Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

BatStateU Alangilan
Alangilan, Batangas City
College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts
https://batstate-u.edu.ph/, Tel. No. (043) 425-0139 loc. 118/2121
Mechanical and Petroleum Engineering Department
EE – 422
AC AND DC MACHINES
MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM

MAGNETISM
The ability to attract iron and steel. The knowledge of magnetism goes back to the Ancient Greeks who
realized that a certain rock called Lodestone (magnetite, Fe3O4) attracted pieces of iron.
Magnets are named after the town magnesia (a district in Thessaly) in Lydia, Asia Minor where the
lodestone was mined in ancient times. Natural permanents were called Lodestone after Iodestar (or
guiding star). Lodestone was first permanent magnetic material to be identified and studied. The regions
near the ends of a magnet are called its poles.
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
 Iron
 Cobalt
 Nickel
 Steel
ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE PERMEABILITIES OF A MEDIUM

The phenomena of magnetism and electromagnetism are dependent upon a certain property of the
medium called its permeability. Every medium is supposed to possess two permeabilities:
a. absolute permeability (μ)
b. relative permeability (μr)
For measuring relative permeability, vacuum or free space is chosen as the reference medium. It is allotted
an absolute permeability of μ0 = 4π × 10−7 henry per meter. Obviously, relative permeability of vacuum
with reference to itself is unity. Hence, for free space,
absolute permeability μ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m
relative permeability μr = 1
Now, take any medium other than vacuum. If its relative permeability, as compared to vacuum is
μr, then its absolute permeability is
𝜇 = 𝜇 𝜇 𝐻/𝑚
LAWS OF MAGNETIC FORCE

Coulomb was the first to determine experimentally the quantitative expression for the magnetic
force between two isolated point poles. It may be noted here that, since magnetic poles always exist in
pairs, it is impossible, in practice, to get an isolated pole. The concept of an isolated pole is purely
theoretical. However, poles of a thin but long magnet may be assumed to be point poles for all practical
purposes. By using a torsion balance, he found that the force between two magnetic poles placed in a
medium is:
a. Directly proportional to their pole strengths;
b. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them; and
c. Inversely proportional to the absolute permeability of the surrounding medium
For example, if m1 and m2 represents the same magnetic strength of the two poles, r is the
distance between them and µ is the absolute permeability of the surrounding medium, then the force F
is given by:
1 | Page A.Y. 2020-2021, Second Semester, EE-422
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𝑚 𝑚
𝐹= 𝑁
4𝜋𝜇𝑟
or
𝑚 𝑚
𝐹= 𝑁
4𝜋𝜇 𝜇 𝑟
In a medium. If, in the above equation,
𝑚 = 𝑚 = 𝑚 = 1; 𝑟 = 1 meter
1
𝐹= 𝑁
4𝜋𝜇
Hence, a unit magnetic pole may be defined as that pole which when placed in vacuum at a distance of one
meter from a similar and equal pole repels it with a force of newtons.
MAGNETIC FIELD
A magnetic field is a picture that we use as a tool to describe how the magnetic force is distributed in the
space around and within something magnetic.
Explanation:
When we speak of the force due to a magnet (or any force for that matter) it must be on something. Strictly speaking a force vector field
tells us the magnitude and direction of a force on a small test particle at any point.
With the electric force the small test particle we use is the electron. It turns out that there is no equivalent particle for the magnetic force.
The term magnetic monopole is given to such a particle. As far as we know, magnetic monopoles do not exist in nature and all magnetic
field sources are dipolar in nature.
Most of us have some familiarity with everyday magnetic objects and recognize that there can be forces between them. We understand
that magnets have two poles and that depending on the orientation of two magnets there can be attraction (opposite poles) or repulsion
(similar poles). We recognize that there is some region extending around a magnet where this happens. The magnetic field describes this
region.
There are two different ways that a magnetic field is typically illustrated:
1. The magnetic field is described mathematically as
a vector field. This vector field can be plotted directly
as a set of many vectors drawn on a grid. Each vector
points in the direction that a compass would point
and has length dependent on the strength of the
magnetic force.
Explanation:
A compass is nothing more than a tiny magnet suspended such that it
can freely rotate in response to a magnetic field. Like all magnets, a
compass needle has a north pole and a south pole that are attracted and
repelled by the poles of other magnets. When the compass is placed in a
strong magnetic field, the forces of attraction and repulsion turn the
needle until it is aligned with the direction of the field.
Arranging many small compasses in a grid pattern

