if they have a
common point they coincide); otherwise
• Set r1 =r2 . We obtain a system of 3 equations for λ and μ
• Consider the first two equations and find λ and μ,
• If λ and μ satisfy the third equation the lines intersect;
substitute λ to L1 (or μ to L2) to find the point
• If λ and μ do not satisfy the third equation the lines are skew
(nether parallel nor intersecting)
EXAMPLE 2
Find the intersection point of the lines:
1  3   1 6 
a) r = 2 +λ 4 and r = 1 +μ 8
1     2    
     1 10 
 3  5     
1  3  7  6 
b) r = 2 +λ 4 and r = 10 +μ 8
1     2    
3  5  13  10 
       
1  3  1   2 
c) r = 2 +λ 4 and r = 4 +μ 2
1     2    
3  5  4 3 
       
1  3  1   2 
d) r = 2 +λ 4 and r = 4 +μ 2
1     2    
3  5  4 2
       
We have
6  3 
   
a) the lines are parallel since 8  =2  4  . Since (1,2,3) does not
   
10  5 
lie on the second line (it does not satisfy the equation) the
lines are not identical.
6  3 
   
b) the lines are parallel since 8  =2  4  . Since (1,2,3) lies on
   
10  5 
the second line (it satisfies the equation for μ=-1) the lines
coincide.
 + 3λ  1 + 2μ 
1 3λ
 − 2μ = 0
c) r =r  2 + 4λ = 4 + 2μ  4λ − 2μ = 2
1 2     
3 + 5λ 4 + 3μ  5λ − 3μ = 1
    
The first two equations give λ=2, μ=3. These values satisfy the
third equation 5λ-3μ=1, so the lines intersect. For λ=2 the first
7 
equation line gives r = 10 . Point of intersection: P(7,10,13).
1  
13 
 
 + 3λ  1 + 2μ 
1 3λ
 − 2μ = 0
d) r =r  2 + 4λ = 4 + 2μ  4λ − 2μ = 2
1 2    4 + 2μ 
3 + 5λ 5λ − 2μ = 1
    
The first two equations give λ=2, μ=3. These values do not
satisfy the third equation 5λ-2μ=1, so the lines are skew.
 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES
The angle between two lines is the angle between the direction
vectors b1 and b2 (since L1// b1 and L2// b2 ). In fact, there are
two supplementary angles. We usually ask for the acute one. Thus,
if we find θ > 90o we consider 1800-θ.
EXAMPLE 3
Find the angle between the two intersecting lines (see Exercise 2(c))
1  3  1   2 
r = 2 +λ 4 and r = 4 +μ 2
1     2    
3  5  4 3 
       
3   2 
We find the angle between the direction vectors b = 4 , b = 2 .
1   2  
5  3 
   
We have
b1 . b2 = 3.2+4.2+5.3 = 29 and |b1 |= 50 , |b 2 |= 17
so
29
cosθ = = 0.995, and the GDC gives θ=5.73°
50 17
EXAMPLE 4
Show that the angle between the following lines is 90°:
1  3  1  - 4 
r = 2 +λ 4 and r = 4 +μ 3
1     2    
    4 0 
 3  5     
The dot product of the direction vectors is 3(-4)+4.3+5.0 = 0.
 DISTANCES
In this paragraph we will study the distance between

• two points
• a point and a line
• two lines
Let us present our methodology by considering particular examples:
• Distance between Points

Consider A(1,2,3) and B(5,7,9)
B(5,7,9)
A(1,2,3)
The well-known formula gives
d= (5−1) +(7−2) +(9−3) = 77

2 2 2
• Distance between Point and Line

Consider
5  3 
   
point A(1,2,3) and line L: r = 7  +λ  2 
9   1 
   
A(1,2,3)
b
P(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ)
Key point: Vector AP is perpendicular to line L.

We first find the foot P(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ) on the line L.
3   4 + 3λ  3 
     
AP ⊥ L  AP ⊥ 2   5 + 2λ  ⊥ 2
  6+λ  
1  1 
     
Thus
 4 + 3λ  3 
   
5 + 2λ    2  =0
6+λ 1 
   
 3(4+3λ)+2(5+2λ)+(6+λ)=0
 14λ=-28
 λ=-2
Hence, the foot of the distance is P(-1,3,7)
The distance between the point and the line is
d(A,P)= (1 + 1)2 + (2 − 3)2 + (3-7)2 = 21
• Distance between Lines

(A) If the lines are parallel:
Consider
1  3
  5  3 
Line L1: r = 2 +μ 2 and line L2: r = 7 +λ 2
       
3    9  1 
  1    
The lines are clearly parallel (equal direction vectors).
A(1,2,3)
P(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ)
Key point: We select a point in line L1 and find the distance

from line L2.
Here, the distance of point (1,2,3) of Line L1 from line L2 is

exactly the case B above.
(B) If the lines are skew:
Consider
1  4  5  3 
       
Line L1: r =  2  +μ 5  and line L2: r =  7  +λ  2 
  0 9  1 
3      
It is given that the lines are skew
b1 P(1+4μ,2+5μ,3)
b2 Q(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ)
Key point: Vector PQ is perpendicular to both lines L1 and L2.

 4 + 3λ- 4μ 
 
We first find foots P and Q. Notice that PQ=5 + 2λ- 5μ
 
6 + λ 
 4 + 3λ- 4μ  4
 
a) PQ ⊥ L1   5 + 2λ- 5μ  ⊥ 5 
6+λ   0 
   
 4(4+3λ-4μ)+5(5+2λ-5μ)+0(6+λ)=0
 22λ-41μ=-41
 4 + 3λ- 4μ  3 
 
b) PQ ⊥ L2  5 + 2λ- 5μ  ⊥  2 
6+λ   
1
   
 3(4+3λ-4μ)+2(5+2λ-5μ)+(6+λ)=0
 14λ-22μ=-28
41 7
The system gives λ= − , and μ= −
15 15
13 1 16 23 94
Hence we find P( − ,− ,3) and Q( − , , )
15 3 5 15 15
and hence we can find the distance |PQ|.
3.15 KINEMATICS
A nice application of the vector equation of line is the following:
 VELOCITY AND SPEED

Suppose that a body is moving along a straight line with a constant
velocity and its position at time t is given by
r =a+tb
Then
a is the position of the body at time t=0
b is the velocity vector of the body (usually v )
|b| is the speed of the body (usually | v |)
The vectors (and thus the motion) can be in either 2D or 3D space.
EXAMPLE 1
Suppose that a body is moving according to the equation
1  3 
r =   +t 
 2  4 
where time is measured in seconds and distance in meters.
The initial position (at t=0) of the body is (1,2).

So it is 12 + 22 = 5 =2.23m far from the origin.
The position at time t=1sec is (4,6)

So it is 42 + 62 = 52 =7.21m far from the origin.
3 
The velocity vector is v =  
4
The speed is | v |= 32 + 4 2 =5 m/sec
NOTICE
If r = a+λb is an equation of line, the direction vector b can be
substituted by any multiple of b .
If r =a+tb is an equation of motion, the velocity vector b CANNOT
be substituted by a multiple of b .
This is because the velocity vector corresponds to one unit of time t.
To explain the difference, consider the following situations:
• Suppose that a body is initially at position A(1,2) and after 1
second at position B(5,8). Then
4 1   4 
velocity vector: v =AB=   , equation of motion: r =   +t  
6   2  6 
• Suppose that a body is initially at position A(1,2) and after 2
seconds at position B(5,8). Then the direction vector b =AB=4  

6
 
corresponds to 2 seconds, hence
1 2 1   2 
Velocity vector: v = b =   , equation of motion: r =   +t  
2 3   2  3 
EXAMPLE 2
Suppose that a body is moving on a straight line (in 3D space) in
→ 1
 
the direction of the vector b =  2  with speed 15 ms-1. Its initial
 
2
position is A(1,1,1). Find the equation of the motion of the body.
Since
→
b = 1 +2 +2 =3
2 2 2
The unit vector if b is

1
1 
b̂ =  2 
3 
2 
and since the speed is 15
→ 1  5 
v = 15b = 5 2 =10 
ˆ
   
 2   10 
Therefore, the equation of the motion is
1  5 
   
r =  1  + t  10 
   
 1  10 
In paragraph 3.14 we found that the point of intersection of the
lines
1  3  1   2 
r = 2 +λ 4 and r = 4 +μ 2
1     2    
3  5  4 3 
       
7 
 
is the point (7,10,13) (i.e. with position vector  10  )
 