and placing the grid in a magnetic field illustrates this
technique. The only difference here is that a
compass does not indicate the strength of a field.
2. An alternative way to represent the information
contained within a vector field is with the use of field
lines. Here we dispense with the grid pattern and
connect the vectors with smooth lines. We can draw
as many lines as we want.
The field-line description has some useful properties:
 Magnetic field lines never cross.
 Magnetic field lines naturally bunch together in regions where the magnetic field is the strongest.
This means that the density of field lines indicates the strength of the field.
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 Magnetic field lines do not start or stop anywhere, they always make closed loops and will
continue inside a magnetic material (though sometimes they are not drawn this way).
 We require a way to indicate the direction of the field. This is usually done by drawing arrowheads
along the lines. Sometimes arrowheads are not drawn, and the direction must be indicated in
some other way. For historical reasons, the convention is to label one region 'north' and another
'south' and draw field lines only from these 'poles'. The field is assumed to follow the lines
from north to south. 'N' and 'S' labels are usually placed on the ends of a magnetic field source,
although strictly this is arbitrary and there is nothing special about these locations.
Explanation:
The magnetic field of the Earth arises from moving iron in the Earth's core. The poles of the Earth's magnetic field are not necessarily aligned
to the geographic poles. They are currently off by about 10˚ and over geological periods of time can flip. Currently the magnetic south pole is
located near the geographic north pole. Therefore, the north pole of a compass will point towards it (opposite poles attract).
 Field lines can be visualized quite easily in the

real world. This is commonly done with iron
filings dropped on a surface near something
magnetic. Each filing behaves like a tiny
magnet with a north and south pole. The
filings naturally separate from each other
because similar poles repel each other. The
result is a pattern that resembles field lines.
While the general pattern will always be the
same, the exact position and density of lines
of filings depends on how the filings happened
to fall, their size and magnetic properties.
How do we measure magnetic fields?

Because a magnetic field is a vector quantity, there are two aspects we need to measure to describe it;
the strength and direction.
The direction is easy to measure. We can use a magnetic compass which lines up with the field. Magnetic
compasses have been used for navigation (using the Earth's magnetic field) since the 11ᵗʰ century.
Interestingly, measuring the strength is considerably more difficult. Practical magnetometers only came
available in the 19ᵗʰ century. Most of these magnetometers work by exploiting the force an electron feels
as it moves through a magnetic field.
Very accurate measurement of small magnetic fields has only been practical since the discovery in 1988
of giant magnetoresistance in specially layered materials. This discovery in fundamental physics was
quickly applied to the magnetic hard-disk technology used for storing data in computers. This led to a
thousand-fold increase in data storage capacity in just a few years immediately following the
implementation of the technology (0.1 to 100 Gbit/inch2).
In the SI system, the magnetic field is measured in tesla (symbol T, named after Nikola Tesla). The Tesla
is defined in terms of how much force is applied to a moving charge due to the field. A small refrigerator
magnet produces a field of around 0.001T and the Earth's field is about 5 x 10-5 T. An alternative
measurement is also often used, the Gauss (symbol G). There is a simple conversion factor, 1T = 104 G.
In equations the magnitude of the magnetic field is given the symbol B. You may also see a quantity called
the magnetic field strength which is given the symbol H. Both B and H have the same units, but H
considers the effect of magnetic fields being concentrated by magnetic materials. For simple problems
taking place in air, you will not need to worry about this distinction.
What is the origin of the magnetic field?

Magnetic fields occur whenever charge is in motion. As more charge is put in more motion, the strength
of a magnetic field increases.
Magnetism and magnetic fields are one aspect of the electromagnetic force, one of the four fundamental
forces of nature.
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There are two basic ways which we can arrange for charge to be in motion and generate a useful magnetic
field:
1. We make a current flow through a wire, for example by connecting it to a battery. As we increase
the current (amount of charge in motion) the field increases proportionally. As we move further
away from the wire, the field we see drops off proportionally with the distance. This is described
by Ampere's law. Simplified to tell us the magnetic field at a distance r from a long straight wire
carrying current I the equation is:
𝜇 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
Here 𝜇 is a special constant known as the permeability. Some materials can concentrate
magnetic fields, this is described by those materials having higher permeability.
Since the magnetic field is a vector, we also need to know the direction. For conventional
current flowing through a straight wire this can be found by the right-hand-grip-rule. To use this
rule imagine gripping your right hand around the wire with your thumb pointing in the direction
of the current. The fingers show the direction of the magnetic field which wraps around the wire.
Explanation:
The right-hand-grip-rule is a useful shortcut, but does have a more fundamental origin as the vector cross product. It is also known
as the coffee mug rule or the corkscrew-rule.
2. We can exploit the fact that electrons (which are charged) to have some motion around the nuclei
of atoms. This is how permanent magnets work.
Explanation:
For understanding the magnetic fields around magnets, it is mostly sufficient to think of an electron like a solid charged ball spinning
around a solid nucleus. However, it does lead to a misconception that different electrons could be spinning around at many different
speeds and produce many different magnetic fields. It turns out that this is not true; there are only a few possible values of the angular
momentum of the electron which are described by the quantum structure of the atom.
As we know from experience, only some 'special' materials can be made into magnets and some
magnets are much stronger than others. So, some specific conditions must be required:
 Although atoms often have many electrons, they mostly 'pair up' in such a way that the
overall magnetic field of a pair cancels out. Two electrons paired in this way are said to
have opposite spin. So, if we want something to be magnetic, we need atoms that have
one or more unpaired electrons with the same spin. Iron for example is a 'special'
material that has four such electrons and therefore is good for making magnets out of.
 Even a tiny piece of material contains billions of atoms. If they are all randomly
orientated the overall field will cancel out, regardless of how many unpaired electrons
the material has. The material must be stable enough at room temperature to allow an
overall preferred orientation to be established. If established permanently then we have
a permanent magnet, also known as a ferromagnet.
 Some materials can only become sufficiently well ordered to be magnetic when in the
presence of an external magnetic field. The external field serves to line all the electron
spins up, but this alignment disappears once the external field is removed. These kinds
of materials are known as paramagnetic.
The metal of a refrigerator door is an example of a paramagnet. The refrigerator door
itself is not magnetic but behaves like a magnet when a refrigerator magnet is placed on
it. Both then attract each other strongly enough to easily keep in place a shopping list,
sandwiched between the two.