 13 
Let us see the same question in terms of Kinematics.
EXAMPLE 3
Two bodies are moving in 3D space according to the equations
1  3  1   2 
r = 2 +t 4 and r = 4 +t 2
1     2    
3  5   4  3 
       
respectively.
(notice that here we use the same parameter t for time).
(a) Do their paths meet?
(b) Do the two bodies collide?
Solution
We have to solve the equation r1 =r2 .
If we use the equations of r1 , r2 as they are (with t) we will
answer only question (b) (the two bodies do not collide).
It helps to call the time parameters t1 and t2 respectively.
1  3  1   2  3t1 − 2t2 = 0
r =r  2 + t 4 = 4 + t 2  4t − 2t = 2
1 2   1     2    1 2
3  5   4  3 5t − 3t = 1
         1 2
The first two equations give t1 =2, t2 =3. These values satisfy the
third equation 5 t1 -3 t2 =1. Hence
7 
(a) The two paths intersect at   (use t in equation r )
10  1 1
13 
 
(b) The two bodies do not collide since t1 ≠ t2 .
3.16 CROSS PRODUCT (for HL)
This definition applies only for 3D vectors.
 THE GEOMETRIC DEFINITION (the “ugly” one)

Let u and v be two vectors and θ be the angle between those two
vectors ( where 0  θ  π).
The cross product (or vector product) of u and v is defined to be a

vector given by
u  v = (|u|| v |sinθ) n
where n is the unit vector which is perpendicular to both u and v

and follows the “screw rule”†:
v u
n
u v
n
That is, u  v is a new vector perpendicular to both u and v (and

so to the plane determined by u and v ) with magnitude |u|| v |sinθ
and direction n .
u
uv
v v
u
u v
Notice that the commutative law does not hold. However,
u  v = -v  u
† If we place a screw at the common starting point of u and v and rotate it

form u to v , then the screw will move in the direction of n .
 THE ALGEBRAIC DEFINITION (the “pretty” one)
a 1  a2 
   
Let u= b and v = b be two vectors. The cross product (or
c 1   c 2 
 1   2 
vector product) of u and v is given by
 b1c2 − b2c1 
 
u  v =  c1 a2 − c2 a1 
a b − a b 
 1 2 2 1 
Well, it doesn’t look as pretty as the title promised! But the is a

kind of symmetry in it!
For the first row of the result, you forget the first rows of u and v
and you move along the arrow below
a1   a 2  b1c2 − b2c1 
 b   b  =  
 1  2  
c   c   
1
   2   
Then you carry on in a similar way for the 2nd and the 3rd row.
Mind though the order of the operations for the three rows:
NOTICE
For those who know determinants, the definition can be given in
the form
→ →
i j k
u  v = a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
expanded in terms of the first row vectors, i.e.

b1 c1 → a1 c1 → a1 b1 →
=
− j+ k
uv i c 2 a b
b2 c2 a2 2 2
EXAMPLE 1
1  4 
   
Let u=  2  and v = 5 . Then
3  6 
   
a) find u . v ,
b) find u  v and v  u (by using the “pretty” definition)
c) verify that u  v is perpendicular to both u and v
a) u . v = 4+10+18=32
1   4  12- 15  - 3
       
b) u  v =  2    5  =  12- 6  =  6 
3  6  5 -8  -3
       
 4  1  15 - 12 3 
       
v  u = 5    2  = 6- 12  =  - 6 . That is v  u = - u  v
6  3  8- 5  3 
       
c) u  v ⊥ u and u v ⊥ v
-3 1  -3 4
       
since 6 
-3  2  =-3+12-9 = 0, 6 
-3 5 =-12 +30-18 = 0
3 6
       
Notice that the “ugly” definition cannot be applied directly as we

need the unit vector n . Let us choose below two more convenient
vectors u and v in order to compare the two definitions.
EXAMPLE 2
3  1 
   
Let u=  2  and v = 4 . Then
0 0
   
a) find u  v by using the “pretty” definition
b) find the angle θ between u and v
c) find the unit vector n .
d) find u  v by using the “ugly” definition
e) verify that u  v is perpendicular to both u and v
3  1   0 
     
a) u  v =  2    4  =  0 
 0   0  10 
     
→
uv 11
b) cosθ= = 0.74, hence θ = 42.27ο
→ → =
| u || v | 13 17
c) both vectors u and v are on the plane Oxy so the unit vector n
is parallel to axis Oz (if we draw u and v we will realize n is in
the positive direction so
0
 
n = 0
1 
 
0 
 
d) u  v = (|u|| v |sinθ) n = ( 13 17 sin42.3ο ) n = 10 n = 0 
10 
 
e) clearly u  v is parallel to n and thus perpendicular to both u
and v .
 THE MAGNITUDE | u  v |
Notice that the ugly definition u  v = (|u|| v |sinθ) n implies
|u  v | = |u|| v |sinθ
since n is a unit vector.

But, if we consider the triangle determined by u and v
θ
u
1
we know that its area is given by |u|| v |sinθ.
2
Therefore, the area of this triangle is given by
1
Area of triangle = |u  v |
2
In other words, the magnitude of the cross product u  v gives
directly the area of the parallelogram determined by u and v
Area of parallelogram = |u  v |
EXAMPLE 3
1  4  - 3
     
For u=  2  and v = 5 , we have seen that u  v = 6 
3  6  - 3
     
Therefore, the area of the parallelogram determined by u and v is

given by
Area = |u  v | = 9 + 36 + 9 = 7.35
1
Also, the area of the corresponding triangle is (7.35)=3.67
2
EXAMPLE 4
Find the area of the triangle determined by the three points
A(1,1,1), B(1,3,1) and (-3,3,4)
A C
It suffices to find the area of the triangle determined by any two

vectors; let’s choose the vectors AB and AC.
0 - 4   0  - 4  6 
         
AB =  2  , AC =  2  and so AB AC=  2    2  =  0 
0 3 0 3 8
         
Hence,
1 1
Area of triangle = |AB AC| = = 5
36 + 0 + 64
2 2
3.17 PLANES (for HL)
 VECTOR EQUATION
a1 
 
Given: Point A(a 1,a2,a3) (the position vector is a= a )
a 2 
 3
b1  c
 1 
Two vectors b = b  , c = c (which are non-parallel)
 2  2
  c 
b
 3  3
There is a unique plane passing through A, parallel to both b and c
b
A c
x
 
The position vector r =  y  of any point P(x,y,z) of this plane is
 z
 
given by
r = a+λb +μc
or
a1  b1 
  c1 
r = a +λ b  +μ  c2 

 2 2
a    c 
b
 3   3  3
where λ,μ are two parameters.

 SHORT EXPLANATION
If P(x,y,z) is any point on the plane then AP lies in fact on the
plane determined by b and c .
P(x,y,z)
A
b
Hence
AP = λb +μ c (for some λ,μ).
Then, the position vector of P is given by
r =OP=OA+AP=a+λb +μc
 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
x a1  b1  c1 

        x=a1+λb 1+μc1
y = a +λb +μ c gives
   2  y=a2+λb2+μc2
 z  a   2  c 2 
3 b
     3  3 z=a3+λb3+μc3
 CARTESIAN EQUATION
If we eliminate λ and μ we will obtain an equation of the form
Ax+By+Cz=D
Remark: Although the method of eliminating λ and μ is not

necessary (a much easier method will be given in a while!) we
will demonstrate the procedure by using the example below, just
to persuade ourselves. The steps are as follows
• Eliminate λ from the first two equations;
• Eliminate λ from the last two equations;
• Eliminate μ from the two resulting equations.
EXAMPLE 1
Let A(1,2,3) be the given point
4 7 
   
b= 5  and c = 8  be the parallel vectors
6  8 
   
Then the plane passing through A, parallel to b and c is
Vector equation:
1  4 7 
     
r =  2  +λ  5  +μ 8 
3    8 
  6   
Parametric equations:
x=1+4λ+7μ (1)
y=2+5λ+8μ (2)
z=3+6λ+8μ (3)
We eliminate λ from equations (1) and (2)

5  (1)-4  (2): 5x-4y=-3+3μ (4)
We eliminate λ from equations (2) and (3)

6  (2)-5  (3): 6y-5z=-3+8μ (5)
Next, we eliminate μ from (4) and (5)
8  (4)-3  (5): 40x-32y-18y-15z = -24+9

40x-50y+15z=-15
We simplify the equation by dividing by -5 and we obtain
Cartesian equation: -8x+10y-3z = 3
As we said, a much quicker process will give the same result!