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MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH (H)

Magnetic field strength at any point within a magnetic field is numerically equally to the force experienced
by a N-pole of one weber placed at that point. Hence, unit of H is N/Wb.
Suppose it is required to find the field intensity at a point A distant r meters from a pole of m webers.
Imagine a similar pole of one weber placed at point A. The force experienced by this pole is:
𝑚×1 𝑚 𝑁 𝐴𝑚𝑝
𝐹= 𝑁 ∴𝐻= 𝑜𝑟 (𝑜𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑)
4𝜋𝜇 𝑟 4𝜋𝜇 𝑟 𝑊𝑏 𝑚
oersted- cgs unit of magnetic field strength equal to gilbert per centimeter.
AT/m – S.I. unit for H 1 oersted = 79.577 AT/m
Also if a pole of m – Wb is placed in a uniform field strength H - N/Wb, then the force experienced
by the pole is equal to mH newtons.
a. Long Straight Wire
𝑁𝐼
𝐻=
2𝜋𝑑
where:
d – distance
N- Number of turns
I – Current in Amperes (A)
b. Long Solenoid
𝑁𝐼
𝐻=
𝑙
c. Circular Coil
𝑁𝐼
𝐻=
2𝜋𝑟
where:
r – radius of the coil
N- Number of turns
I – Current in Amperes (A)
d. Square Coil
√2𝑁𝐼
𝐻=
𝜋𝑎
where:
a – distance from the corner I – Current in Amperes (A)
N- Number of turns
MAGNETIC POTENTIAL (M)

The magnetic potential at any point within a magnetic field is measured by the work done in shifting a
N-pole of one weber from infinity to that point against the force of the magnetic field. It is given by:
𝑚 𝐽
𝑀=
4𝜋𝜇 𝑟 𝑊𝑏

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FLUX PER UNIT POLE
A unit N-pole is supposed to radiate out a flux of one weber. Its symbol is Φ. Therefore, the flux
coming out of a N-pole of m weber is given by:
Φ = 𝑚 𝑊𝑏
Where a unit magnetic pole is also defined as that magnetic pole which when placed at a distance of one
meter from a very long straight conductor carrying a current of one ampere experiences a force of 1/2π
newtons.
FLUX DENSITY (B)

It is given by the flux passing per unit area through a plane at right angles to the flux. It is usually
designated by the capital letter B and is measured in Wb/m2. It is a Vector Quantity. The Φ is the
total magnetic flux passing normally through an area of Am2, then:
Φ 𝑊𝑏
𝐵= 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 (𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎)
𝐴 𝑚
Note. Let us find an expression for the flux density at a point distant r meters from a unit N-pole (i.e. a
pole of strength 1 Wb). Imagine a sphere of radius r meters drawn round the unit pole. The flux of 1 Wb
radiated out by the unit pole falls normally on a surface of 4πr2 m2. Hence,
Φ 1
𝐵= = 𝑇
𝐴 4𝜋𝑟2
ABSOLUTE PERMEANULITY (µ0) AND RELATIVE PERMEABILITY (µr)

In the figure shown below, a rod of magnetic material is placed in a uniform field strength H an a flux
density B is developed in the rod.
Then, the absolute permeability of the material of the rod is defined as

𝐵
𝜇=
𝐻
or
𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻
When H is established in air (or vacuum), then corresponding flux density developed in air is,
𝐵 =𝜇 𝐻
Now, when iron rod is placed in the field, it gets magnetized by induction. If induced pole strength in the
rod is m Wb, then a flux of m Wb emanates from its N-pole, re-enters its S-pole and continues from
S to N-pole within the magnet. If A is the face or pole area of the magnetized material, the induction
flux density in the rod is,
𝑚 𝑊𝑏
𝐵 =
𝐴 𝑚2
Hence, total flux density in the iron rod consists of two parts,
a. B0 is the flux density in air when the rod is not present
b. Bi is the induction flux density in the rod
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𝑚
𝐵=𝐵 + 𝐵 = 𝜇 𝐻+
𝐴
Therefore, the above equation may be written as
𝐵 =𝜇 ×𝜇 𝐻 =𝜇 𝐵
𝐵
𝜇 =
𝐵
Hence, relative permeability of a material is equal to the ratio of the flux density produced in
that material to the flux density produced in vacuum by the same magnetizing force.
INTENSITY OF MAGNETISM (I)