 VECTOR EQUATION IN NORMAL FORM
a1 
 
Given: Point A(a 1,a2,a3) (the position vector is a= a )
a 2 
 3
 Α
 
Normal vector n = Β 
C 
 
There is a unique plane passing through A, perpendicular to n .
P
A
The equation of the plane is
r . n =a . n
Indeed, if P(x,y,z) is a random point of the plane then AP ⊥n
But AP =OP-OA=r - a, and so

AP . n =0  ( r - a). n =0  r . n - a . n =0  r . n =a . n
NOTICE
The equation r . n = a . n derives immediately the Cartesian form
Ax+By+Cz=D
x  Α 
  
Indeed, r n =  y   Β  = Ax+By+Cz
 z  C 
  
while a n is a constant scalar, say D
In fact, given point A and n, we directly find the Cartesian form:
write down the LHS using n Ax+By+Cz

plug in A to find the RHS D
EXAMPLE 2
Find the equation of the plane passing through A(1,2,3) which is
 −8
 
perpendicular to n =  10  (normal vector)
 
-3 
The equation r . n = a. n implies
x  −8 1   −8

y 10 = 2 10
     
 z  -3  3  -3 
     
or directly
-8x+10y-3z =-8+20-9 and finally -8x+10y-3z =3
NOTICE
In examples 1 and 2 we obtained the same plane: -8x+10y-3z =3
We had:
1  4 7 
     
EXAMPLE 1: Point: a=  2  Parallel vectors: b = 5  and c =  8 
3  6  8 
     
1   −8
EXAMPLE 2: Point: a= 2 Normal vector: n =  10 
   
3  -3 
   
Indeed, if we consider as n the cross product b  c

(which is ⊥ to both b, c and hence perpendicular to the plane)
we obtain
4  7   −8
n = 5  8 = 10
    
6  8  -3 
     
Thus, given the vector equation of the plane, the Cartesian equation
can be easily derived in this way instead of following the
elimination process of λ and μ.
NOTICE
If we know the Cartesian form Ax+By+Cz=D
Α
 
n = Β 
we also know a normal vector of the equation. It is
C 
 
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the plane 3x-2y+z = 6
a) Find a normal vector n

b) Find three points on the plane
c) Find two vectors b and c parallel to the plane
d) Confirm that n ⊥ b and n ⊥ c
e) Write down all the forms of equation for this plane
Solution
 3
 
a) n = -2
 
1
 
b) For y=z=0 it is x=2, thus we obtain the point A(2,0,0).
Similarly we obtain the points B(0,-3,0) and C(0,0,6)
0 2 -2  0  2 -2
      
c) Let b=AB= -3 - 0 = -3 and c =AC= 0 - 0 = 0
           
 0  0  0  6   0   6 
           
d) We can easily see that n . b =-6+6 = 0 and n . c =-6+6 = 0
 2  -2 -2
 
e) Vector form: r = a+λb +μc or r = 0 +λ -3 +μ 0
     
0  0   6
     
Parametric form: x=2-2λ-2μ, y=-3λ, z=6μ
3
-2 
Normal form: r . =6 [since a . n =6]
 1
 
Cartesian form: 3x-2y+z = 6
119
EXAMPLE 4
Consider the plane
3  1  5 
     
r =  1  +λ  2  +μ  0 
2 3  2
     
a) Find two parallel vectors b and c
b) Find three points on the plane
c) Find a normal vector n
d) Write down all the forms of equation for this plane
Solution
1  5  A(3,1,2) (the obvious one)
   
a) b=  2  , c =  0  b) B(4,3,5) for λ=1,μ=0
3  2  C(8,1,4) for λ=0, μ=1
1  5  4 
     
c) Let n =b  c =  2    0 = 13  
3   2  -10
     
 3  1  5 
     
d) Vector form: r = a+λb +μc or r =  1  +λ 2  +μ  0 
 2  3  2
     
Parametric form: x=3+λ+5μ, y=1+2λ, z=2+3λ+2μ
Normal form: r . n =a . n
Cartesian form: 4x+13y-10z = 5

4 
 
since 13  is a normal vector and a . n =12+13-20 = 5
-10
 
120
3.18 INTERSECTIONS AMONG LINES AND PLANES (for HL)
In this section we will study the relative position between

• two lines
• a line and a plane
• two planes
• three planes
 TWO LINES
Given: Lines L1: r1 = a1 +λb1
L2: r2 =a 2 +μb2
We have already seen this study in paragraph 3.14. Let us

remember all possible cases.
Lines Look like Method
parallel Check if b1 // b2
Check if b1 // b2
coincide
+ a common point
Intersect r1 = r2
at some point has a solution
r1 = r2
skew
has no solution
θ = angle between the two lines

b  b2
cosθ= → 1 →
θ = angle between b1 and b2
| b1 || b2 |
121
 A LINE AND A PLANE

Given: Line L: r1 = a+λb
Α
 
Plane Π: Ax+By+Cz=D (so n = Β  )
C 
 
Line and Plane Look like Method
→ x
 
b plug r = y into
Intersect
n
1  
 z
at some point  
Ax+By+Cz=D to find λ
→
b Check if b⊥ n
parallel n or
no intersection point
Check if b ⊥ n
+ a common point
Line lies on Plane
or
 intersection points
θ = angle between line and plane →

b n
If φ = angle between b and n sinθ= → →
| || n |
then θ = 900 - φ b
Notice: if the line and the plane are given in other forms, we
transform them into the forms L: r1 = a+λb and Π: Ax+By+Cz=D
EXAMPLE 1
1   4 
Consider the line L: r = 2 +λ 5 and the plane Π: 2x+5y-3z=18
1    
3   
  6 
Find the the angle between L and Π and the point of intersection.
For the angle between L and P we have

→
b n 15
sinθ= = =0.277, hence θ=16.10
→ →
| b || n | 77 38
122
The point of intersection lies on L, so it has the form

(x,y,z)=(1+4λ,2+5λ,3+6λ)
We plug it into the equation of the plane 2x+5y-3z=18:
2(1+4λ)+5(2+5λ)-3(3+6λ)=18  15λ+3=18  λ =1
Hence, x=5, y=7, z=9 and the intersection point is (x,y,z)=(5,7,9).
EXAMPLE 2
1   4 
Show that line L: r = 2 +λ 5 is parallel to plane Π: 2x+2y-3z=1
1    
3  6 
   
4 2 
   
Method A: If b= 5  and n =  2  , then
6  - 3
   
b  n =0  b⊥n  L //Π
The point (1,2,3) of the line does not satisfy 2x+2y-3z = 1, hence
the line does not lie on the plane.
Method B: A point on L has the form (x,y,z)=(1+4λ,2+5λ,3+6λ)
We plug it into the equation of the plane 2x+2y-3z=1:
2(1+4λ)+2(2+5λ)-3(3+6λ)=1  0λ=4
The last equation is impossible, thus there is no intersection point.
EXAMPLE 3
1   4 
Show that line L: r = 2 +λ 5 lies on plane Π: 2x+2y-3z = -3
1    
3   
  6 
Method A: Again b  n =0  b⊥ n  L //Π
But this time, the point (1,2,3) of the line satisfies the equation
2x+2y-3z = -3, hence the line lies on the plane.
Method B: A point on L has the form (x,y,z)=(1+4λ,2+5λ,3+6λ)
We plug it into the equation of the plane 2x+2y-3z=-3:
2(1+4λ)+2(2+5λ)-3(3+6λ)=-3  0λ=0
The last equation is true for any λ, so the line lies on the plane.
123
 TWO PLANES
Α1 
Given: Planes Π 1: A1x+B1y+C1z=D1 so n = Β 
1  1
C 
 1 
Α 2 
Π 2: A2x+B2y+C2z=D2 so  
n 2 = Β 2 
 
 C2 
Planes Look like Method
Find two common points
n2
and thus the line
n1
intersecting or
into a line one common point a and
r = a +λ b direction vector b = n1  n 2
or
solve simultaneous equations
parallel Check if n1 // n 2
Check if n1 // n 2
+
coincide
The equations are
multiple to each other
θ = angle between the two planes

n1  n2
cosθ=
θ = angle between n1 and n 2 → →
| n1 || n 2 |
EXAMPLE 4
Consider the planes
x+2y+3z=6
4x+5y+6z=15
Find the angle between the two planes and the line of intersection.
n1 n 2 = 32
For the angle: cosθ=  θ=12.93ο
→ → 14 77
| n 1 || n 2 |
124
For the line of intersection