The Intensity of Magnetism, I, may be defined as the induced pole strength developed per unit area of
the bar. It is also the magnetic moment developed per unit volume of the bar.
It is seen that intensity of magnetization of a substance may be defined as the flux density produced in it
due to its own induced magnetism. If l is the magnetic length of the bar, then the product (m × l) is
known as its magnetic moment M.
𝑚 𝑚×𝑙 𝑀
𝐼= = =
𝐴 𝐴×𝑙 𝑉
where:
m = pole strength induced in the bar in Wb
A = face or pole area of the bar in m2
SUSCEPTABILITY (K)
Susceptibility is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization I to the magnetizing force H.
𝐼 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦
𝐾=
𝐻 𝑚
RELATION BETWEEN B, H, I AND K

It is obvious from the previous discussion that the flux density B in the material is given by:
𝐵= 𝜇 𝐻+ 𝐼
Now absolute permeability is
𝐵 𝜇 𝐻+ 𝐼 𝐼
𝜇= = =𝜇 + =𝜇 +𝐾
𝐻 𝐻 𝐻
Also,
𝜇 =𝜇 𝜇 =𝜇 +𝐾
or
𝐾
𝜇 =1+
𝜇

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ELECTROMAGNETISM
INTRODUCTION
Electromagnetism is the science of charge and of the forces and fields associated with
charge. Electricity and magnetism are two aspects of electromagnetism.
Electricity and magnetism were long thought to be separate forces. It was not until the 19th century that
they were finally treated as interrelated phenomena. In 1905 Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity
established beyond a doubt that both are aspects of one common phenomenon. At a practical level,
however, electric and magnetic forces behave quite differently and are described by different equations.
Electric forces are produced by electric charges either at rest or in motion. Magnetic forces, on the other
hand, are produced only by moving charges and act solely on charges in motion.
Electric phenomena occur even in neutral matter because the forces act on the individual charged
constituents. The electric force in particular is responsible for most of the physical and chemical properties
of atoms and molecules. It is enormously strong compared with gravity. For example, the absence of only
one electron out of every billion molecules in two 70-kilogram (154-pound) persons standing two meters
apart would repel them with a 30,000-ton force. On a more familiar scale, electric phenomena are
responsible for the lightning and thunder accompanying certain storms.
Electric and magnetic forces can be detected in regions called electric and magnetic fields. These fields
are fundamental in nature and can exist in space far from the charge or current that generated them.
Remarkably, electric fields can produce magnetic fields and vice versa, independent of any external
charge. A changing magnetic field produces an electric field, as the English physicist Michael Faraday
discovered in work that forms the basis of electric power generation. Conversely, a changing electric field
produces a magnetic field, as the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell deduced. The mathematical
equations formulated by Maxwell incorporated light and wave phenomena into electromagnetism. He
showed that electric and magnetic fields travel together through space as waves of electromagnetic
radiation, with the changing fields mutually sustaining each other. Examples of electromagnetic waves
traveling through space independent of matter are radio and television waves, microwaves, infrared rays,
visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma rays. All of these waves travel at the same speed—
namely, the velocity of light (roughly 300,000 kilometers, or 186,000 miles, per second). They differ from
each other only in the frequency at which their electric and magnetic fields oscillate.
Maxwell’s equations still provide a complete and elegant description of electromagnetism down to, but
not including the subatomic scale. The interpretation of his work, however, was broadened in the 20th
century. Einstein’s special relativity theory merged electric and magnetic fields into one common field and
limited the velocity of all matter to the velocity of electromagnetic radiation. During the late 1960s,
physicists discovered that other forces in nature have fields with a mathematical structure like that of the
electromagnetic field. These other forces are the strong force, responsible for the energy released in
nuclear fusion, and the weak force, observed in the radioactive decay of unstable atomic nuclei. In
particular, the weak and electromagnetic forces have been combined into a common force called the
electroweak force. The goal of many physicists to unite all the fundamental forces, including gravity, into
one grand unified theory has not been attained to date.
An important aspect of electromagnetism is the science of electricity, which is concerned with the
behavior of aggregates of charge, including the distribution of charge within matter and the motion of
charge from place to place. Different types of materials are classified as either conductors or insulators
based on whether charges can move freely through their constituent matter. Electric current is the
measure of the flow of charges; the laws governing currents in matter are important in technology,
particularly in the production, distribution, and control of energy.
The concept of voltage, like those of charge and current, is fundamental to the science of electricity.
Voltage is a measure of the propensity of charge to flow from one place to another; positive charges
generally tend to move from a region of high voltage to a region of lower voltage. A common problem in

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electricity is determining the relationship between voltage and current or charge in each physical
situation.
FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR LYING IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

A current consists of many small charged particles running through a wire. If immersed in a magnetic field,
the particles will be experiencing a force; they can transmit this force to the wire through which they
travel. In the figure shown below
a conductor XY lying at right angles to the uniform horizontal field of flux density B produced by two
solenoids A and B. If l is the length of the conductor lying within this field and I ampere the current carried
by it, then the magnitude of the force experienced by the wire is
𝐹 =𝐵×𝐼×𝑙 =𝜇 𝜇 ×𝐼×𝑙
Hold out your left hand with forefinger, second finger and thumb at right angles to one another. If the
forefinger represents the direction of the field and the second finger that of the current, then thumb gives
the direction of the motion as illustrated below.
The figure below shows another method of finding the direction of force acting on a current carrying
conductor. It is known as Flat Left-Hand rule. The force acts in the direction of the thumb obviously, the
direction of motor of the conductor is the same as that of the force.
It should be noted that no force is exerted on a conductor when it lies parallel to the magnetic field. In
general, if the conductor lies at an angle θ with the direction of the field, then B can be resolved into two
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components, B cos θ parallel to and B sin θ perpendicular to the conductor. The former produces
no effect whereas the latter is responsible for the motion observed. In that case,
𝐹 = 𝐵 × 𝐼 × 𝑙 × sin 𝜃
which has been expressed across product of vector above.
Example 1:
A long, rigid wire lying along the y-axis carries a 5.0-A current flowing in the positive y-direction. (a) If a
constant magnetic field of magnitude 0.30 T is directed along the positive x-axis, what is the magnetic
force per unit length on the wire?
Solution:
The magnetic force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field is given by 𝐹⃗ = 𝐼𝑙⃗ × 𝐵⃗. For part a, since
the current and magnetic field are perpendicular in this problem, we can simplify the formula to give us
the magnitude and find the direction through the RHR-1. The angle θ is 90 degrees, which means sin 𝜃 =
1. Also, the length can be divided over to the left-hand side to find the force per unit length.
We start with the general formula for the magnetic force on a wire. We are looking for the force per unit
length, so we divide by the length to bring it to the left-hand side. We also set sin 𝜃 = 1. The solution
therefore is
𝐹 = 𝐵 × 𝐼 × 𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝐹 𝑁
= 0.5 𝐴 × 0.30 𝑇 = 1.5
𝑙 𝑚
Directionality: Point your fingers in the positive y-direction and curl your fingers in the positive x-
direction. Your thumb will point in the −𝑘⃗ direction. Therefore, with directionality, the solution
is
𝐹⃗ 𝑁
= −1.5𝑘⃗
𝑙 𝑚
SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FEILDS

FORCE AROUND A LONG STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR
A straight conductor which is assumed to extend to infinity in either
direction. Let it carry a current of I amperes upwards. The magnetic
field consists of circular lines of force having their plane
perpendicular to the conductor and their centers at the center of
the conductor.
Suppose that the field strength at point C distant r meters from

the Centre of the conductor is H. Then, it means that if a unit N-
pole is placed at C, it will experience a force of H newtons. The
direction of this force would be tangential to the circular line of
force passing through C. If this unit N-pole is moved once round
the conductor against this force, then work done
𝑚𝑚𝑓 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐼

𝐼 = 𝐻𝑥2𝜋𝑟 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

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or
𝐼
𝐻=
2𝜋𝑟
Obviously, if there are N conductors, then
𝑁𝐼 𝐴
𝐻= 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑
2𝜋𝑟 𝑚
In air, In a medium,
𝐵=𝜇 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 𝐵=𝜇 𝜇 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎
Example 1:
A current of 15 A is passing along a straight wire. Calculate the force on a unit magnetic pole placed 0.15
meter from the wire. If the wire is bent to form into a loop, calculate the diameter of the loop to produce
the same force at the center of the coil upon a unit magnetic pole when carrying a current of 15 A.
Solution: By the force on a unit magnetic pole is meant the magnetizing force H. For a straight conductor
𝐼 15 50 𝐴𝑇
𝐻= = =
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋(015) 𝜋 𝑚
Now, the magnetizing force at the center of a loop of wire is
𝐼 15 15 𝐴𝑇
𝐻= = =
2𝑟 𝐷 𝐷 𝑚
Since the two magnetizing forces are equal
50 15
=
𝜋 𝐷
15𝜋
𝐷= = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟒𝟐𝟔𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝟗𝟒. 𝟐𝟔 𝒄𝒎
50
Example 2:
Three wires sit at the corners of a square, all carrying currents of 2 amps into the page as shown. Calculate
the magnitude of the magnetic field at the other corner of the square, point P, if the length of each side
of the square is 1 cm.
Solution:
The magnetic field due to each wire at the desired point is