Method A: Let us first find two common points
For z=0 the equations become
x+2y=6 and 4x+5y=15
which give x=0, y=3. Hence, a common point is A(0,3,0).
For z=1 the equations become

x+2y=3 and 4z+5y=9
which give x=1, y=1. Hence, a common point is B(1,1,1).
The two points A,B determine the equation of the intersecting line
 0  1 
   
r =  3  +λ- 2 
 0  1 
   
Method Β: We find only one common point, say A(0,3,0) and as a
1   4  -3 1 
       
direction vector we consider n1  n 2 =  2    5  = 6  which is // - 2 
      1 
 3  6 -3  
Method C: We solve the system of the two linear equations (GDC or
Gauss elimination). The general solution is x = λ, y = 3 − 2λ, z = λ .
These are the parametric equations of the same line.
EXAMPLE 5
Consider the planes x+2y+3z=10
2x+4y+6z=30
1  2
Their normal vectors  2  and  4  are clearly parallel.
 
   
3  6 
Moreover, the two planes do not have a common point (since one
equation is not a multiple of the other).
EXAMPLE 6
Consider the planes x+2y+3z=10 and 2x+4y+6z=20
The two planes coincide (one is a multiple of the other)
125
 THREE PLANES
Given: Planes A1x+B1y+C1z=D1
A2x+B2y+C2z=D2
A3x+B3y+C3z=D3
The problem reduces to the solution of a 3x3 system of

simultaneous equations (see paragraph 1.9). Then
SYSTEM CONCLUSION
The three planes have one common

Unique solution (x,y,z)
point (x,y,z)
No common point:
No solution The planes form a triangular prism
or 2 of the planes are parallel
Planes intersect into a line

Infinitely many solutions
or at least 2 planes coincide
EXAMPLE 7
Consider the planes

2x +3y +3z = 3
x + y -2z = 4
5x +7y +4z = 10
We may see (either by Gauss elimination or by a GDC) that this
system has infinitely many solutions:
x = 14 + 16λ
y = -5 + 7λ
z = λ  R (free variable)
14  16
The solution represents the line r = - 5 +λ 7 .
   
   
 0  1 
126
3.19 DISTANCES (for HL)
We have already studied the distance between

• two points
• a point and a line
• two lines
In this section we will also study the distance between
• a point and a plane
• a line and a plane
• two planes
Let us remember the distance between a point and a line:

5  3 
   
point A(1,2,3) and line L: r = 7  +λ  2 
9   1 
   
A(1,2,3)
b
P(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ)
The advantage here is that the foot P(x,y,z) has the form
P(5+3λ,7+2λ,9+λ)
thus, it is enough to find the parameter λ.
3   4 + 3λ  3 
     
AP ⊥ L  AP ⊥ 2   5 + 2λ  ⊥ 2
  6+λ  
1 1
     
 3(4+3λ)+2(5+2λ)+(6+λ)=0
 14λ=-28
 λ=-2
Hence, the foot of the distance is P(-1,3,7)
The distance between the point and the line is d(A,P)= 21

127
For the distance between a Point and a Plane, again the first task
is to find the corresponding foot P(x,y,z) on the plane.
• Distance between Point and Plane

Consider
point A(3,4,6) and Plane Π: 2x+3y+5z=10
A(3,4,6)
n
P
Key point: Line AP is parallel to the normal vector n.

The equation of line AP is:
3  2
   
r =  4  +λ 3 
6   
  5 
Thus the foot has coordinates P(3+2λ,4+3λ,6+5λ).
But it also lies on Π, so that
2(3+2λ)+3(4+3λ)+5(6+5λ)=10  38λ=-38  λ=-1
Hence the foot is P(1,1,1).
The distance is |AP|, that is
d(A,P)= (3- 1)2 + (4- 1)2 + (6- 1)2 = 38
• Distance between Line and Plane

This case occurs only if the line is parallel to the plane.
Consider
3  3 
   
Line L: r =  4  +λ - 2  and Plane Π: 2x+3y+5z=10
6   
  0 
It is given that the line is parallel to the plane.
A(3,4,6)
n
P
We just find the distance of point A of line L from plane Π

128
• Distance between Planes

This case occurs only if the planes are parallel.
Consider
Plane Π 1: 2x+3y+5z=10 and Plane Π2: 2x+3y+5z=48
Clearly planes Π 1 and Π2 are parallel.
We just find a point of plane Π1:

for x=y=0, we obtain z=2, and thus A(0,0,2)
Then we find the distance between point A and plane Π2
(as above).
We first find the equation of line AP:

0 2 
   
r =  0  +λ 3 
 2  5 
   
The foot has coordinates P(2λ,3λ,2+5λ) and lies on Π2,
so that
2(2λ)+3(3λ)+5(2+5λ)=48  38λ=38  λ=1
Hence the foot is P(2,3,7).