calculated. The diagonal distance is calculated using the
Pythagorean theorem. Next, the direction of each magnetic field’s
contribution is determined by drawing a circle centered at the point
of the wire and out toward the desired point. The direction of the
magnetic field contribution from that wire is tangential to the
curve. Lastly, working with these vectors, the resultant is
calculated.
Wires 1 and 3 both have the same magnitude of magnetic field contribution at point P:
𝑇∙𝑚
𝜇0 𝐼 4𝜋 × 10 (2𝐴)
𝐵 =𝐵 = = 𝐴 = 4 × 10 𝑇
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋(0.01𝑚)
Wire 2 has a longer distance and a magnetic field contribution at point P of:
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𝑇∙𝑚
𝜇0 𝐼 4𝜋 × 10 (2𝐴)
𝐵 = = 𝐴 = 2.83 × 10 𝑇
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋(0.01414𝑚)
The magnetic field in the x-direction has contributions from wire 3

and the x-component of wire 2:
𝐵 = −4 × 10 𝑇 − 2.83 × 10 𝑇 cos 45° = −6 × 10 𝑇
The y-component is similarly the contributions from wire 1 and

the y-component of wire 2:
𝐵 = −4 × 10 𝑇 − 2.83 × 10 𝑇 sin 45° = −6 × 10 𝑇
Therefore, the net magnetic field is the resultant of these two

components:
𝐵 = 𝐵 +𝐵
𝐵 = (−6 × 10 𝑇) + (−6 × 10 𝑇)
𝐵 = 8 × 10 𝑇
MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH OF A LONG SOLENOID

Let the Magnetic Field Strength along the axis of the solenoid
be H. Let us assume that:
a. the value of H remains constant throughout the

length l of the solenoid and
b. the volume of H outside the solenoid is negligible.
Suppose a unit N-pole is placed at point A outside the

solenoid and is taken once round the completed path in a
direction opposite to that of H. Remembering that the force
of H Newtons acts on the N-pole only over the length l the
work done in one round is
𝐻 × 𝑙 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
The ‘ampere-turns’ linked with this path are NI where N is

the number of turns of the solenoid and I the current in
amperes passing through it. According to Work Law
𝐻 × 𝑙 = 𝑁𝐼
or
𝑁𝐼 𝐴
𝐻= 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑙 𝑚

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Also,
In air
𝑁𝐼 𝑊𝑏
𝐵=𝜇 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎
𝑙 𝑚
In a medium
𝑁𝐼 𝑊𝑏
𝐵=𝜇 𝜇 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎
𝑙 𝑚
MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH DUE TO A FINITE LENGTH OF WIRE CARRYING CURRENT

Consider a straight wire of length l carrying a steady current I. We wish to find magnetic field strength
(H) at a point P which is at a distance r from the wire as shown
𝜇 𝜇 𝐼∆𝑙
𝐵= sin ∅ 𝑇
4𝜋𝑟
𝐼 𝐴
𝐻= sin ∅ 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑
4𝜋𝑟 𝑚
Example 1:
A short wire of length 1.0 cm carries a current of 2.0 A

in the vertical direction shown. The rest of the wire is
shielded so it does not add to the magnetic field
produced by the wire. Calculate the magnetic field at
point P, which is 1 meter from the wire in the x-
direction.
Solution:
We can determine the magnetic field at point P using the Biot-Savart law. Since the current segment is much smaller than the distance x, we can
drop the integral from the expression. The integration is converted back into a summation, but only for small dl, which we now write as Δl.
Another way to think about it is that each of the radius values is nearly the same, no matter where the current element is on the line segment, if
Δl is small compared to x. The angle θ is calculated using a tangent function. Using the numbers given, we can calculate the magnetic field at P.
The angle between Δl⃗ and rˆ is calculated from trigonometry, knowing the distances l and x from the
problem:
1𝑚
𝜃 = tan = 89.4°
0.01𝑚
The magnetic field at point P is calculated by the Biot – Savart Law:

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𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐼∆𝑙 𝑇∙𝑚 2𝐴 × 0.01𝑚 × sin 89.4°

𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 1 × 10
4𝜋𝑟2 𝐴 (1𝑚)
𝐵 = 2.0 × 10 𝑇
MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH ALONG THE AXIS OF A SQUARE COIL
If 2a meters and carrying a current of I amperes as

shown in left., the Magnetic Field Strengths at the axial
point P due to the opposite sides ab and cd are Hab
and Hcd directed at right angles to the planes
containing P and ab and P and cd respectively.
Now, are Hab and Hcd are numerically equal hence
their components at right angles to the axis of the coil
will cancel out, but the axial components will add
together. Similarly, the other two sides da and bc
will also give a resultant axial component only.
Therefore, the value of the magnetic field strength H
is
√2 × 𝐼 𝐴
𝐻= 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝜋𝑎 𝑚
MAGNETIZING FORCE ON THE AXIS OF A CIRCULAR COIL

In the shown a circular one-turn coil carrying a current
of I amperes. The magnetizing force at the axial point
P due to a small element ‘dl’ as given by Laplace’s Law is
For Single-Turn Coil

𝐼 𝐴
2𝑟 𝑚
For N-Turn Coil
𝑁𝐼 𝐴
2𝑟 𝑚
Example 1:
A wire 2.5 m long is bent (i) into a square and (ii) into a circle. If the current flowing through the wire is 100 A, find
the magnetizing force at the center of the square and the center of the circle.
Solution (i):
Each side of the square is

2.5𝑚
2𝑎 = = 0.625𝑚
4
Value of H at the center is

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√2𝐼 √2 × 100 𝐴𝑇
𝐻= = = 144
𝜋𝑎 𝜋 × 0.3125 𝑚
Solution (ii):
The radius of the circle is
2𝜋𝑟 = 2.5𝑚; 𝑟 = 0.398𝑚
Value of H at the center is
𝐼 100 𝐴𝑇
𝐻= = = 125.6
2𝑟 2 × 0.389 𝑚
Example 2:
A single-turn circular coil of 50 m. diameter carries a direct current of 28 × 104 A. Assuming Laplace’s expression for
the magnetizing force due to a current element, determine the magnetizing force at a point on the axis of the coil
and 100 m. from the coil. The relative permeability of the space surrounding the coil is unity.
Solution:
𝐼
𝐻= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
2𝜋
𝑟 25
sin 𝜃 = = = 0.2425
√𝑟 + 𝑥 √25 + 100
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = (0.2425) =0.01426
28 × 10 𝑨𝑻
𝐻= × 0.01426 = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟖
2 × 25 𝒎
Exercise Problem:
A wire carries a current I in a circular arc with `radius R swept

through an arbitrary angle θ. Calculate the magnetic field at the
center of this arc at point P. (Ans. )
MAGNETIZING FORCE ON THE AXIS OF A SHORT SOLENOID

Let a short solenoid having a length of l and radius of
turns r be uniformly wound with N turns each carrying
a current of I as shown.
The magnetizing force shall be:
a. At midpoint, 𝜃 = (𝜋 − 𝜃 ), hence
cos 𝜃 = − cos 𝜃
𝑁𝐼 𝐴
𝑙 𝑚
b. At any point on the axis inside a very long solenoid but not too close to either end, 𝜃 ≅ 0 and
𝜃 ≅ 𝜋 so that cos 𝜃 ≅ 1 and cos 𝜃 ≅ −1.
𝑁𝐼 𝐴
𝑙 𝑚
c. Towards either end of the solenoid, H decreases and exactly at the ends, 𝜃 ≅ and 𝜃 ≅ 𝜋, so
that cos 𝜃 ≅ 1 and cos 𝜃 ≅ −1.

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𝑁𝐼 𝐴
2𝑙 𝑚
Example 1:
A solenoid has a core of material of relative permeability equals 4000. The number of turns is 1000 per
meter. A current of 2A flows through the solenoid. Find (a) magnetic intensity (H), (b) the magnetic field
in the core (B), and (c) magnetic current (Im). µ0 = 4π x 10-7 Wb/m
Solution:
a. Magnetic Intensity
𝑁𝐼 1000 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 × 2𝐴
𝐻= =
𝑙 1𝑚
𝐴
𝐻 = 2000
𝑚
b. Magnetic Field Intensity
𝑊𝑏 𝐴
𝐵 = 𝜇 𝜇 𝐻 = 4000 × 4𝜋 × 10 × 2000
𝑚 𝑚
𝐵 = 10 𝑇
c. Magnetic Current
𝐵 = 𝜇 𝜇 𝐻 = 𝜇 𝜇 (𝑖 + 𝐼 )
𝑊𝑏
10 𝑇 = 4000 × 4𝜋 × 10 × (2 + 𝐼 )
𝑚
10 𝑇
(2 + 𝐼 ) =
𝑊𝑏
4000 × 4𝜋 × 10 𝑚
(2 + 𝐼 ) = 1989 𝐴
𝐼 = 1987 𝐴
Example 2:
A solenoid of 1000 turns and is 20 cm long. Find the magnetic induction produced at the center of the
solenoid by the current of 2A. What is the flux at this point if the diameter of solenoid is 4 cm. µ0 = 4π x
10-7 Wb/m
Solution:
𝑁𝐼 1000 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 × 2𝐴 𝐴
𝐻= = = 10000
𝑙 0.2 𝑚 𝑚
𝑊𝑏 𝐴
𝐵 = 𝜇 𝜇 𝐻 = 4𝜋 × 10 × 10000
𝑚 𝑚
𝐵 = 0.01256 𝑇
From previous discussions on magnetism, recall that:
Φ 1
𝐵= =
𝐴 4𝜋𝑟
Φ = BA = B × 4𝜋𝑟 = 0.01256 𝑇 × 4𝜋 × (0.02 𝑚)
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Φ = 1.58 × 10 𝑊𝑏
Exercise Problems:
1. A closely wound solenoid is 1 meter long and has 5 layers of windings, each winding being of 500
turns. If the average diameter of the solenoid is 3cm and it carries a current of 4A, find the
magnetic field at a point within the solenoid. (Ans. 0.01256 T)
2. A solenoid 0.5 meter long has a four-layer winding of 300 turns each. What current must pass
through it to produce a magnetic field of induction 2.1 x 10-2 T at the center. (Ans. 6.96A)
3. A solenoid (π/2) m long has a two-layer winding of 500 turns. What is the magnetic field at the
center when it carries a current of 5A? (Ans. 4 x 10-3 T)
4. A circular coil of 3000 turns per 0.6m length carries a current of 1A. What is the magnitude of the
magnetic flux? (Ans. 4 x 10-3 T)
FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CONDUCTORS