The distance is
d(A,P)= (2- 0)2 + (3- 0)2 + (7- 2)2 = 38

Topic 3. Geometry and Trigonometry

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International Baccalaureate

GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY

3.1 THREE-DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY ................................................................................. 1

3.2 TRIANGLES – THE SINE RULE - THE COSINE RULE .................................................. 5

3.3 APPLICATIONS IN 3D GEOMETRY – NAVIGATION .................................................. 16

3.4 THE TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE – ARCS AND SECTORS ........................................ 22

3.5 SIN, COS, TAN ON THE UNIT CIRCLE – IDENTITIES ................................................ 29

3.6 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS ........................................................................................ 38

3.7 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ........................................................................................ 48

3.8 MORE TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES AND EQUATIONS ...................................... 61

3.9 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS .................................................................... 67

3.10 VECTORS: GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION .............................................................. 73

3.11 VECTORS: ALGEBRAIC REPRESENTATION ............................................................... 80

3.12 SCALAR (or DOT) PRODUCT – ANGLE BETWEEN VECTORS ................................ 87

3.13 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 2D............................................................................ 92

3.14 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 3D............................................................................ 98

3.15 KINEMATICS ........................................................................................................................... 105

3.16 VECTOR (or CROSS) PRODUCT ........................................................................................ 108

3.17 PLANES ...................................................................................................................................... 113

3.18 INTERSECTIONS AMONG LINES AND PLANES ......................................................... 120

3.19 DISTANCES .............................................................................................................................. 126

The distance between two points A(x1,y1,z1) and B(x2,y2,z2) is given

while the midpoint of the line segment AB is given by

Let A(1,0,5) and B(2,3,1). Find

(a) the distance between A and B

(a) dAB = (1 − 2)2 + (0 − 3)2 + (5 − 1)2 = 1 + 9 + 16 = 26

Solid Volume Surface area

Cube of side x Cuboid of square base x

AM2 = AN2 + NM2  AM2 = 4 2 + 32  AM = 5

The area of the triangle AED (and any side triangle) is

The surface area is S = (area of square base)+4A = 62+4×( 15 ) =96

Notice about the angles between lines and planes:

Angle between line AM and plane BCDE = angle AM̂N

Angle between line AD and plane BCDE = angle AD̂N

Angle between the planes ADE and BCDE = angle AM̂N

For any right-angled triangle

We can easily derive the so-called Pythagorean identity

We can also confirm Pythagoras’ theorem: 5 2 = 32 + 42

If we know the sine, the cosine or the tangent of an acute angle θ

Thus, we can find the angle B of the triangle above:

For two angles A and B

A and B are called complementary if A + B = 90o

A and B are called supplementary if A + B = 180o

We mention a practical way to memorise them:

θ 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o

For cosθ we obtain the same values in the opposite order

For tanθ we simply divide sinθ by cosθ.

θ 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o

If sinθ = 0.5 then θ = sin-1 0.5 = 30o

supplementary angles have equal sines but opposite cosines:

e.g. sin30o = 0.5, sin 150o = 0.5

• The values of sinθ and cosθ range between -1 and 1.

For any triangle two rules always hold:

COSINE RULE a2 = b2 + c2 − 2 bc cos A

Notice: There are two more versions of the cosine rule:

Consider, for example, the following triangle

We confirm by GDC that the SINE RULE holds:

We can also confirm the three versions of the COSINE RULE:

42 = 32+22-2(3)(2)cos 104.5 (LHS = 16 RHS = 16)

32= 22+42-2(2)(4)cos 46.6 (LHS = 9 RHS = 9)

22= 42+32-2(4)(3)cos 28.9 (LHS = 4 RHS = 4)

as expected by the definition of sinθ

Also, a 2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc  cos90o implies