Current in the same direction.
The field strength in the space between the
conductors is decreased due to the two fields there
being in the opposition to each other. Hence, the two
conductors are attached towards each other.
In figure shown, two parallel conductors P and Q
carrying currents I1 and I2 amperes in the same
upward direction. The field strength in the space
between the two conductors is decreased due to the
two fields there being in opposition to each other.
Hence, the resultant field is as shown in the figure.
Obviously, the two conductors are attracted towards
each other.
Current in the opposite direction.

The field strength is increased in the space between the
two conductors due to the two fields being in the same
direction there. Because of the lateral repulsion of the
lines of force, the two conductors expensive a mutual
force of repulsion.
If the parallel conductors, shown in (a), carry currents in
opposite directions, then field strength is increased in
the space between the two conductors due to the two
fields being in the same direction there. Because of the
lateral repulsion of the lines of the force, the two
conductors experience a mutual force of repulsion as
shown in (b).
Example 1:
Two infinite parallel conductors carry parallel currents of 10 amp. each. Find the magnitude and direction
of the force between the conductors per meter length if the distance between them is 20 cm.
Solution:
10 × 10 × 1
𝐹 = 2 × 10 × = 10 𝑁
0.2

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The direction of force will depend on whether the two currents are flowing in the same direction or in the
opposite direction. It would be a force of attraction in the first case and that or repulsion in the second
case.
Example 2:
Two long straight parallel wires, standing in air 2m apart, carry currents I1 and I2 in the same direction.
The magnetic intensity at a point midway between the wires is 7.95 AT/m. If the force on each wire per
unit length is 2.4 × 10−4 N, evaluate I1 and I2.
Solution:
The magnetic intensity of a long straight current-carrying conductor is
𝐼
𝐻=
2𝜋𝑟
when the two currents flow in the same direction, net field strength midway between the two conductors
is the difference of the two field strengths. Where
2
𝑟= = 2 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
1
Let
𝐼
𝐻 =
2𝜋
And
𝐼
𝐻 =
2𝜋
𝐼 𝐼 𝐴𝑇
= = 7.95
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑚
∴ 𝐼 − 𝐼 = 50 𝐴
The force per unit length of the conductors is
𝐼𝐼
𝐹 = 2 × 10
𝑑
𝐼𝐼
2 × 10 = 2 × 10
2
𝐼 𝐼 = 2400
Then,
(50 + 𝐼 )𝐼 = 2400
𝐼 + 50𝐼 − 2400 = 0
Solving for I2
𝐼 = 30𝐴
𝐼 = 50 + 𝐼 = 50 + 30
𝐼 = 80𝐴
Exercise Problem:
Two wires, both carrying current out of the page, have a
current of magnitude 5.0 mA. The first wire is located at (0.0
cm, 3.0 cm) while the other wire is located at (4.0 cm, 0.0
cm). What is the magnetic force per unit length of the first
wire on the second and the second wire on the first?
(Ans. 8 × 10 𝑖 − 6 × 10 𝑗 )

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Magnitude of Mutual Force

It is obvious that each of the two parallel conductors lies in the magnetic field of the other conductor.
For example, conductor P lies in the magnetic field of Q and Q lies in the field of P. If d meters is the
distance between them, then flux density at Q due to P is
𝜇 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑑
If l is the length of conductor Q lying in this flux density, then force (either of attraction or repulsion) as
given in
𝜇 𝐼𝐼
𝐹 =𝐵×𝐼×𝑙 =
2𝜋𝑑
The above facts are known as Laws of Parallel Currents and may be stated as follows:
a. Two parallel conductors attract each other if currents through them flow in the same direction
and repel each other if the currents through them flow in the opposite directions.
b. The force between two such parallel conductors is proportional to the product of current
strengths and to the length of the conductors considered and varies inversely as the distance
between them.
REFERENCES:
Theraja, B.L. & Theraja, A.K., "A Textbook of Electrical Technology - Basic Electrical Engineering
Volume 1 & 2", S. Chand & Company Ltd.
Newton Henry Black, Harvey N. Davis (1913) Practical Physics, The MacMillan Co., USA, p. 242,
fig. 200.
UK Success Stories in Industrial Mathematics. Philip J. Aston, Anthony J. Mulholland, Katherine

M.M. Tant. Springer, Feb 4, 2016.
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/magnetic-forces-and-magnetic-
fields/magnefintic-field-current-carr0ying-wire/a/what-are-magnetic-fields
https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/collegephysics/chapter/magnetic-force-on-a-current-carrying-
conductor/
https://thefactfactor.com/physics/magnetism/

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Republic of the Philippines

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

Mechanical and Petroleum Engineering Department